Managing Service Quality

Emerald Article: The role of technology readiness in self-service technology acceptance Jiun-Sheng Chris Lin, Hsing-Chi Chang

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To cite this document: Jiun-Sheng Chris Lin, Hsing-Chi Chang, (2011),"The role of technology readiness in self-service technology acceptance", Managing Service Quality, Vol. 21 Iss: 4 pp. 424 - 444 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09604521111146289 Downloaded on: 25-05-2012 References: This document contains references to 93 other documents To copy this document: [email protected] This document has been downloaded 1981 times.

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MSQ 21,4

The role of technology readiness in self-service technology acceptance

424

Hsing-Chi Chang
Department of Business Administration, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
Abstract
Purpose Notwithstanding a signicant amount of literature on the technology acceptance model (TAM), past research has overlooked the role consumers technology readiness (TR) plays in adoption of self-service technologies (SSTs). This study aims to ll this research gap by developing and testing a model that integrates the role of TR into the TAM. Design/methodology/approach The study proposes a research framework to suggest the direct and moderating roles of TR in the TAM. Extant research from various research streams is reviewed, resulting in 13 hypotheses. Data collected from customers with SST experiences are examined through structural equation modeling (SEM) and hierarchical moderated regression analysis. Findings Results indicate that customer TR enhances perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward use, and intention to use. Results also show that TR attenuates the positive relationship between perceived ease of use and attitude toward using SSTs. Research limitations/implications This research represents an early attempt to explain the role of TR in the TAM in the context of SSTs. Future research directions are discussed, with emphasis on incorporating customer differences and situational factors to better understand this model in various service settings. Practical implications Findings show that TR inuences perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward using SSTs, and behavioral intentions. Therefore, to achieve better SST service outcomes rms implementing SSTs should give increased attention to customer TR. Firms should stimulate the use of technological services by strengthening positive TR drivers (the optimism and innovativeness dimensions) to encourage use of technological services and positive attitudes toward technology, while also reducing TR inhibitors (the discomfort and insecurity dimensions) to lower reluctance to use technology. Originality/value This study is the rst to integrate the role of TR into the TAM in the context of SSTs. Keywords Technology readiness, Technology acceptance model, Self-service technology, Technology led strategy, Information technology Paper type Research paper

Managing Service Quality Vol. 21 No. 4, 2011 pp. 424-444 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0960-4529 DOI 10.1108/09604521111146289

Introduction Increases in labor costs and advances in technology encourage service rms to explore technology-based service options (Dabholkar, 1996), which enable customers to produce services independent of service employees. This use of technology appeals to service providers because it improves service operations, increases service efciency,

provides functional benets to customers, and expands service delivery options (Curran and Meuter, 2005). These technological service innovations will be a critical component of customer-rm interaction and will become a key criterion for long-term business success (Meuter et al., 2000, 2005). Self-service technologies (SSTs) are technological interfaces that enable customers to produce a service independent of direct service-employee involvement (Meuter et al., 2000, p. 50). The types of SSTs rms currently employ include kiosks, the internet, interactive voice response, and mobile services (Castro et al., 2010). Examples of SSTs are automated teller machines (ATMs), automated ticketing and check-in machines, banking by telephone, and services through websites. Customers who take advantage of SSTs enjoy services within more exible timeframes and more channels (Meuter et al., 2000, 2005). Service providers also increase their effectiveness and efciency through SSTs (Bitner et al., 2010). Although the potential benets of SSTs are enticing, they cannot be realized unless customers embrace and use the new technologies. In response to this concern, scholars have proposed several theoretical models to better understand and explain individual attitudes and behaviors toward new information technology. These models include innovation diffusion theory (Brancheau and Wetherbe, 1990; Rogers, 1995), the technology acceptance model (TAM; Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989), the theory of reasoned action (TRA; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB; Ajzen, 1985, 1988; Ajzen and Madden, 1986). Among these models, the technology acceptance model (TAM), adapted from the theory of reasoned action (TRA), appears to be the most widely accepted (Burton-Jones and Hubona, 2006; King and He, 2006; Schepers and Wetzels, 2007; Wang et al., 2003). The TAM involved two primary predictors, perceived ease of use and usefulness, which together inuence users attitude and behavioral intentions (Davis et al., 1989; King and He, 2006). Although many studies have empirically replicated or extended the TAM, a key feature of the TAM is the opportunity for incremental contribution and extension by tracing the impact of external factors in explaining internal beliefs, attitudes, and intentions (Davis et al., 1989; Nysveen et al., 2005; Oh et al., 2009; Robinson et al., 2005). External factors often include individual differences, situational factors, and variables suggested by other theories (King and He, 2006). Previous TAM research has indicated that individual differences are important external factors that play a crucial role in the implementation of any technological innovation across a wide range of disciplines (Wang et al., 2003). Studies have also investigated the inuence of individual/consumer traits on the TAM, such as demographic factors, psychographic proles, and personality traits (Agarwal and Prasad, 1999; Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002; Yi et al., 2006). Variation in consumer differences arising from personality traits may be more important than demographic or psychographic factors, because such variation is at the heart of consumer attitude formation and behavioral intentions (Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002). However, researchers have paid limited attention to the effects of personality traits on new technology adoption. Focusing on these traits impact on the tendency to use technology is imperative (Yi et al., 2006). In the SST context, rms cannot create service without customers active participation, involvement, and co-production (Bitner et al., 2010; Lin et al., 2007;

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Lovelock and Wirtz, 2004). However, little TAM research has explored customer adoption of the various types of SSTs as a whole. Furthermore, although consumers are increasingly sophisticated in their technological interactions, in an interesting phenomenon customers may avoid certain SSTs, even though the benets are obvious (Meuter et al., 2003; Parasuraman, 2000). Furthermore, some consumers may be more ready for and more familiar with SSTs than others. Therefore, when assessing the perception and behavior of customers toward SSTs, researchers should take into account consumer personality traits regarding the tendency to use technology (Lin et al., 2007; Lin and Hsieh, 2006; Parasuraman, 2000). In spite of a signicant amount of literature on the TAM, only limited research explores the role of personal traits such as TR in technology adoption. Verhoef et al. (2009) called for an extension of TR into existing technology adoption research in order to explore how it might inuence the use of SSTs. While previous research has shown that consumer traits have a direct impact on technology use, recent studies suggest that personal traits may moderate the relationships between perceptions and technology use in the TAM (Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002; Yi et al., 2006). The current study aims to ll these research gaps by developing and testing an extended technology acceptance model that integrates the direct and moderating role of TR. This paper is organized as follows: we rst review the relevant literature on the TAM, SSTs, and TR to develop a model that explores the relationship between TR and each construct of the TAM in the SST context. Next, we present a conceptual framework and hypotheses along with research methodology and results. Finally, we clarify the role of technology readiness in the self-service technology acceptance model, discuss implications and limitations, and suggest further research directions. Conceptual background Self-service technologies and the technology acceptance model Service rms are rapidly incorporating various SSTs to encourage consumers to perform services themselves (Castro et al., 2010). It is widely recognized that the use of SSTs has transformed business processes over the past decade (Bitner et al., 2010). SSTs lower labor costs, enhance productivity, and increase corporate performance (Chase, 1978; Dabholkar, 1996; Lovelock and Young, 1979; Mills and Moberg, 1982). Customers can now obtain services through more channels and within exible timeframes (Meuter et al. 2000). Service providers have increased effectiveness and efciency while satisfying customer needs (Bitner et al., 2000). SSTs are dramatically changing how services are conceived, developed, delivered, and integrated, in terms of: . inspiring service innovations; . enhancing service delivery options; . enabling employee and customers; and . expanding market reach (Bitner et al., 2010). Examples of SSTs are plentiful. DVD rental companies such as Redbox offer DVD rentals at over 19,000 kiosks in the United States, including at grocery stores, pharmacies, and fast-food restaurants. Customers use a touch-screen display to select an available movie and then swipe a credit card to rent a DVD. Customers can also visit the rms web sites to choose movies online and then use the companys real-time

inventory tracking system to reserve a DVD and pick it up at the location of choice. Fast-food giants such as McDonalds, Burger King, Taco Bell, and Subway are exploring self-service kiosks that work like ATMs or ticketing machines. Many supermarkets and hypermarkets such as Walmart and Tesco have used self-checkout stations in their stores to replace certain traditional checkout lanes. Banks have also started to offer services through the internet, interactive phone systems, ATMs, and mobile channels. This widespread use of self-service technology has led consumers to value the various SST channels and to become increasingly familiar with using SSTs (Murphy, 2008). Consumers adoption of new information technology has been a central concern to many researchers and practitioners owing to its importance in technology diffusion. In particular, to predict the acceptance of new technologies, researchers have extensively employed the technology acceptance model (TAM) (Davis, 1986), which is an adaptation of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). The TAM includes the following concepts: perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitudes toward use, and intention to use/actual use. Perceived ease of use is the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular system would be free of physical and mental efforts (Davis, 1989, p. 323). Perceived usefulness refers to the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular system would enhance his/her job performance (Davis, 1989, p. 320). In the TAM, an individuals belief (perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness) determines his/her attitude toward using the system, which, in turn, leads to intention to use. The goal of the TAM is to provide a general explanation of the determinants of technology acceptance that is capable of explaining user behavior across a broad range of technology users (Davis et al., 1989). Although many studies have replicated the TAM (King and He, 2006), its fundamental constructs do not fully reect the specic inuences of external factors that may alter user acceptance (Moon and Kim, 2001; Wang et al., 2003). While acknowledging the robustness and power of the TAM, researchers continue to extend the model with external factors critical to technology adoption and use (Dimitriadis and Kyrezis, 2010; Wu and Lederer, 2009). Consequently, a key purpose of the TAM is to provide an outline for tracing the incremental impact of various external variables on internal beliefs, attitudes, and intentions. This approach offers rich opportunities for extension of research (Hernandez et al., 2009; Legris et al., 2003; Oh et al., 2009). External factors often include individual differences, situational factors, and variables suggested from other theories (King and He, 2006). Previous TAM research has indicated that individual differences are important external factors that play a crucial role in the implementation of any technological innovation (Wang et al., 2003). Studies have investigated the inuence of individual differences (consumer traits) on the TAM, such as demographic factors, psychographic proles, and personality traits (Agarwal and Prasad, 1999; Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002; Yi et al., 2006). Variation in consumer differences arising from personality traits is of greater interest than demographic or psychographic factors, because such variation is at the heart of consumer attitude formation and behavioral intentions (Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002), requiring increased academic attention (Yi et al., 2006). To date, the effects of personality traits on new technology adoption have received limited inspection (Yi et al., 2006).

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Research has indicated that customers often accept the use of new technologies such as SSTs. However, not all consumers are equally ready to embrace SSTs (Yen, 2005). Some consumers exhibit anxiety (Meuter et al., 2003; Meuter et al., 2005; Parasuraman, 2000; Yen, 2005; Zeithaml et al., 2002), and studies have shown that some consumers are technophobes (Meuter et al., 2003) or technology pessimists (Edison and Geissler, 2003; Modahl, 1999). Although SST service options deliver exibility and time savings, some customers feel uncomfortable and frustrated in using them (Parasuraman, 2000). Since consumer personality traits tend to determine an individuals adoption of technology, rms deploying SSTs need to understand their customers readiness to use SSTs. Extant research on personality traits toward technology use has explored factors such as self-efcacy, computer anxiety, and personal innovativeness (e.g. Agarwal and Karahanna, 2000; Venkatesh, 2000; Wang et al., 2003; Yi et al., 2006). Self-efcacy refers to an individuals assessment of his/her ability to perform a behavior (Bandura, 1977, 1994) and the underlying intrinsic motivation (Davis et al., 1989). Computer anxiety refers to the fear, apprehensiveness, and expectation people feel when considering possible or actual use of computer technology (Igbaria and Parasuraman, 1989; Kay, 1993), while personal innovativeness indicates the willingness of an individual to try out any new information technology (Agarwal and Prasad, 1999). These factors do not fully reect consumer personality traits of technology adoption because consumers can simultaneously harbor favorable and unfavorable views of adoption (Parasuraman, 2000). Within TAM research, a need exists to integrate consumer traits that reect consumers readiness to use new technologies, including the complexity of conicting positive and negative feelings about such technology usage. The technology readiness (Parasuraman, 2000) fully reects this complexity of consumer traits, and, for extension of the TAM, constitutes a more comprehensive construct than existing personality traits. Verhoef et al. (2009) also suggested technology adoption research should include technology readiness to explore how it might inuence SST use. Technology readiness (TR) refers to peoples propensity to embrace and use new technologies for accomplishing goals in home life and at work (Parasuraman, 2000). The TR construct refers to an overall state of mind resulting from a gestalt of mental enablers and inhibitors that collectively determine a persons predisposition toward technologies (Parasuraman, 2000). The construct is based on four dimensions: (1) optimism; (2) innovativeness; (3) discomfort; and (4) insecurity. Optimism is dened as a positive view of technology and a belief that technology offers people increased control, exibility, and efciency. It captures the general feeling that technology is a good and positive thing. Innovativeness is dened as a tendency to be a technological pioneer and an opinion leader. It represents the degree to which a person is a trail-blazer in trying new technology-based products/services and an opinion leader on technology-related issues. Discomfort refers to a perceived lack of control over technology and a feeling of being overwhelmed by it. This construct measures the degree to which people have a general prejudice against technology-based products

and services. Insecurity is dened as distrust of technology and skepticism about its ability to work properly. It focuses on peoples degree of trust in technology-based transactions. A persons predisposition to use new technologies, as expressed in the TR construct, can be thought of as a state of mind resulting from a gestalt of mental enablers and inhibitors (Parasuraman, 2000). Optimism and innovativeness are positive drivers of TR, encouraging customers to use technological products and services and to hold a positive attitude toward technology. Discomfort and insecurity are negative drivers, making customers reluctant to use technology. Parasuraman and Colby (2001) found customer segments with differing TR proles vary signicantly in terms of Internet-related behaviors, while Yen (2005) indicated that not all users are equally ready to embrace technology-assisted services. Therefore, TR cannot be ignored in assessing customers adoption of technology-based services, and its role should be claried and incorporated into any modeling of technology acceptance, especially in the context of SSTs (Lin and Hsieh, 2006; Verhoef et al., 2009). The current study lls this research gap by integrating TR into the TAM as a consumer personality trait factor in the context of SSTs. This effort is parallel to two research streams investigating the role of consumer traits within the TAM (Yi et al., 2006). The rst stream asserts that individual traits affect behavioral intentions through direct effects on perceptions (e.g. Agarwal and Prasad, 1999). The second stream supports the importance of moderating effects of personal traits within the TAM (e.g. Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002). In view of these research streams, we propose that TR has both direct and moderating effects on the TAM. The role of technology readiness in the technology acceptance model The core TAM model. The TAM model reects general facets of potential drivers and inhibitors of technology acceptance. It has been proven to be a useful theoretical model in helping to understand and explain user behavior in information technology adoption (Baron et al., 2006; Legris et al., 2003). The TAM in our framework is adapted from Davis (1986, 1989), consisting of H1-1 through H1-5. This section provides the basis for these hypotheses. According to the theory of reasoned action, a persons perceptions about the consequences of performing a behavior determine the persons attitude toward the behavior (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Davis et al., 1989). Past research suggests that usefulness and ease of use are important determinants of attitude in the technology acceptance model (Childers et al., 2001; Curran and Meuter, 2005; Kleijnen et al., 2004; Nysveen et al., 2005; Porter and Donthu, 2006; Robinson et al., 2005). When perceptions of usefulness and ease of use increase, a consumers attitude toward an SST will be more positive (Kleijnen et al., 2004). Therefore, we propose: H1-1. H1-2. Perceived usefulness is positively related to attitude toward using SSTs. Perceived ease of use is positively related to attitude toward using SSTs.

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Research has suggested that ease of use inuences usefulness, because the easier a technology is to use, the more useful it can be (Dabholkar, 1996; Davis et al., 1989; Monsuwe et al., 2004; Venkatesh, 2000). Further, as consumers believe systems are easier to use, they are also likely to perceive such systems as more useful because they

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can spend their time doing things other than guring out how to use the systems (Bruner and Kumar, 2005). This reasoning leads to the following hypothesis: H1-3. Perceived ease of use is positively related to perceived usefulness.

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Perceived usefulness positively inuences behavioral intentions through extrinsic motivations (goal achievement or rewards) that are independent of a users attitude toward the behavior (Davis et al., 1989). Thus, the usefulness of a service increases intention to use the service because it increases a consumers performance or helps achieve the consumers goal (Nysveen et al., 2005). Extensive research in the information systems eld also provides evidence of the signicant effect of perceived usefulness on usage intention (Agarwal and Prasad, 1999; Davis et al., 1989; Hu et al., 1999; Jackson et al., 1997; Nysveen et al., 2005; Venkatesh, 1999, 2000; Venkatesh and Davis, 1996, 2000; Venkatesh and Morris, 2000). We thus hypothesize: H1-4. Perceived usefulness is positively related to behavioral intentions toward using SSTs.

People tend to perform behavior that is in accordance with their attitudes (Bobbitt and Dabholkar, 2001; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). The attitude behavioral intention relationship indicates that, all else being equal, people form intentions to perform behaviors toward which they have a positive affect (Davis et al., 1989). Over the past few years, researchers have extensively investigated the notion that attitudes inuence behavioral intentions, and this relationship is well established in the technology adoption literature (Allen et al., 1992; Barki and Hartwick, 1994; Bruner and Kumar, 2005; Curran and Meuter, 2005; Dabholkar, 1996; Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002; Harrison et al., 1997; Nysveen et al., 2005; Robinson et al., 2005; Taylor and Todd, 1995). Thus we propose: H1-5. Attitude toward using SSTs is positively related to behavioral intentions toward using SSTs.

Incorporating TR into an extended TAM as a consumer trait. Davis et al. (1989) suggested that perceptions fully mediate the effects of external variables such as individual differences on technology usage. Dabholkar and Bagozzi (2002), Venkatesh and Davis (2000), and Yi et al. (2006) suggested that individual differences moderate the relationships between perceptions, attitude, and intentions. On the basis of the two research streams, we propose that TR has a dual direct and moderating effect on TAM. Direct effects of TR. TR and perceived usefulness. Research has reported a positive relationship between technology readiness and perceived usefulness (Lin et al., 2007; Walczuch et al., 2007). Of the specic TR dimensions, optimism, a positive driver of TR, relates to a positive view of technology and a belief that technology offers people increased control, exibility, and efciency. Therefore, optimists perceive a given technology as being more useful because they worry less about possible negative outcomes (Scheier and Carver, 1992; Walczuch et al., 2007). Researchers have also found that early adopters, who are more innovative individuals, have less complex belief sets about new technology (Karahanna et al., 1998). On the other hand, Chen et al. (2002) established that some obvious obstacles of technology acceptance were due to security and privacy concerns. High personal insecurity and discomfort with

technology lead to lower perceived usefulness of a specic technology. Since TR results from the interplay of positive drivers and negative inhibitors, we suggest that consumers with higher TR propensities will be more likely to perceive the usefulness of SSTs, resulting in the following hypothesis: H2. Technology readiness is positively related to perceived usefulness

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TR and perceived ease of use. Consumers TR propensities are positively associated with their perceptions of a technology-based services ease of use (Lin et al., 2007). Specically, users with higher innovativeness and optimism are more likely to perceive SST as easy to use (Lee and Allaway, 2002). On the other hand, people who have higher insecurity and discomfort trait scores perceive technology as more complex, decreasing their perception that it is easy to use. High personal insecurity and discomfort with technology in general lead to lower perceived ease of use of a specic technology (Walczuch et al., 2007). Therefore, we propose that consumers with higher TR propensities will be more likely to perceive an SST as easy to use. H3. Technology readiness is positively related to perceived ease of use.

TR and attitude. Researchers have reported that the TR drivers of optimism and innovativeness lead to more positive attitudes toward SSTs (Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002; Loyd and Gressard, 1984; Munger and Loyd, 1989; Parasuraman, 2000; Walczuch et al., 2007). TR is positively associated with attitudes toward using SSTs in that optimism and innovativeness are positively related to customer attitudes toward using SSTs, while discomfort and insecurity are negatively related toward using SSTs (Liljander et al., 2006). TR also may encourage positive attitudes toward technology and vice versa (Lin and Hsieh, 2006). Therefore, we expect that TR will enhance the positive attitude toward using SSTs. H4. Technology readiness is positively related to attitude toward using SSTs.

TR and behavioral intentions. Technology anxiety may be signicantly related to key SST encounter outcomes, such as word of mouth and repeat use (Meuter et al., 2003), while affecting customer trial of SSTs (Meuter et al., 2005). Research has also shown that consumers with low TR drivers are more likely to lack motivation to use SSTs because they do not expect benets (Yen, 2005). Furthermore, Lin and Hsieh (2006) and Demirci and Ersoy (2008) found that TR is positively related to behavioral intentions toward SSTs. Therefore, we expect TR to have a positive effect on customers behavioral intentions: H5. Technology readiness is positively related to behavioral intentions toward using SSTs.

Moderating effects of TR. People with higher TR levels generally have higher levels of optimism and innovativeness. They tend to feel more comfortable using technology and require less proof of its performance (Walczuch et al., 2007). Consumers with high TR tend to look favorably on technology and the use of technology-based products and services. They have a stronger intrinsic motivation to use such products, and enjoy the

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stimulation of trying new ways to approach old problems (Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002; Hirschman, 1980; Mehrabian and Russell, 1974; Midgley and Dowling, 1978). Therefore, the perceived usefulness of SSTs would be less important to them in forming attitudes than it would be to consumers who are low in TR (Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002). In addition, Kleijnen et al. (2004) found the positive relationship between perceived usefulness and attitude toward using mobile services decreases as consumers exhibit higher mobile technology readiness. This nding means that at higher levels of technology readiness, the linkage between perceived usefulness and attitude will become weaker (see H6a). Similarly, some consumers may have more experience using technology-based products than others. Consumers with greater TR can be expected to be more optimistic and condent in their ability to use technology-based self-service. In such a case, ease of use will not be as important as it will be to consumers with less condence in their own abilities (Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002). Research has also suggested that consumers with increased TR will be less concerned with ease of use, as they are eager to use the new technology (Kleijnen et al., 2004). Hence, higher TR will attenuate the relationship between perceived ease of use and attitude (see H6b). H6. With higher TR, (a) the positive relationship between perceived usefulness and attitude toward using SSTs will be attenuated, and (b) the positive relationship between perceived ease of use and attitude toward using SSTs will be attenuated.

Research has suggested that the positive TR drivers optimism and innovativeness may weaken the effect of perceived usefulness on behavioral intentions (Liljander et al., 2006). Trying new technologies is arguably associated with increased risks and uncertainties. However, people with higher TR are prone to higher levels of risk and uncertainty and are better able to cope (Liljander et al., 2006). Thus, for the same level of new technology usage behaviors, individuals with higher levels of TR require lower levels of positive perceptions, such as perceived usefulness, than less innovative individuals (Yi et al., 2006). Therefore, perceived usefulness is expected to inuence intentions to use SSTs more strongly for people with low levels of TR than for those with high levels of TR (see H7a). Similarly, consumers high in self-efcacy will simply want to use SSTs (Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002). Such consumers rely less on their existing attitudes about the service and will be guided by their immediate intrinsic motivation. Therefore, the relationship between attitude and intention will be attenuated for these consumers. Additionally, consumers who are more technology ready are likely to be more eager to use new technology-based services and will rely less on their existing attitudes when deciding to use SSTs (Kleijnen et al., 2004). Therefore, we propose that TR will attenuate the relationship between attitude toward using SSTs and intentions to use SSTs (see H7b). H7. With higher TR, (a) the positive relationship between perceived usefulness and behavioral intentions toward using SSTs will be attenuated, and (b) the positive relationship between attitude toward using SSTs and behavioral intentions toward using SSTs will be attenuated.

Figure 1 shows the framework reecting the hypothesized relationships (H1-H7) in the model. Relationships among the constructs were empirically tested as follows. Method Procedures and participants An intercept method was employed by 20 research assistants in busy public locations, such as densely populated urban locations, shopping centers or malls, and train or subway stations. Respondents were randomly selected in locations based on a sampling schedule. Various time frames were developed to increase random selection, and sample schedules were generated on the basis of peak/off peak hours during weekdays and weekends. Time frames, locations, and respondents were randomly chosen. Participants completed self-administered questionnaires, evaluating their overall experience with the SST service provider they had used most frequently within

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Figure 1. Conceptual framework

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the past six months, and upon completion of the questionnaire, each participant received a gift. The nal sample contained 410 usable responses. Participants were 42 percent male with ages ranging from 18 to 62. Educational level ranged from high school to graduate school. All respondents were experienced in using each of the four types of SSTs, including kiosks, interactive phone response systems, internet, and mobile services. Measures Multi-item scales from previous research were employed to empirically test the hypotheses. The 36-item technology readiness index (TRI) was adopted from Parasuraman (2000). Perceived usefulness was measured with three indicators adopted from Nysveen et al. (2005), including using SSTs saves me time, using SSTs improves my efciency, and SSTs are useful to me. Four items from Nysveen et al. (2005) were adopted to measure perceived ease of use, including learning to use SSTs is easy for me, it is easy to make an SST do what I want it to, my interaction with SSTs is clear and understandable, and it is easy to use SSTs. To measure attitude, we adopted four items from the attitude scales developed by Davis et al. (1989) and Nysveen et al. (2005), including good, wise, favorable, and positive. Behavioral intention was operationalized through responses to two items based on studies of Bhattacherjee (2000) and Nysveen et al. (2005), including I intend to use SSTs in the next six months and I intend to use SSTs frequently in the next six months. A questionnaire was constructed and pretested four times to ensure that question meaning aligned with research intentions as well as to assess feasibility of the survey approach. Each construct was measured using a seven-point scale anchored from strongly agree (7) to strongly disagree (1). Total measurement model estimation A CFA for the total measurement model was employed using LISREL 8.52 ( Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996). The resulting measurement-model statistics suggest a good t to the data (NFI 0:94, CFI 0:96, GFI 0:90, AGFI 0:85, RMSEA 0:081, x 2 419:77, df 109). Reliability of the construct indicators is high (Cronbachs alphas range from 0.723 to 0.904), indicating strong internal consistency. Examining construct validity, all factor loadings in the CFA for the total measurement model were statistically signicant (with all t values at p , 0:01), demonstrating convergent validity (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Kumar et al., 1998). Discriminant validity is assessed by estimating a series of two-factor conrmatory models. For each pair the model is estimated rst by restricting the factor intercorrelations to unity. The model is then estimated again with the restriction removed. In each case, the chi-square difference tests were statistically signicantly smaller in the unrestricted model, demonstrating discriminant validity among the measures. In addition, all cross-construct correlations were less than 1.0 (Bagozzi and Heatherton, 1994), tested via the condence interval for each pairwise correlation estimate (^ 2 standard errors) not including the value of one, providing more evidence of discriminant validity. The above results demonstrated the measures employed in this study possessed adequate construct validity.

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Structural model results As Table I shows, t indices for the structural model indicate good model t (x 2 359:49, df 110, NNFI 0:96, CFI 0:97, GFI 0:91 and RMSEA 0:071). As predicted, perceived usefulness would had a positive relationship with attitude (b31 0:30, t 2:60, p , 0:01) and behavioral intentions (b41 0:42, t 5:72, p , 0:01), conrming H1-1 and H1-4. Perceived ease of use was positively related to attitude (b32 0:19, t 1:73, p , 0:1) and increased perceived usefulness (b12 0:79, t 9:47, p , 0:01), supporting both H1-2 and H1-3. In addition, attitude exhibited a positive relationship with behavioral intention (b43 0:39, t 6:02, p , 0:01), supporting H1-5. We also found that TR was positively associated with all constructs of TAM. TR was positively related to perceived usefulness (H2: g11 0:08, t 1:70, p , 0:1), perceived ease of use (H3: g21 0:42, t 8:42, p , 0:01), attitude (H4: g31 0:24, t 4:86, p , 0:01), and behavioral intention (H5: g41 0:13, t 2:63, p , 0:01). Moderating effects In addition to testing the direct effects with SEM, following Jones and Reynolds (2006), we used hierarchical moderated regression analysis (Aiken and West, 1991) to test the hypothesized moderating effect. We tested for the moderating effect of TR on the relationship between perceived usefulness and attitude (H6a) and then the moderating
Path estimate 0.30 0.19 0.79 0.42 0.39 0.08 0.42 0.24 0.13 Model results

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Path perceived usefulness ! attitude toward using SSTs H1-2 perceived ease of use ! attitude toward using SSTs H1-3 perceived ease of use ! perceived usefulness H1-4 perceived usefulness ! behavioral intentions H1-5 attitude toward using SSTs ! behavioral intentions H2 technology readiness ! perceived usefulness H3 technology readiness ! perceived ease of use H4 technology readiness ! attitude toward using SSTs H5 technology readiness ! behavioral intentions Structural model statistics H1-1 Model results x2 df SRMR GFI NFI CFI IFI RMSEA Notes: *p-value , 0.1(two-tailed); * *p-value , 0.01(two-tailed)

t-value 2.60 * * 1.73 * 9.47 * * 5.72 * * 6.02 * * 1.70 * 8.42 * * 4.86 * * 2.63 * *

359.49 110.00 0.058 0.91 0.95 0.97 0.97 0.071

Table I. Path estimates for proposed model

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effect on the relationship between perceived ease of use and attitude (H6b). As Table II shows, we estimated an initial regression equation (Model 1) including attitude as the dependent variable and TR, perceived ease of use, and perceived usefulness as independent variables. In Model 2, the hypothesized interactions were added. The technology readiness perceived usefulness interaction was not statistically signicant (b 0:072, t 1:237, p . 0:1). Thus, H6a was not supported. The technology readiness perceived ease of use interaction was negative and statistically signicant (b 20:127, t 22:448, p , 0:05), supporting H6b. Similarly, we tested the moderating effect of TR on the relationship between perceived usefulness and behavioral intention (H7a) as well as the moderating effect on the relationship between attitude and behavioral intention (H7b). As Table II shows, the relationship between perceived usefulness and behavioral intention was not statistically signicantly weakened by TR (b 20:038, t 20:867, p . 0:1). Thus, H7a was not supported. In addition, TR had no statistically signicant moderating effect on the attitude-behavioral intention relationship (b 0:031, t 0:846, p . 0:1). This result indicates that technology readiness exerts no signicant moderating effect on attitude or behavioral intention. Therefore, H7b was not supported. Discussion Motivated by the need to better understand the role of consumer personality traits in the acceptance of new technologies, the current study incorporated the role of TR into the TAM within the context of SSTs. Compared to other consumer personality trait factors such as self-efcacy, computer anxiety, or personal innovativeness, TR
Model 1 t-value Model 2 t-value

b
Dependence variable: attitude Independent variables: Technology readiness Perceived usefulness Perceived ease of use Interactions Technology readiness Perceived usefulness Technology readiness Perceived ease of use R2 F value Dependence variable: behavioral intentions Independent variables: Technology readiness Attitude Perceived usefulness Interactions Technology readiness Attitude Technology readiness Perceived usefulness R2 F value

0.160 0.214 0.283 0.267 49.193 0.066 0.368 0.319 0.400 90.262

3.768 * * * 4.061 * * * 5.254 * * *

0.167 0.230 0.263 0.072 2 0.127 0.278 31.045 0.073 0.374 0.318 0.031 2 0.038 0.402 54.240

3.736 * * * 4.328 * * * 4.854 * * * 1.237 2 2.448 * *

1.754 * 8.985 * * * 8.015 * * *

1.837 * * * 8.952 * * * 7.872 * * * 0.846 2 0.867

Table II. Moderated regression analysis

Notes: *p-value , 0.1; * *p-value , 0.05; * * *p-value , 0.01

provides a more comprehensive measurement of the consumers overall state of mind resulting from a gestalt of mental enablers and inhibitors that collectively determine a persons predisposition toward technologies (Parasuraman, 2000). TR thus serves as a more ne-grained measure of consumer personality traits in relation to technology adoption (Lin and Hsieh, 2006; Parasuraman, 2000). Although previous research has examined how certain consumer traits inuence technology acceptance (Ellen et al., 1991; Hill et al., 1987; Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002), the role of TR within the TAM has been under-explored. The present study lls an important research gap by developing and testing a theoretical framework that integrates the TR construct into an extended TAM within the SST context. The contributions of this study to TAM research are threefold. First, researchers have not previously explored the development of an extended TAM in the context of the four types of SSTs as a whole. The conceptual framework from this study is applicable to future research on various SSTs. Second, the current research integrated the role of the consumer trait TR into the TAM, more comprehensively exploring the role of consumers tendencies and readiness to adopt technology. This approach better reects consumers overall readiness to use technology when compared to factors previously investigated. We veried the importance of incorporating TR into an extended TAM, and then elaborated and tested its impact on consumers technology acceptance. Results indicated that consumer traits, as measured in TR, play an important role in consumers technology adoption. Third, we explored both the direct and moderating effects of the consumer trait TR on technology acceptance, while most studies have examined only one of these relationships (e.g. Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002). The current study may serve as a guide for researchers in conducting a test of both direct and moderating effects of consumer traits on TAM. Therefore, increased attention on both direct and moderating effects of consumer traits is strongly encouraged. Results show that perceived usefulness and ease of use are both positively associated with attitude toward SST use. This nding suggests that the more an individual perceives SSTs as useful and easy to use, the more favorable his/her attitude is toward using SSTs, supporting assertions of previous researchers (Bruner and Kumar, 2005; Nysveen et al., 2005; Porter and Donthu, 2006; Robinson et al., 2005). Results also suggest that, consistent with prior ndings, attitude toward using SSTs is positively associated with behavioral intentions (Davis et al., 1989; Schepers and Wetzels, 2007). Furthermore, the current research shows that perceived usefulness leads to greater behavioral intention (Nysveen et al., 2005) and that customers with higher positive perception of ease of use will rate perceived usefulness higher (Porter and Donthu, 2006). That is to say, the more an individual perceives SSTs as easy to use, the more individual will perceive SSTs as useful. Findings support a positive association of TR with perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward using SSTs, and behavioral intentions, echoing earlier suggestions of Liljander et al. (2006), Walczuch et al. (2007), and Yen (2005). Customers TR also has a positive impact on perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward using SSTs, and behavioral intentions. In addition, the moderating effect of TR was not as expected. While results show TR attenuated the relationship between perceived ease of use and attitude toward using SSTs, the relationship between

The role of technology readiness 437

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perceived usefulness and attitude toward using SSTs was not statistically signicantly changed in the presence of higher TR. Similarly, TR did not attenuate the relationship between attitude and behavioral intention or the linkage between perceived usefulness and behavioral intention. Apparently, customers with higher TR are less concerned with an SSTs ease of use because they are quite willing and eager to use SSTs. However, like customers with lower TR, such users are still concerned with SSTs usefulness in the form of benets, functions, and value. Managerial implications The results of this study have a number of implications for rms implementing SST operations. First, increased usefulness and ease of use will have a positive inuence on customers attitudes, which in turn affect intentions to adopt SSTs. Accordingly, in the planning and development of SSTs, rms should pay attention to simple and practical functions while also increasing useful key features that are frequently required. In other words, rms can offer SST interfaces that are easy to use and user-friendly to avoid instances of customer frustration as well as accentuate the full functionality of their SSTs systems to efciently cater to the different needs of customers. Development of such systems requires increased attention to user testing to align the SST experience with consumer expectations. Second, our ndings show that TR inuences perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward using SSTs, and behavioral intentions. Therefore, rms implementing SSTs should give increased attention to customer TR. SST providers can customize their services to target market segments on the basis of different levels of TR among their customers. In general, rms should encourage the use of technological services by strengthening positive TR drivers (the optimism and innovativeness dimensions) that encourage the use of technological services and the development of positive attitudes toward technology, while simultaneously reducing TR inhibitors (the discomfort and insecurity dimensions) to lower reluctance to use technology. Service providers need to align their goals with customers TR, not getting too far ahead of consumers while assisting them in overcoming difculties. Success with SSTs launches a positive upward spiral, reecting positive experiences, improved attitude, and increased acceptance and willingness to try new technology services. The increasing rate at which companies are turning to SSTs to streamline customer services calls for a thorough assessment of the rms customers technology readiness. Propensity to embrace technology varies widely, resulting from the interplay between TR drivers (optimism, innovativeness) and inhibitors (discomfort, insecurity). Therefore, companies should constantly make efforts to fully understand the TR of their customers when developing and implementing SSTs that will t customer needs. Limitations and future research This study contains a number of limitations that suggest directions for future research. The rst limitation comes from the sample. Although the sample included diverse respondents, it was not truly random across all customers of SSTs. Therefore, the conclusions must be tempered with an awareness of the limitations of the survey method used for data collection. Second, we did not account for SST attributes that could inuence the variables under study. Future studies should consider factors such

as industry type and average time per transaction (Dabholkar, 1996; Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002). Third, since individual differences may inuence customers usage ofSSTs (Meuter et al., 2005), future research should explore the effects of characteristics such as previous experience and customer inertia (Meuter et al., 2003; Yen, 2005). Fourth, we did not examine contextual factors that could inuence the variables under study. Future studies can include factors such as time pressure, social anxiety (e.g. evoked by the presence of other customers), and perceived waiting time (Dabholkar, 1996; Dabholkar and Bagozzi, 2002). Fifth, we did not test the model under different consumer goal conditions. For example, the consumer may be using the SST for himself/herself or for others, and the purpose could be utilitarian or hedonic (e.g. purchasing products vs looking for information). Future research should explore such conditions. Another direction for future research relates to customers use of multiple SST channels. Customers today have a variety of SST modes to choose from (Patrcio et al., 2003), and previous studies have not investigated the effects of multiple SST use and its impact on SST adoptions. Future research should take this into consideration. Finally, as Venkatesh et al. (2003) have indicated, the current TAM research approach can explain the majority of, but not all of, the variance in customer intention. Baron et al. (2006) have called for qualitative research to investigate the unexplained variation in intention. To enrich TAM research, we encourage qualitative investigations that aim at exploring and capturing the subtleties of consumer behaviors that cannot be directly observed or measured by quantitative research.
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