CHAPTER

Local anaesthesia
The administration of local anaesthetics is indicated whenever their use will ease pain from trauma, or decrease the discomfort of a painful procedure. Local anaesthesia is thus useful in many clinical situations to increase patient comfort and facilitate cooperation during painful procedures. The successful use of local anaesthesia can be maximised by an understanding of the pharmacokinetics of local anaesthetic agents, the indications for their use, appropriate methods of administration and techniques to minimise the pain of administration. Pharmacology Local anaesthetics reversibly block nerve impulse conduction by blocking open, voltage-gated sodium channels (and possibly also interfering with calcium channels), thereby inhibiting the action potential; they have additional anti-inflammatory effects mediated through interaction with G-protein receptors. The onset of action depends on the individual agent and the dose delivered to the nerve. The more lipid soluble (lipophilic/hydrophobic) an agent is, the greater its potency and duration of action. Similarly, the smaller the local anaesthetic molecule is, the faster its dissociation from the receptor and the shorter its duration of action. All local anaesthetics, with the single exception of cocaine, are vasodilators, which increases the clearance of the agent; the addition of adrenaline (epinephrine) in a ratio of 1 : 80 000 to 1 : 400 000 causes optimum vasoconstriction for bleeding control and prolongation of action. The addition of adrenaline to long-acting agents does less to prolong their action
1

Local anaesthesia

Table 1.1 Local anaesthetics readily available in clinical practice Agent Lipid solubility Duration of action (min) Time of onset (min) Maximum dose (mg/kg) Maximum dose with adrenaline (mg/kg)
3.55 7

Amides
Bupivacaine Lidocaine Mepivacaine Ropivacaine High Medium Low Medium 200+ 3060 4590 200+ 1015 5 3 515 3 4.5 4 3

Esters
Procaine Tetracaine Low High 40 200 1520 15 7 1.5

than in short-acting agents. The use of adrenaline is traditionally avoided in areas of limited vascular supply (fingers, toes, penis, nose and ears) although there is no evidence to prove that this is in fact harmful. If excessive vasoconstriction occurs, the pH of the interstitial fluid drops, which will result in a decreased activity of the local anaesthetic. It is important, therefore, not to use vasoconstrictors in excessive concentrations (1 : 80 000 or less is most appropriate). Systemic absorption of the agent depends principally on the vascularity of the injection site. The rate of absorption and the risk of toxicity increase as shown below: Subcutaneous injection peripheral nerve blocks brachial plexus blocks intercostal blocks upper airway administratio n intravenous injection. There are many local anaesthetics readily available in clinical practice (Table 1.1). The most widely used agents include lidocaine and bupivacaine. Local anaesthetics are most commonly used during wound repair and for minor procedures (drainage of abscesses etc.). Techniques for their administration in the ED include topical application, local infiltration, field block, and peripheral nerve block. Lidocaine, the most commonly used local anaesthetic, is inexpensive and is available
2

Local anaesthesia

in a variety of concentrations (1% and 2%) and volumes (20-mL vials, 5-mL ampoules, and 1.8-mL dental cartridges). Some formulations are appropriate for subcutaneous administration only. Only the IV preparation should be used for intravenous regional anaesthesia and haematoma blocks. The combination of 1% or 2% lidocaine with adrenaline in a ratio of 1 : 80 000 (found in dental cartridges or premixed vials) produces optimal skin vasoconstriction and adequate duration of effect for most procedures. If premixed solutions are not available, the addition of 0.1 mL of adrenaline 1 : 1000 to 10 mL of lidocaine will create a 1 : 100 000 solution. Bupivacaine has a much longer duration of action than lidocaine and therefore may be more appropriate for very complex wounds requiring long repair times or when prolonged post-procedure analgesia is required. In settings where wound care may be interrupted (in a busy ED), the use of bupivacaine may avoid the need for further administration of local anaesthesia to complete a wound repair. For these reasons, many ED physicians choose bupivacaine or ropivacaine over lidocaine. A mixture of the two agents is often used because of the rapid onset of lidocaine and the longer duration of bupivacaine and to increase the volume of injected agent for regional anaesthesia. Studies have suggested that bupivacaine is underused in the ED, mostly because it is unfamiliar or because doctors have misconceptions about its onset of action or safety. It is an excellent local anaesthetic for the ED! Adverse events Fortunately, true hypersensitivity reactions to local anaesthetics are rare and most commonly involve an ester agent (e.g. procaine, cocaine, tetracaine, benzocaine). Allergic reactions are very seldom caused by amide anaesthetic agents (e.g. lidocaine, bupivacaine, mepivacaine, ropivacaine). There is no cross-reactivity between the amide and ester agents whatsoever. An easy rule of thumb method to distinguish between amide and ester agents is from the spelling convention of the generic name. Any local anaesthetic in which the letter i appears in the prefix of the name is an amide agent (e.g. lidocaine). The ester agents do not contain an i in the prefix (e.g. cocaine, benzocaine, procaine). If a patient is allergic to a particular agent from one class, an agent from the other class can safely be substituted. Toxic adverse events are dose related; therefore, the maximum dose for any agent should not be exceeded (Table 1.1). Adverse reactions involve the central nervous system (CNS) and, to a lesser degree, the cardiovascular system (CVS).
3

Local anaesthesia

Use smaller doses in debilitated patients, very young or very old patients, patients who are acutely ill, and those with cardiovascular disease or liver disease. Adrenaline, as an additive, should be avoided in hypertensive patients and those with cardiovascular or ischaemic heart disease. Decreasing the pain of local anaesthesia It is important, especially in children, to make the procedure of administering local anaesthesia as atraumatic (physically and psychologically) as possible. The pain of injecting the local anaesthetic is increased by the patients anxiety and apprehension and this needs to be addressed as carefully as the physical pain itself. The discomfort from the needlestick and from chemical irritation of the agent may be decreased somewhat by the following techniques: A thorough discussion of the procedure with patient and parents to decrease anxiety and apprehension. Distraction with toys, music, TV, virtual reality devices. Sucrose a sweet can make a big difference! Allow an infant to feed with a bottle or on the breast while administering the local anaesthetic, if possible. Pressure or rubbing the skin near the injection site can decrease the pain sensation. Commercially available acupuncture devices (e.g. the Bionix Shot Blocker) may decrease the perception of pain from a needlestick. Dripping local anaesthetic into the wound or the use of topical anaesthetics before injection and the application of lidocaine or tetracaine to mucosal surfaces will induce topical anaesthesia. Slow injection of the local anaesthetic agent a slow injection over 10 seconds is much less painful than a fast injection over 2 seconds. Superficial injections into the dermis are more painful than injections into the dermalsubcutaneous tissue junction. Cold local anaesthetic causes more pain on injection than body temperature solution. Increasing the pH of the lidocaine by adding sodium bicarbonate in a 1 : 10 ratio (1 mL NaHCO3 to 10 mL lidocaine 1%) will decrease the pain of injection and also increase the duration of action (increased lipid solubility, decreased vasodilatation and washout).
4

Local anaesthesia

Use a long needle (spinal needles work very well) to make as few punctures as possible, and a small gauge to minimise injection pain. Also use the smallest syringe that is appropriate for the volume to be injected this gives the greatest control over the rate of injection. Use peripheral nerve blocks where possible it is less painful than local infiltration, e.g. a mental block for a lower lip laceration. Wait long enough for the infiltration or nerve block anaesthesia to take effect. This may be 5 to 10 minutes for local infiltration and 20 to 30 minutes for nerve blocks. Never begin a procedure immediately after injecting local anaesthetic. Before injecting the local anaesthetic, make sure of the following: The patient must be comfortable and at ease. All equipment needed for the local infiltration must be available nearby. Appropriate monitoring equipment (if required) should be available. Lighting and positioning of the patient must be adequate. Resuscitation medications and equipment must be easily accessible. Sterile procedures should be followed as much as possible. For the safety of the healthcare provider, make sure of the following: Wear approved eye protection and gloves at all times. Practise a safe needle-handling technique. Select patients appropriately intoxicated or confused patients may move unexpectedly, which can increase the risk of needlestick injuries. Get informed consent (verbal or written as appropriate) for every procedure. Keep good written records of the procedure. Basic infiltration techniques Local anaesthesia may be obtained by injecting a local anaesthetic agent directly into the wound or by infiltrating as a field block. Intradermal injection has the advantages of a rapid onset of action after injection and an increased duration of anaesthesia compared with that of deeper anaesthetic placement. However, intradermal injection
5

Local anaesthesia

significantly distorts the tissues, and it is more painful than subcutaneous injection. For most purposes, local anaesthetic injected at the dermalsubcutaneous junction is ideal: the injection is not too painful and the anaesthetic results are excellent. As a rule, subcutaneous infiltration should not begin until it has been confirmed that the needle has not penetrated a vessel (pull back on the plunger of the syringe to ensure that blood is not aspirated). This technique is not reliable when a 30G needle is used (it is too small for blood to be aspirated). Direct wound infiltration Injection through the wound itself into the surrounding skin edges is less painful than injecting through the skin, especially if local anaesthetic is dripped into the wound beforehand, or if topical anaesthesia is used. Although this theoretically has the risk of transporting bacteria from the wound into the surrounding tissue, this has not been proven to result in a higher complication rate. It would seem appropriate, however, that this should not be performed on a heavily contaminated wound. Parallel field block This is more appropriate for complex wounds, contaminated wounds, wounds that require debridement or simple flaps. The needle is inserted at one end of the wound and advanced to the other end of the wound, parallel to it. After aspiration to ensure the needle has not penetrated a vessel, local anaesthetic is injected slowly as the needle is slowly withdrawn. Injection may be in the dermis (superficial anaesthesia, painful technique) or more commonly at the junction of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue: this takes a bit longer to achieve anaesthesia (5 to 10 minutes), but is less painful. This procedure should be repeated until there are parallel tracks on both sides of the wound. Circular field block If the wound is irregular or complex, local anaesthetic can be infiltrated in a circular pattern at some distance from the wound edge, in the same method as described above. This technique is extremely useful for procedures on the ear. A circumference of subcutaneous local anaesthetic is infiltrated inferior, superior, anterior and posterior to the pinna, which results in complete anaesthesia of the ear.
6

Local anaesthesia

Special local anaesthetic applications Local anaesthesia for line placement The placement of central venous catheters and arterial cannulas can be made less unpleasant with the correct use of local anaesthesia. Central line technique Consider procedural sedation as an adjunct to this procedure. Identify the target point for needle insertion and raise a subcutaneous weal of local anaesthetic. Infiltrate subcutaneous local anaesthetic at the expected sites of anchor sutures. Insert the needle along the tract to be followed to access the central vein and inject local anaesthetic while withdrawing the needle. Aspirate frequently to exclude accidental intravascular injection. Arterial line technique Consider procedural sedation as an adjunct to this procedure. In children especially, use an EMLA patch over the site of anticipated cannulation and leave on for at least 60 minutes. Identify and mark the pulsation of the artery to be cannulated. Raise a small weal of local anaesthetic subcutaneously at the site at which the cannula is to be inserted. Inject small (0.5 mL) volumes of local anaesthetic on each side of the artery proximal to the site of puncture; larger volumes will distort the anatomy and make palpation difficult. Local anaesthesia for intercostal drain insertion In the ED, chest drain insertion may be emergent (pneumothorax, haemothorax) or semi-emergent (pleural effusion, empyema or spontaneous pneumothorax). While the type of procedural sedation used may vary, the administration of the local anaesthetic remains much the same. Technique Consider procedural sedation with this procedure, particularly if the thoracostomy is not an emergency procedure. Identify the site for intercostal drain insertion (normally the 5th intercostal space just anterior to the midaxillary line).
7

Local anaesthesia

Raise a subcutaneous weal of local anaesthetic. Advance the needle through the tissue layers while injecting (after aspirating to exclude intravascular needle placement). Aim to penetrate the pleura on the superior aspect of the 6th rib, to avoid the neurovascular bundle which runs on the inferior aspect of the rib above. Repeat this in a fan shape, aiming to pierce the pleura in several spots around the intended course of dissection. Use a full 20 mL of 1% lidocaine for this infiltration. Once the drain has been placed, consider an intrapleural block. As an alternative, intercostal nerve blocks of the 4th, 5th and 6th ribs may be performed. Local anaesthesia for lumbar puncture Lumbar punctures can be rendered virtually painless by the correct administration of local anaesthetic. The recurrent spinal nerves exit the neural foramina and travel posteriorly to supply sensation to the posterior spinal structures. These nerves can easily be blocked. Lumbar puncture should always be performed with local anaesthesia and with procedural sedation (light sedation) if required, especially in children. Technique Apply a topical anaesthetic agent (e.g. EMLA cream or patch) to the area to be injected (if necessary). Allow sufficient time for this to become effective before proceeding. Position the patient correctly to identify the landmarks. Clean the target area with an antiseptic solution and position sterile drapes as needed. Raise a subcutaneous weal of local anaesthetic over the interspace to be used. Administer another weal superficial to a second interspace above or below the one to be used. Introduce the needle and advance it to the interspinous ligament and inject 0.5 to 1 mL of local anaesthetic; advance the needle slightly deeper and inject a further 0.5 mL of anaesthetic. Withdraw the needle to the subcutaneous tissue and redirect it to either side of the spinous process; inject 3 to 4 mL of local anaesthetic on each side to block the recurrent spinal nerves.

CHAPTER

Local anaesthetic toxidromes and complications

Local complications Local complications are usually a result of the injection technique. Immediate complications include pain, bruising, haematoma formation, local skin reactions (dermatitis) and nerve injury. Delayed complications include infection, complicated haematomas and neurapraxias. Tissue irritation caused by local anaesthetics is generally related to the acidity of the infiltrated solution and there are ways to minimise this discomfort, which will be discussed later. Ecchymoses or haematomas are a result of the perforation of cutaneous or subcutaneous blood vessels. This may be more severe in patients with a bleeding disorder (inherent or acquired as a result of medications: aspirin, clopidogrel or other anticoagulants). If bruising occurs, the patient can simply be reassured. A significant haematoma may require drainage and a pressure dressing, but this is an extremely rare complication. EMLA and other topical anaesthetics can cause itching, burning, pain, pallor, erythema, oedema, and purpura. Irritant dermatitis, allergic contact dermatitis, and contact urticaria can also occur.
9

Local anaesthetic toxidromes and complications

Nerve injury may occur during the infiltration of a local anaesthetic. This may occur from nerve laceration by the needle or nerve contusion by intraneural injection. This complication occurs more commonly during the performance of regional blocks than local infiltration. Clinical indications of potential nerve injury include paraesthesias, electric shock sensations and excessive pain during needle insertion, advancement or injection. Withdraw the needle and reposition it should this happen. The majority of neurapraxias resolve over a period of a few days or weeks. Nerve injury might also result from an excessively high concentration of local anaesthetic. For this reason, lower concentrations are preferred (bupivacaine 0.5% or lower, ropivacaine 0.5% or lower, lidocaine 2% or lower). Acute myotoxicity may be associated with local anaesthetics, but has only been reported following continuous peripheral nerve blocks. Infection is a potential complication of any injection. It occurs most commonly as a complication of haematoma formation. Maintain sterile conditions as much as possible, and ensure appropriate treatment of haematomas. Many studies have shown that these procedures are not truly sterile, but need to be as clean as possible. Extra care must be taken with patients who are immunocompromised. Systemic complications Systemic complications include hypersensitivity reactions, anaphylaxis and toxicity of the local anaesthetic agent. Allergic reactions, in all forms, are idiosyncratic and can occur at any dose. They are more common with the ester local anaesthetics, but can occur with any medication. Allergic reactions can be in response to the local anaesthetic agent or to the preservative agent (e.g. methyl hydroxybenzoate). Anaphylactic reactions should be treated with intramuscular adrenaline (epinephrine) (0.5 mg in the anterolateral thigh for adults), intravenous fluids, intravenous steroids (e.g. hydrocortisone 4 mg/kg) and possibly intravenous antihistamines (e.g. promethazine 0.5 mg/kg). Resuscitation equipment should always be available in an environment where local or regional anaesthesia is practised. Methaemoglobinaemia may be caused by any local anaesthetic agent, but prilocaine is the most common culprit, especially in children.
10

Local anaesthetic toxidromes and complications

Methaemoglobinaemia can produce clinically significant hypoxaemia and can interfere with pulse oximetry, producing an exaggeratedly low saturation figure (around 85%). Treatment is with intravenous methylene blue 1 mg/kg. Systemic adverse effects usually occur when blood concentrations of local anaesthetic increase to toxic levels. These effects are most often encountered after inadvertent intravenous injection, systemic release of local anaesthetic after intravenous regional anaesthesia, or administration of an excessive dose of a local anaesthetic or topical agent (especially on broken skin or mucous membranes). Patients in the ED are particularly at risk since the trauma patient may get local anaesthetic for the placement of an intercostal drain, for the central venous catheter, for wound repair, topical anaesthesia of the upper airway, an intrapleural block and so on. Patients with decreased pseudocholinesterase activity are more susceptible to toxicity from ester anaesthetics and patients who are taking medications that inhibit the cytochrome P450 system (e.g. propofol, amiodarone, ciprofloxacin, macrolides, tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, cimetidine, imidazole antifungals, antiepileptic medications, benzodiazepines, beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, statins, immunosuppressants, and antiviral agents) are more susceptible to toxicity from amide anaesthetics. The systemic toxicity of local anaesthetic agents affects the central nervous system (CNS) and the cardiovascular system. CNS lidocaine toxicity is biphasic and as the serum levels of lidocaine increases, the effects on the CNS become more severe. The first phase of side effects occurs as a result of CNS excitation and can include irritability and seizures. The second phase causes CNS depression. The seizures stop (and not because the patient is getting better) and coma and respiratory depression or arrest may develop. This biphasic effect occurs because local anaesthetics first block inhibitory CNS pathways (resulting in stimulation) and then eventually block both inhibitory and excitatory pathways (resulting in overall CNS inhibition). At mildly toxic lidocaine levels, patients may experience tinnitus, light-headedness, perioral numbness, diplopia, a metallic taste in the mouth, nausea and/or vomiting, or they may become loquacious. As serum levels increase, nystagmus, dysarthria, localised muscle twitching, or fine tremors may be noticed. Hallucinations may occur.
11

Local anaesthetic toxidromes and complications

Progressive toxicity may cause focal seizure activity followed by generalised tonicclonic seizures. Respiratory depression and coma follow with extremely high levels. Resuscitation of these patients should follow a standard Advanced Life Support algorithm (the ABCD approach) with an emphasis on avoiding hypoxia, hypercapnia and acidaemia as this increases the toxicity of local anaesthetics. Seizures should be managed with intravenous benzodiazepines (e.g. lorazepam or diazepam). Significant persistent neurological abnormalities have not been documented following seizures induced by local anaesthetic toxicity. Many of the adverse effects affecting the cardiovascular system that occur with the administration of local anaesthetics may be as a result of the addition of adrenaline rather than direct effects of the anaesthetic itself (such as tachycardia and hypertension). However, high blood levels of local anaesthetics directly reduce cardiac contractility and cause vasodilatation, which can result in hypotension. Atrioventricular blocks, bradycardia, and ventricular arrhythmias can occur; but these are more common in patients with underlying conduction abnormalities. The management of hypotension should be symptomatic with intravenous fluids (e.g. warm Ringers lactate or Balsol) and vasopressors used as needed (ephedrine for transient hypotension and adrenaline for sustained hypotension). Hypertension should be treated with intravenous benzodiazepines, and not any other medications. Ventricular tachycardia should be treated with amiodarone. Most other arrhythmias require only symptomatic treatment. Cardiac arrest following local anaesthetic toxicity that is refractive to conventional resuscitation techniques may respond to treatment with a lipid emulsion there are case reports of success with this protocol: a 1.5 mL/kg bolus of a 20% solution over 1 minute, followed by an infusion at a rate of 0.25 mL/kg/min. The bolus may be repeated twice every 3 to 5 minutes or until the return of spontaneous circulation. The infusion should be continued until haemodynamic stability is achieved and the rate increased to 0.5 mL/kg/min if the blood pressure drops. A total dose of 8 mL/kg should not be exceeded. If lipid emulsion is not available, an induction dose of propofol (which is buffered in a 13% lipid emulsion) followed by an infusion may be considered instead.

12

CHAPTER

Topical anaesthesia
Topical anaesthesia is an extremely useful adjunct to clinical practice in the ED and is underutilised, often because it is forgotten. It is used for local anaesthesia or analgesia on intact skin, mucous membranes and the eye through the application of local anaesthetic agents to the external epithelial surface. Topical agents may be used to decrease the pain and discomfort of medical procedures and for various skin and mucous membrane conditions, including pruritus and pain due to minor trauma, burns or inflammatory conditions affecting the skin (e.g. varicella, sunburn, contact dermatitis, insect bites). Do not forget to ask patients about local anaesthetic allergies, as ester-linked agents (which more commonly provoke reactions) are often used for topical anaesthesia. Cryoanaesthesia Thermal anaesthesia (cryoanaesthesia) may be used for shortacting superficial anaesthesia for procedures such as venipuncture, intravenous cannula placement, and superficial abscess incision and drainage. Ice, refrigerant sprays and liquid nitrogen have been used for this purpose. This technique does not produce very good anaesthesia.
13

Topical anaesthesia Technique Ice must be applied to the skin for at least 30 to 60 seconds before the procedure. Be careful to avoid frostbite. Ethyl chloride may be sprayed onto the skin for 5 to 10 seconds from a distance of about 150 to 200 mm. After a frost is produced on the skin, a 10- to 12-second period of anaesthesia occurs before the skin temperature and sensation return to normal. As a result of this limited time frame, an assistant often has to spray the area while the procedure is performed. Be careful to avoid freezing areas of normal skin by overuse of this method. Dermal topical local anaesthesia Topical anaesthesia to the skin is a very useful but underused form of local anaesthesia in the ED. If used correctly, it can dramatically decrease the pain and anxiety associated with injections and other minor procedures. EMLA (eutectic mixture of local anaesthetics) cream is a combination of lidocaine and prilocaine which has good skin penetration and produces excellent anaesthesia of the skin. Anaesthesia to a depth of 3 mm is obtained after 60 minutes of application under an occlusive dressing, while after 120 minutes the depth of anaesthesia may reach a maximum of 5 mm. The onset of action may be more rapid in highly vascular areas (such as the face), and in damaged or inflamed skin. The maximum dose should never be exceeded. EMLA produces a biphasic vascular effect vasoconstriction followed after 30 minutes of application by vasodilatation. EMLA cream may be used to decrease the discomfort of vascular access, injections, lumbar puncture or superficial procedures. In children, while EMLA certainly has a role in minor procedures, it must be remembered that cooperation has as much to do with apprehension as it does with actual pain, so additional agents or methods may be needed to address this. EMLA cream may be applied under an occlusive dressing or as a pre-prepared product. EMLA should be used for small applications only, because of the toxicity of prilocaine, especially in children (principally methaemoglobinaemia). The maximum dose should not be exceeded (Table 3.1). Recent studies have suggested that EMLA is safe even in neonates. At this stage, however, this would be an off-label application.
14

Topical anaesthesia

Table 3.1 Recommended dosages of EMLA for children Age and body weight
1 4 1 7 to to to to 3 months or <5 kg 12 months and >5 kg 6 years and >10 kg 12 years and >20 kg

Maximum dose (g)

1 2 10 20

Maximum area (cm2)

10 20 100 200

Maximum no. of patches

1 2 10 20

Technique Prepare the skin prior to application by cleaning with an alcohol swab to degrease the skin. Penetration of the topical anaesthetic agent can be increased in intact skin by partially removing the stratum corneum by tapestripping: apply an adhesive tape to the skin and rip it off in a waxing manoeuvre. Do not traumatise children by causing pain with this procedure. Apply EMLA directly to skin with coverage of 1.5 g/10 cm2 in adults and 1 g/10 cm2 in children and cover with an occlusive dressing, or use a commercially prepared self-adhesive disc. Wait sufficient time to achieve the desired depth of anaesthesia (60 minutes = 3 mm, 90 minutes = 4 mm, 120 minutes = 5 mm). If large amounts of cream are still on the skin surface, insufficient time has been allowed for its absorption. A shorter waiting time is required when EMLA is applied on irritated or broken skin. TAC (tetracaine 0.5%, adrenaline [epinephrine] 0.05% and cocaine 512%) has been used as an anaesthetic for repair of facial and scalp lacerations in children, but today sufficient concern exists about toxic potential that it should not be used. Other options include LAT (lidocaine 4%, adrenaline 0.1% and tetracaine 0.5%) which is prepared as a premixed gel. Where it is not available, a similar mixture can be improvised: Ophthalmic tetracaine 1% 0.9 mL Lidocaine 2% 0.9 mL Adrenaline 1 : 1000 0.2 mL. Because of the vasoconstrictor effects it should not be used on the fingers, penis, nose or ears. Topical anaesthesia should be used with
15

Topical anaesthesia

care on broken skin or mucous membranes and the patient carefully monitored for adverse reactions. The ophthalmological preparation of tetracaine 1% can be used for topical anaesthesia on its own, especially on mucous membranes (e.g. in the mouth prior to injection for dental anaesthesia). Lidocaine 2% gel may provide good topical anaesthesia to open wounds and damaged skin (roasties) but is of little value on intact skin. Do not exceed the maximum permitted dose of 10 mL on broken skin, and 15 mL on mucosa at any one time! Other formulations and methods Other preparations include topical liposomal lidocaine formulations and heat-enhanced delivery systems (usually lidocaine and tetracaine preparations). Other needle-free devices for administering local anaesthetic have shown promise and new products will continue to appear. Emergency physicians should be aware of new developments in order to make their patients visit as minimally unpleasant as possible. Ophthalmological applications The ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve supplies the cornea, conjunctiva and sclera, via a terminal network of nerves that lies in proximity to the external surface of the eye. Local anaesthesia is therefore very effective in the eye (cataract surgery can be performed with topical anaesthesia alone). Topical anaesthesia of the eye is useful in the ED: To facilitate tonometry. For removal of foreign bodies in the cornea and/or conjunctiva. For superficial curettage of the cornea (removal of burn rings or rust rings). To allow thorough eye lavage to remove chemical or mechanical foreign materials. In conjunction with other topical agents for procedures on the eyelids or eyelid margins. As a single application in photokeratitis (arc eyes or snow blindness) to reduce blepharospasm and allow comprehensive examination of the eye and administration of other agents. Ester-linked local anaesthetics (such as tetracaine and oxybuprocaine) have traditionally been used in the eye because of their rapid absorption and onset of action within 5 to 10 seconds, and duration of action
16

Topical anaesthesia

of 10 to 20 minutes. Amides such as lidocaine and bupivacaine have become more popular because of their longer duration of action, despite their slower absorption. Buffered solutions of lidocaine or bupivacaine have a significantly longer duration of anaesthesia than ester agents, with an onset of action within 1 minute of instillation, and duration of action of 4560 minutes for lidocaine, and 60180 minutes for bupivacaine. There is no general consensus on which topical local anaesthetic eye drop provides the best analgesia, but studies have shown that proxymetacaine causes the least discomfort on administration. Tetracaine, oxybuprocaine, proxymetacaine, lidocaine and bupivacaine have all been used successfully in a variety of different concentrations. Availability may determine the choice of agent, but it is essential that the preparation is preservative-free. Increasing the preparation pH (buffering 1 mL of local anaesthetic with 0.1 mL of sodium bicarbonate [1 : 10]) may alter the duration of action but is probably of little clinical benefit in general. Topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ketorolac or diclofenac, may be co-administered with local anaesthetics and prescribed for follow-on outpatient treatment for traumatic eye discomfort. Topical steroids should in general only be used in consultation with an ophthalmologist. Topical local anaesthetic drops should never be prescribed for patients own use for three main reasons: When used excessively, topical anaesthetics can cause severe and irreversible damage to corneal tissues, with corneal melting. Local anaesthesia increases the likelihood of unnoticed trauma to the cornea from rubbing or foreign bodies for this reason, every patient discharged from the ED should wear an eye patch on the eye/s that have been anaesthetised, until normal sensation in the eye returns; Other causes of pain in the eye (ocular or extraocular) may be masked by the use of topical anaesthesia. Technique Instil drops directly into the affected eye; do not drop the local anaesthetic directly onto the cornea but rather into the inferior fornix of the conjunctiva. Follow up with additional drops every few minutes if deeper or prolonged anaesthesia is needed (especially with amide agents). More than five drops will seldom be needed in each eye.
17

Topical anaesthesia

Mucosal topical anaesthetic applications Topical anaesthesia is very effective when applied to the mucous membranes of the ears, nose, throat, oral cavity, upper airway and genital mucosa because of its rapid absorption. For the same reason, the toxic potential of the local anaesthetic agent is high and the maximum dose should be strictly observed. Administration of topical anaesthetics should be performed with accuracy to ensure that a predetermined amount of drug is administered to allow for the intended effect while minimising the risk of toxicity. Techniques Intraoral injections and procedures: in the oral cavity, topical anaesthesia is rapidly obtained by holding a pledget (or cotton bud) soaked in lidocaine 2% or tetracaine 1% against the area to be anaesthetised for 30 seconds. Nasal procedures and packing: topical anaesthesia of the nose for cauterisation, packing or foreign body removal is best obtained with a 4% solution of cocaine (or lidocaine in higher concentrations). Apply the solution to a pledget and hold it in place against the mucosa for several minutes. Excellent local anaesthesia with vasoconstriction will last for 30 to 60 minutes. Do not exceed the maximum dose of 3 mg/kg (4 mL of the 4% solution in adults). Lidocaine spray can also be applied to the nasal mucosa for topical anaesthesia; it has the disadvantage of producing vasodilatation which may increase the risk of bleeding from the mucosa. Passage of nasogastric tubes; awake endotracheal intubation, or to blunt the autonomic response to intubation in high-risk patients; endoscopy and bronchoscopy: topical lidocaine spray is available as a metered dose spray (10 mg/0.1 mL spray) for application in the nose, mouth and throat. The maximum dose to be administered as a topical agent is 200 mg (20 sprays), because of the potential for rapid systemic absorption and toxicity. Benzocaine sprays have largely been replaced by lidocaine sprays because of the concern of methaemoglobinaemia with the use of benzocaine. Inhalations of nebulised lidocaine or bupivacaine are often used, but there is little published evidence to support this practice, and there are concerns about excessive and rapid systemic absorption. It is also probably not as effective as other topical applications. Pledgets
18

Topical anaesthesia

soaked in local anaesthetic which are passed into the posterior nasal space above and below the inferior turbinate can be left in place for several minutes. This will result in anaesthesia to the entire nasal passage and proximal pharynx. Bilateral placement increases the success of the anaesthesia. Procedures involving the external ear canal: topical anaesthesia of the ear canal can be achieved with ear drops containing benzocaine or procaine (adhere to maximum doses); administer four to five drops into the ear canal and allow several minutes for anaesthesia to develop. EMLA cream has been used in the external ear canal with good effect, but the manufacturer warns that it should not be used if it can migrate into the middle ear (perforation of the tympanic membrane) as it has ototoxic effects in animal models. Placement of urethral catheters: lidocaine gel 2% provides rapid, excellent anaesthesia to the mucosa of the genital tract for the insertion of urethral catheters. It should always be used, especially in males. Do not exceed the maximum dose of 15 mL for mucosal application in adults.

19