Learning

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
N ci 5&i & he hc art of psychology th m 3i learni relatix l crmanent change in an organ Nm F ax du o e per ence Chapter 8 ox ers th F a c pr nciplc c f three forms of learning. Jar i cal o xdc t nditionin, in ii hich ix e learn as urt or etxx cci cx cots opcrant conditioning, in r inch xx ft a ix to xgage in behar iors that are re x r cci i id c a oic oc liar ion, that are punished; 1 md b crvat 1 lear ring ii ix hich xx e learn bx xal oh xi x r xx itating oh ers h F p ci al o ox ers xx x eral important issues,
includir g the ,cneiaiits )f principles of learning, the

How Do We Learn? pp 313 30)

Dax id Myers at times uses idrom that arc ii familiar to some readers It r ou do not knc xx the mean ng 01 any of the folioxx mg ix ord phrases or expressions in tire contcxt 1 i xx lee they appear in the text refer to page 22 ft r explanation hr eds hope o ugyed fit i rancher report dly herds cattle

Objective 1 I)efine earning and identify iro to r ot learning. t A relatively permanent change N an behrr ior due to experience is called
)i a

role Of ) ntis c r xeses in earn ng and the wa in v ft cF Ic irnft g is ans r uned br the biological pre disp s t irs 0 aifftxxnt specks ii Fa six e 0 1 res for all (ha ter 8 questio x uid 3 be o a 2

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Operant Conditioning
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Objective 13
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sm ofus ing

gtf e is, a rcsponsc. bc pro Ic isurab c stimulus after a

d tin t s mf.oct ed y its ccnscquences iai 0 d

11
i

Objective 11: S atc If or idike s last or cffect, and cxpl initsconicc ontoS in iss archcnopcr ant cnditioning 4 t 5k ni c used I hc r idiicc
5

taut stitsagthens a espouse 0 redue t or removrn is ax ersive i up leasant) stimu

s a st irti p oint it dcx dop ing a bc has io al tc inologs I nis prir dip to stales if at I ci a ic is ikelv to k one d sig a d
ix 15 it

12 Rc intorcers, such as tood and shock, that are dated to oas c nccds and therefore do not rc I) (1) lea ning are callc d Reinfor ers that must be onditioned and therefore derive their pm er through associat on ate called 13 Children ix ho arc ab c to dclax gratdicahon tend (more less) tc besa nc
ai s co npetent matorc,

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and F igh achiex ing as they

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Operant Conditioning

209

ty pe of reinforcement is discontinued, extinction (rapid/slow). is 16. I he procedure in which responses are reinforced onh part of the time is called reinforcement, Under these conditions, learning is generally (faster slower) than it is with continuous reinforcement. Behaxior reinforced in this manner is (very not very) resistant to extinction, 17. When behax ior is reinforced after a set number of responses, a schedule is in effect, 18. Three-year-old Yusef knon s that it he cries when he wants a treat, his mother will sometimes gix e in. When, as in this case, reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses, a schedule is being used,
19. Reinforcement of the first response after a set

Objective 15: Discuss the ways negatix e punishment, positive punishment, and negatn e reinforcement dif fer, and list some drawbacks of punishment as a behax ior-control technique.

21. An axersive consequence that decreases the likeli hood of the behavior that preceded it is called It an ax ersive stimulus is If a desirable stimulus is withdrawn it is called 22. Because punished behavior is mereix it max reappear. 23. Punishment can also lead to and a sense of helplessness, as xx eli as to the asso ciation of the ax ersive cx ent with 24. Punishment also often increases and does not guide the mdix idual toward more desirable behax ior, Objective 16: Explain hoxx latent learning and the effect of external rexx ards demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning. 25. Skinner and other behax iorists resisted the grow ing belief that expectatlon%, perceptions, and other procesce have a valid place in the ccience of psychology. 26. IA hen a well-learned route in a maze is blocked, rats sometimes choose an alternatixe route, acting as if they xx crc consulting a
27. nimals max ham from cxpericnce even xx hen

interval of time defines the sched ule, An example of this schedule is

20. When the first response after varying amounts of

time is reinforced, a schedule is in effect,

Describe the typical patterns of response under fixed interx al, fixed-ratio, variable-interval, and variableratio schedules of reinforcement.

reinforcerni nt xx not ax xided

I ible IA hen learrung is

is s ud to haxe occurred, 28. 1 xcesslx e mcxx amds max undermine which is the desire to pertonn a behax ror tor its on n sake, The motivation to seek external mcxx ards and avoid punishment is alled

210

Chapter 8 Learning

Objective 17: Explain how biological predispositions place limits on what can be achieved through operant conditioning.

abilities by used to enhance shaping successive approximations of nen skills, 36. In boosting productivity in the workplace, posi hi e reintorcement is (more/less) effective when applied to specific behax iors than when given to reward general merit and when the desired performance is well defined and For such behax iors, immediate reinforcement is (more no more) effectix e than delayed reinforcement.
,

29. Operant conditioning (is is not) constrained by an animals biological predispositions. 30. For instance, u ith animals it is difficult to use to food as a behax iors that are not natu rally associated with
31. Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally When animals rex ert to their biologically predisposed patterns, they are exhibiting what is called

37, Many economists and psychologists beliex e that peoples spending behavior is controlled by its consequemes (its and

Objective 18: Describe the controversy over Skinners views of human behavior,

38. In using operant conditioning to change your own behavior, you would follow these tour steps: a, b.
C

32. Skinners x iews were controversial because he influences, insisted that rather than and shape behavior,

d, Objective 20: Identify the major similarities and difi ferences between classical and operant conditioning.
,

33. Skinner also advocated the use of principles to influence peopie in ways that promote more desirable 34. Skinners critics argued that he people by neglecting their personal and by seeking to their actions, Objectixe 19: Describe some ways to apply operant conditioning principles at school in sports, at xx ork and at home,
35, 1 he use of teaching machines and programmed textbooks was an early application of the operant onditioning procedure of to education, On-line sy 5tems software that is and -based learninci er examples of this application of operant are neix principles. Reinforcement principles can also bc

39. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both forms of 40. Both types of conditioning involve similar processes of

and
41. ( lassical and operant conditioning are both sub ject to the influences of processes and tions. 42. Through classical conditioning, an organism that it associates different does not and responds 43, Ihrough operant conditioning, an organism asso ciates its xi ith their

Learning by Observation

211

Lea ning by Observation (pp 341 346)

It yOU do not know the meaning of the tollon mu phiases in the context in ix hich thex inocat in the text, refer to page 2i ior an explanation: [ta-c n/to d1_crxcd [lie cauc!
s Ic
ihiUt 115 I,

chddren 1 lower or, far tors mar also he

mr oived,
Objective 23: Discuss the impact of prosotial inodek

ing.
8. Children will also model positlr e, or behar iors.

I xx th ccl

:,nt a xtIx

bc ca/

Ohectix e 21: 1 )era rihe the orocess of ohserr ational

learnIng coo exptan the onportance ot the discox err

9. \Iodels are most etfectir e when thou are pen

ccix ed as or Models are also most etfectir e when their rvotds and actions are Objective 24: Explain ix hr coirelations cannot pror that watching violent TV causes r ioleot heha\ br, and cite some experimental cx thence that helps demon strafe a causmeffect link
, *

ot mirror nero ons

1. earning hr ohserving and mtating others clied ,or I his form of tearnnxa
is

(occnrs/ does not occnr) m pc in other than our own Z c ros ientists hare found euro is in the brains lobe

10, Children in des eloped conntnes spend more timc

than
ther spend in school

t at pr r dc a neural basis for ning th se neurons hax c been observed to r he i in inker s perform a simple task and vh I (h 3. 1 ag P plax hehavors. Br age ibes
ix i

ihex xp )t neuron has not) been found n hriman hi ains. infants will inntate

CoInpared to real ix ortd crimes telex ision depicts a mnch higher percentage of crimes a being ir natnre.
12. Correlational stndies

(link/do not link) xi atching telex isbn s iolen e with violent behax ior
13. [he more hours children spend watching r iolent programs, the niore at risk thex are (or

ill mutate acts modeled on telex ision.

Obiective 22: Describe Fianduras find inns on what dcennines ix hether ix e will imitate a model,
3, The p-ri hologist he-f knexr n for teseawh on
,fnt rx

and teens anu aunts,

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O\perJ

14. Correlation does not prox e \tost reearchers heliex e that watching x bolenre idors does on tales s:on

a.

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ho x eu ed on ad oft
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6. Baedurc beher e- people imitate a model because

inciudino agression and the sure te x iolenee o

ohscn ed tendt ncr ot prolonged c 03

Ion c 1

ot

and

Ii ise ret air ed hr the model as nell s hr 7 suIts mc help c Pr

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or

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rehar tors l called rinrg I imitating o -ii elrer best knots n for learnmz. The re mn tic f t\ Cu O It arnng is a. cdnOar\ L:niter P. r-cr :!Ha: itanduta Par or LL0flOufl C d. ohs-ar aoo-0, Xl itsrin

an exarag 17. X[ieh if the ix h ri g fo cemi nt 5 is is e stinrolris aftet a ponst 1 a. presenting b. remos tog rr unpleasant sfrmulus aff ii sponse c. hetng ti Id that r ou have done a good joh d. All o the ahor e are esarrrplos

18. II hich of fire following lea ci in g I

a forna of associatn e

15. Pannirmeirt a tontror ersial rra of controlling in hat or area Ue a. debar br n not forgotten and mar return. b. raiding somuli often create fear. pundnna -or ol ten mureae aggressir enes. d. of a of the ions e reisans ! 1 16. e I I ondtionnig ixpi rn cots dv Reseorla and XX -gin r di morstrat that an important factor
or conditioning is.

a. classical rondifioning b. operant cooorton tog c. ohserr itional learning d. all at the atnn e

19. 1-or the most rapid conditiontng. a

presented:

shooij he

a. P. c. d.

about I second alter the 55, about onehalf second hemre the P S. about JR seconds before the I S. at the same tinse as the 55 neurons are found o the rr i
r

20. Mirror

a. the ibject h. thi strengi f he timub I an assoc abort tire pred a I thu sir r t r

and aie belrcred to he the neural fasts It a. frontal lobe of se r at onal lcr rmn

b. frontal lobe lassreal eondihomng e temporal lobe o ci a rnditioo ag ft r P ix d. temporal lobt bse

nglteir
taela deh Ic terna I deserip at with thi appro
Terms

)efinitit as or DeseriI 1

1. preseirtatir r if a disirid stimulus 2. tendency for sir a ar stun au to evoke a CR 5, ri-c)t S of an errr e sttrnulus reinforcing tinulus 4 -i- l-if S. ar nqrnrrd rnioftager 6, n-r-lnses 0 telrrilrtt(a after an urrrt n fiSana umouni o nme 5 P tire to toit S perform a dehar to

a. shaping

b. ponishnaent
err d. latent learning C. pasSive mm roruenrent I. negatrr c rerrforeenref g. prmrarr Oiit- ret-i P. geoerai:zanon P coodittooed telnoirer j. contineiotis reinforen1ent k. s ariahie inferr al stnedul& I. extrinsic rnotn ation na. mtrio-dr na rir afioo
C.

sptinfaOeOu ret

yi

tmnf-lona rioor and closer apnrow as for a I regptatnoco a roakened ( P 10. fOurl afsm of an eStis 4tmulu Vi.1 11 1 -ring rhaf 0 nle apparent oolr cc S Si S fort m p1 or ided 12. a rd t 550 is telnfol ed rat tor Cue to 13. be ir I I__ti I S
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214

Chapte8

ca

PROGRESS TEST 2
Progress lest 2 sh. Id Lx. to npletcd dunng a final chapter res jew. Ansis cr tk e 0 lowing questions after you thoroughis undc rstar d th c rect ansis er, tar thi. %ection res less s and Pr s,rcs kst I. SlultipkClwice Quections 1. During c.ttnctitn. the 6 omitted; a a setni. to disappear. reult, the a. U%:LR c. Ls:CR ci. CS;t..R b. CS;CR
2. In l.atson and Rat ncr s espenment. the loud noise ssas the and the white rat it as the

Ir distir Fwsth , etiseen negatis iemforccrs i d ninish r nt is e note that: a pur sl icnt ut not negatis e reintorcement, r so cs usc .. I an as ersis e .timulus. b. ir tr st to punishment negatis e reintorcc mtnt dccrc ises the likelihood of a response In
the pitsentation
of

an as ersis e stimulus.

c. in .cntrat to punishment, negatis e rcinfore ment irieases the likelihood ot a re.ponse by the piesentatkn of an as ersis e tiinulus. d. in cortrast to punishment. negatis e reinforce ment :ncreases the likelihood of a respolise hi the termination of an as ersive stimulus. 8. The piecen ork, or commicsion, method of pa ment is an es.ample of is hich reinforcement .chedule? c. fisedratio a. fiai-inter al d. s ariable-ratio b. s arabk-inten al
-

a. CS:CR b. LS-c.S

c. CS;LS d. CS; CR

3. In sshkh of the followi F ma cla,sical condition ing play a role? a. emotional prcblems b. the bodys n mime response c. helping 4 is, i.. 1 ci d. all of th.c abase 4. SE ping s a a bchasicr. a operant esta is tins b operant, supprcss ns, 0 1 c. respondc i stablish r d. respondet rr ccinique for

9. Putting on jour coat when it is cold outside behas ior that is maintained by: a discr it ination learning. b. ,unishment c. tes,atiie reinforcement. d. class cal conditioning.

is

10. On an iten uttcnt reinforcement scicdule rein forcemc it is gnen

a. irwn maflatrousts
b. randrnis c. foi s cccssivc approximations of a desired beha or d cnlysomcofthetinie.

5. In Pat los s studic Cf lassical condtioning of a dogs sahs ary respc S s )nta teous recos er

11. You t h your dos, to fetch the paper hs giving

him a cookic each time he does so. This is an eamp c c t a. optia t conditioning. b. dassLa onJitioning. c. conditk,ned reinforcement. d. partia rehforemcnt.
12. In pnrnnt.ng vhsen .itional learning, the flIOt -lie: tis e rnocteS. are thoe that ste pert cave as.
a. stnula to oi,,r.ds es.

occuire&
a. during acquisition. s I r the Cs isas firt patred with the I. S. b. during etinctjcn, nhen the CS isa firct pre .trted in It%tIl C. nhen the CS w... reintn <laced tolloring e\tlflct)t ut tEe C R arc a re%t period. d. duirg dI%rmirtion raining. sshen .eveiaI C lciMoflcd stinui isa introduced
b.

For pcrd;Lt nditicrqng to be mo&t effectis e. when chould th reinforers be presented in rela tion to thr deirtd re.-pcrr-e? 4 a. immediatel tetnre b. imnedi.itpl alter C. at th same sine a fc d. at ire4 a ial h

b. rt%pecred and admired. C. ucA-s-ful. d. envottheabose.

_____ _______

Progress Test 2 13. A cognitive map is a(n): a. mental representation of ones environment. b. sequence of thought processes leading from one idea to another. c. set of instructions detailing the most effective means of teaching a particular concept. d. biological predisposition to learn a particular skill. 14. After exploring a complicated maze for several days, a rat subsequently ran the maze with very fev errors when food was placed in the goal box for the first time. This performance illustrates: a. classical conditioning. b. discrimination learning. c. observational learning. d. latent learning. 15. Leons psychology instructor has scheduled an exam every third week of the term, Leon will probably study the most just before an exam and the least just after an exam. This is because the schedule of exams is reinforcing studying accord ing to which schedule? c. fixed-interval a. fixed-ratio d. variable-interval b. variable-ratio as classical con 16. Operant conditioning is to ditioning is to c. Pavlov; Skinner a. Pavlov; Watson d. Skinner; Pavlov b. Skinner; Bandura 17. On-line testing systems and interactive software are applications of the operant conditioning prin ciples of: a. shaping and immediate reinforcement, b. immediate reinforcement and punishment. c. shaping and primary reinforcement, d. continuous reinforcement and punishment. 18. Which of the following is the best example of a conditioned reinforcer? a. putting on a coat on a cold day b. relief from pain after the dentist stops drilling your teeth c. receiving a cool drink after washing your mothers car on a hot day d. receiving an approving nod from the boss for a job well done

215

c. all animals are biologically primed to associ ate illness with the taste of a tainted food. d. all of the above are true. 20. Regarding the impact of watching television vio lence on children, most researchers believe that: a. aggressive children simply prefer violent pro grams. b. television simply reflects, rather than con tributes to, violent social trends, c. watching violence on television leads to aggressive behavior. d. there is only a weak correlation between expo sure to violence and aggressive behavior. TrueFti ise Items Indicate whether each statement is true or false by placing T or F in the blank next to the item.
1. Operant conditioning involves behavior

19. Experiments on taste-aversion learning demon strate that: a. for the conditioning of certain stimuli, the IJS need not immediately follow the CS. b. any perceivable stimulus can become a CS.

that is primarily reflexive. 2. The optimal interval between CS and US is about 15 seconds. 3. Negative reinforcement decreases the likelihood that a response will recur, 4. The learning of a new behavior pro ceeds most rapidly with continuous reinforcement. 5. As a rule, variable schedules of rein forcement produce more consistent rates of responding than fixed sched ules. 6. Cognitive processes are of relatively lit tle importance in learning. 7. Although punishment ma he effective in suppressing behavior, it can have several undesirable side effects. 8. All animals, including rats and birds, are biologically predisposed to associate taste cues with sickness. 9. Whether the CS or US is presented first seems not to matter in terms of the ease of classical conditioning. 10. Spontaneous recovery reters to the ten dencv ot extinguished behaviors to reappear suddenly. 11. Researchers have discovered brain neu rons that fire when a person performs a task or when another person is observed performing the same task.

216

Chapter 8

Iearning

PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED
Answer these questions the day before an exam as a final check on your understanding of the chapters terms and concepts. Multiple-Choice Questions
1. You always rattle the box of dog biscuits before

giving your dog a treat. As you do so, your dog salivates. Rattling the box is a(n) ; your dogs salivatIon is a(n) a. CS; CR c. US; CR b. CS; UR d. US; UR 2. You are expecting an important letter in the mail. As the regular delivery time approaches you glance more and more frequently out the win dow, searching for the letter carrier. Your behav ior in this situation typifies that associated with which schedule of reinforcement? a. fixed-ratio c. fixed-interval b. variable-ratio d. variable-interval 3. Jack finally takes out the garbage in order to get his father to stop pestering him. Jacks behavior is being influenced by: a. positive reinforcement. b. negative reinforcement. c. a primary reinforcer. d. punishment.
4. Mrs. Ramirez often tells her children that it is

5. A pigeon can easily be taught to flap its wings in order to avoid shock but not for food reinforce ment. According to the text, this is most likely so because: a. pigeons are biologically predisposed to flap their wings in order to escape aversive events and to use their beaks to obtain food. b. shock is a more motivating stimulus for birds than food is. c. hungry animals have difficulty delaying their eating long enough to learn aini new skill. d. of all of the above reasons. 6. From a casino owners viewpoint, which of the following jackpot-payout schedules would be the most desirable for reinforcing customer use of a slot machine? a. variable-ratio c. variable-interval b. fixed-ratio d. fixed-interval 7. After discovering that her usual route home was closed due to road repairs, Sharetta used her knowledge of the city and sense of direction to find an alternate route. This is an example of: a. latent learning. b. observational learning. c. shaping. d. using a cognitive map. For questions 8il, use the following information. As a child, you were playing in the yard one day when a neighbors cat wandered over. Your mother (who has a terrible fear of animals) screamed and snatched you into her arms. Her behavior caused you to cry. You now have a fear of cats. 8. Identify the CS. a. your mothers behavior c. the cat b. your crying d. your fear today
9. Identify the US.

important to buckle their seat belts while riding in the car, but she rarely does so herself. Her chil dren will probably learn to: a. use their seat belts and tell others it is impor tant to do so. b. use their seat belts but not tell others it is important to do so. c. tell others it is important to use seat belts but rarely use them themselves. d. neither tell others that seat belts are important nor use them,

a. your mothers behavior c. the cat b. your crying d. your fear today 10. identify the CR. a. your mothers behavior c. the cat b. your crying d. your fear today 11. Identify the CR. a. your mothers behavior c. the cat b. your crying d. your fear today

Psychology Applicd

217

12.

hc
i

sn cr if i a utactnrmg tam xsishe to nh ccmer t to imrcasc the pro s s i k r i Which o the following pro s a rc s ii I i babtv Bc thc x ast ehiactise iloy c i c gn tr a gencral cs i Ioi s t th end of cach fiscal y ear ocic al ft i c ens attainbfe y t s e tirca h i ploycc i hIl(5ot g s s in modiatc honuscs foi r, lit 00 cd to wOULLL ity t 1 Li fa ft mect standards of ro ut cc (p vcnt

c. May hng xx i i not a sociate hcr tines s th ft food she ate B, May 1mg x ii associate ha sickocss x i somc tiung she experenced nrned ft y a toieshcte arc II n x it I I 17. Reggie s inothei tcifs him that lit attc r he cicans hs oc n. Es id r ti R c to i rc isc r ther is attcmpting to usc
cloaniug

13

u ca that sas i the shop m n n c thc i hc nib not csen coi It ) sing Inc grcen oforcd tars Bit s a r ioitc grc i cars i n example of. 1
id

di

a ci

a b c. d.

)pcrant conditioning secondary reintorccr sent positivc remforccincnt all of the abose

i ci i i r

ii i i

b
d

cieah itcn
atent k arnirig xtncicn

14, x a

son tle r cesti vnn aud Susan have been stak th a o x snr smer games Whit h oh the tot m g b st a c unts ar ttscn bclsavior di ioning k ss cal c latent learning rv t u I I arr ing d shaping
s at ha, cascra cot thc Ohrnp
i

1$. thich of the fotlowing is an c xampic ot s iapm, a. dog it arns to saffs ate at tI e sight if a h x of dog biscuits. b. \ new drn ci learns to stop it an mtt r e on si hen the fight changes to red c X pairot is ress arded hrst for n ak ng a sonnd then for making a sonnd sim far I aora and then tor speakmg it on nei name ps chohgv student reinfnrcc s a ihoran n d. rat only occasionally to make its bchas o more resistant to extinction 19. 1 ars, a Woe salesman is paid cx cry two cc k whereas Tom receis es a commission for c ch pa of shoes he sells 1-s identiy, t ars is paid r schednie of reinforcement and torn i a ,chednk of reintor cinent a, hxed ratio; hxc d interx af b. continnons; intermittent c. fixed inters aI hxed ratio d. s ariabte inters af s ariable ratio 20 Nancy decidcd o takc introduc ors p yhat bc cause lsc ha is is s been intc st dir r bt has ior Jack enrolled ir t It ausc It cngst its nd b otiratcd by bct a rn a. B. c. d.
t cxtr rsi r sat an o rirsi intrinsic n otis atior xti i sic n drives; i iccrtivcs ncntGe, 5 1 dne

Ta,

r c ,rorips ot iats re e so ci assicaf onditioning s i c a tone and cietrh shock are pro r tc I. ir ( mnp I the efcctric shock always tot ii s tht or H r Group 2 the tone and shock s raud mm WI ich )t thc tottowing is uk ty
i 7 rsit

a. b

tirc
ioo 2

mmcc CS for Group 1 butnot (Sto Group 2bntn t (do

e n

ftc t ic s i ( I I

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o

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a bh tar citlscr

16 c r

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t

cloose rrt r Bc \rmcr r tat tocd rest u ho rr i I ink ft s

ii It r us emsiintotht salt a c an ger ai d trcnch tr es. \ vI g dc oh p an as c rs an to thc taste use rr rardt cnhtrics 1 i a

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8

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64

check
4-.

Icvwd in the Prologue. tv te fl ng .md en ci learning of naeI _! are Itp3i tarn to the it itJifl.. j.ttkt AtLcr nu hr e n the: d t nsothckty i ti i ) d OU
ou

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cit.. a re.ponst -.trenizthen% ae Ie%pon%v. 9. T pt tt -tlrnulu% that natu r.lh trIggers an umondi tins ;ed repm..r. r 1. ole irited n olunt in
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t I
ft )ndm 13. Stimulus that autor c ly t iggi.. boned response. 14. The prisentation ot an at CfI t ,timdhis. ii hich decreae% the behavior it folkis 15. 1 vpe of learning also tailed Pa lot ian condition ing. 16. Ihe proce%% of natching and then imitedng a beha mc,r r t) ViOf 18. %toth itic n U. pertor ults ) obtan rewamlor 10

wet F iii I
.ing o

that spo
cduce,r r
ung stinul

20 1 r.u dun. t! a. .nvoh es reintorung sUtCCS%i C pn imat en-. of a hehai ior. 21 Learned ren.e to a pre moush neutral stimu 1W 22. eor&nsz h t L)LA.J% ui the 3bence at reinfCMce net L I.t t e betomes ap arent slwn ii ncen -es d 1 hid ann rdit i Fl lit

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1 reLrtmnced.
to

ANSWERS Chapter Review

How Do lSe I an,? 1. earn
2. ,tKtVs

nith k.
c

;i 1 s.nt sun

the orir .1 C to
,e
C I

C.

litf

1 0

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11
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I9

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tuli that l,c rciitiurttd j.. iaa.niflq and imitating

iassic

4. neranz 5. oh.in mc

220

Claptcr8 learnin 6

(lassica Conditioning fl P3 loi; John 1%atson; lx 1. 2. .ondituntd %tnnulus; uiiconditiont stimulus 3. untonaitkned recpon%e 4. cnditioned rtsptnse 5. acquisitiin: ont -halt sttond 6. does net I earning theori%t.. wn%ider classical conaitionrng to he aiapthe because tonditioned responses help organ sms to prepare for good or had ci entc iUlkOfl ditnined stimuli) th it are about to occur. 7. sun ii c; reproduce 8. tail 9. extinction 10. spontaneou. rcxovery ieralieation 11 12 s milar dhci imination 13 su nl 14. c. gnitor 1. prJcl. t i ntie;c t 16. ..ikoh h 17 c. ons st mulus 18 s kicsiould 19 Ft lor c.al, adapt; leve I a ialvsi 20 pt ii. ectively (.1 ssical conditioning led to the disc i s of general principles of learning that are the saint fc r all spec its tested, including humans (ia%sical t.onditioning also proi Itled an example to the young field of psi cholo g ol hois umpkx internal processes could be tud lcd obiectn ely. In addition, classical conditioning ba to h.ive mans helpful appL.innn. tc human hekh ad e!l l ing 22 :rai:njt tUts
ptjivn

Operant (onditson tug 1. neutral; aut fl ie& I %t 2. respondent 3. operant 4. lais of effect; xcii arded; recur 5. Skinner box operant chamber 6. shaping: approximazion4 7. .onceph; dk.riniinating 8. discriminati e stimulu, 9. reintor%eL 10. positis e reinforcer 11. negative reinforcei 12. primary reintorccrs; conditioned reinforcers 13. more 14. is; delayed; dwc i prc tected sex 01 15. continuou e g eme it ap& rapid 16. partial (mtcnri tcnt) slowa, iery 17. fixed ratE) 18. va table-ratio 19 fixcd-intcr a ch ck rig the mail as delhery time apzca Ic 20. sanable in a t FollowinF rein! r ement on a fixcd-intersal schedule thete is a pau C 1 rcsponSng and then an increasing rate of respc r c s time for tht next reinforcement drass s near. Oi. wd-raCn sa wdule there also is a post-reinforcement pause followed, hoss ever, by a return to a consictcnt high rate of response Both kinds of ariable schedule produce steadier rates of response. without the pauses associated is ith fixed schedule.. In general. chedules linked to responses produce higher reponcc tates and s ariable schedules produce more consi.tent responding than the related fixed .heduie. 21. ptinishment pcsitis punishment; negatn e pun
ih;nent

23.
Ii

s?f.

22.
WJ

cuppie.seJ s to

dt.0n and Ras ner. pt ri;ncnt. C:a)cal condi

used to ..cmdition feat of a ct in 4lbert, a. I -nonth hi infant. 1 hen \lhs t touhed the ietd mu c iunondi s hitc- rat netaticil st;n,ulusi, cr ed stimulus is n souraed. itt r a 1 p ilings 0 ft it isith the nois Albert b a ryi g at thc ii a toftheraL t fheraF d wli di r st ulus, tihrgeii s ) s )
uoniig

23. fear the person 24. aggre.sn Cfless 25. co.,niti c 26. cognitise mao 27. latent letrni 28. intrinsic 29. is

adinini-teicti it

1w

cx

t tiiation

Answers 30. reinforcer; shape; food

31. adaptive; instinctive drift

221

32. external: internal thoughts; feelings 33. operant; hehax ior 34. dehumaniied; freedom; control 35. shaping; testing; interactie; Web; athletic 36. more; achievable; more 37. costs; benefits 38. a. State your goal. b. Monitor the behavior (when and where occurs). c. Reinforce the desired behavior.
d. Reduce the incentives to perform the undesirable hehax ior.
it

scribes any hehai ior that is automatic rather than being triggered h a specific stimulus. b. This answer is too Lenera1, since behaviors can change for reasons other than learning. d. Rspondeiit1x conditioned heha\ ior also satis fies the criteria of our definition of learning.
-

39. associative learning 40. acquisition extinction suontaneous recovery eneral ization discrimination
41. cognitive; biological

42. stimuli; control; automatically 43. operant behaviors; consequences Learning by Observation 1. modeling; observational learning; occurs 2. mirror frontal observational observe other mon keys performing the same task; has
-

3. 9 months; 14 months 4. Bandura

more

6. rewards; punishments 7, abusive; aggressive; genetic 8. urosocial r 9, similar; ,uccesful; admirable; consistent 10.
11.
is

atching telex ision

vioient

2. b. is the answer. (p. 327) a. & c. Classical tonditioning is associated with Paviox; respondent conditioning is another name for classical conditioning d. Ohserx ational learning is most closely associat ed u ith Bandura. 3. c. is the ansn er. Meat automaticalh triggers the response of salk ation and is therefore an uncon ditioned stimulus. (p. 1i a. A conditioned stimulus acquires its responsetriggering powers through learning. A dog does not learn to salii ate to meat. b. & d. Responses are behax iors triggered in the organism, in this case the dog s sahxation. The meat is a stimulus, 3. b. is the answer. Prior to its pairing with meat (the U5, the tone did not trigger salivation and was therefore a neutral stimulus. Afterward, the tone triggered salk ation the CR) and was there fore a conditioned stimulus (CS). (pp. 316317) c. & d. Lnconditioned stimuli, such as meat, innately trigger responding. Pa\ lox s dogs had to learn to associate the tone with the food. 5. d. is the answer. In learning to distinguish hetween the conditioned stimulus and another, sim ilar stimulus, the monkey has received training in discrimination. ip. 320) a. In extinction training, a stimulus and/or re sponse is allowed to go unrenforced. b. Generalization training in olves responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus; here the monkey is being trained not to respond to a similar stimulus c This cannot he classical onditioning since the monkes is acting in ordcr to obtain a reward. Thus this s an exam iC of operant conditioning.
. . .

1. in k
13. aggression; crime 14, causation; does

15. imitation; desensitize

Progress Test

.1u1tip1e-CJioict Questions
1.
c. is

the ansis er. ip. l ) a. 1hi answer js incorrect because it simpli de-

\ centinunu asoc1atifln will naturall\ be eaier to learn than one that occurs on onk some nccaons, o learning is most rapid with continuous reinforcement, i et, once the con tuou accociatien ic no longer there, a in cx tinction training, extinction is ill occur more rapidly than it is ould has e had the organism not aiwas experienced reinforcement. (p. 331) 7. b. js the ansiser (pp. 321 34 c. & d. I he text deo nut preont cs idonce regard ing the relatis o importancc of cognitis e processes in classical and operant conditioning.
6. b. js the an-ni or
.
,

222

ChapterS Learning

8. b. is the answer. (p. 332) a. X\ith fixed-ratio schedules, there is a pause fol lowing each reinforcement. c. & d. Because reinforcement is not contingent on the rate of response, interval schedules, espe cially fixed-interval schedules, produce lower response rates than ratio schedules. 9. b. is the answer. (p. 329) a. Positive reinforcement involves presenting a favorable stimulus following a response. c. Punishment involves presenting an unpleasant stimulus following a response. d. In extinction, a previously reinforced response is no longer followed by reinforcement. In this situation, a response causes a stimulus to he ter minated or removed. 10. c. is the answer. In this situation, the CR will decline, a phenomenon known as extinction. (p. 319) a. Generalization occurs when the subject makes a CR to stimuli similar to the original Cs. b. Discrimination is when the subject does not make a CR to stimuli other than the original CS. d. An aversion is a CR to a CS that has been asso dated with an unpleasant US, such as shock or a nausea-producing drug. 11. c. is the answer. (p. 326) a. In operant conditioning the responses operate on the environment. b. In classical conditioning responses are triggered by preceding stimuli. d. In classical conditioning responses are reflexive. 12. c. is the answer. (pp. 321322) a. & d. These studies also indicated that rats are biologically predisposed to associate visual and auditory stimuli, but not taste, with shock. b. Rats are biologically predisposed to associate taste with sickness. 13. d. is the answer. A dog does not have to learn to salivate to food; therefore, this response i uncon
ditioned. (p. 317)

17. d. is the answer. a. is an example of positive rein

forcement, h. is an example of negative reinforce ment, and c. is an example of conditioned rein forcement, (p. 329) 18. d. is the answer. (p. 314) 19. b. is the answer. (p. 318) a. Backward conditioning, in which the US pre cedes the CS, is ineffective. c. This interval is longer than is optimum for the most rapid acquisition of a CS-US association. d. Simultaneous presentation of CS and US is. ineffective because it does not permit the subject to anticipate the US. 20. a, is the answer. (p. 342) ?vlatching Items
1. e (p. 329)

2. 3. 4. 5.

h (p. 320) f (p. 329) g (p. 330) i (p. 330)

k (p. 332) m (p. 335) a (p. 328) c (p. 319) 10. b (p. 332)

6. 7. 8. 9.

11. d (p. 334) 12. j (p. 330) 13. 1 (p. 335)

Progress Test

Multiple-Choice Questions
1. c. is the answer. (p. 319)

2. b. is the answer. The loud noise automatically triggered Alberts fear and therefore functioned as a US. After being associated with the US, the white rat acquired the power to trigger fear and thus became a CS. (p. 324) 3. d. is the answer. (p. 324) 4. a. is the answer. Shaping works on operant behaviors by reinforcing successive approxima tions to a desired goal. (p. 328) 5. c. is the answer. (p. 319) a., b., & d. Spontaneous recovery occurs after a CR has been extinguished, and in the absence of the US. The situations described here all involve the continued presentation of the US and, there fore, the further strengthening of the CR. 6. b. is the answer. (p. 330) a,, c., & d. Reinforcement that is delayed, present ed before a response, or at the same time as a response does not always increase the responses frequency of occurrence. 7. d. is the answer. (pp. 329, 332) a. Both involve an aversive stimulus. b. All rein forcers, includ.i ng negative reinforcers, increase the likelihood of a response.

a. & c. Salivation is a response, not a stimulus.

14. b. is the answer. (pp. 341, 343) a. Skinner is best known for studies of operant

learning. Moreover, there is no such thing as sec ondary learning. c. Pavlov is best known for classical conditioning. d. Watson is best known as an early proponent of behaviorism. 15. d. is the answer. (pp. 332333) 16. c. is the answer. (p. 321) a., b., & d. Rescorla and Wagners reearch did not address the importance of these factors in classical conditioning.

Answers

223

In negatn e runtorcenren an aversh e stimulus rving 5 n nhJran r o11 a desirable response.

15.

S. c. s the answer. (as ment P gir en after a fised

euro her ct pthces has e bean completed. (p 33h a. & b. inter al ohedules tejntorde according to

a is the aosv er. becansc cintorcement (earning a good grade 00 the e.ami 15 as ahable according to the passage ot tsme, studs log is reintorced on an interval schedule. Bemuse the intera al between exams is constant, this is an example of a fRed

parsage mph rcd

It

tune, ot t
r t ios S

1 e amoun

f work

interval sthedule. (p. 332) 16, d is thc ansrv (pp 3I r a. Park at d XPatson art oth associated with classical condtti ) sing n. Skioncr s ssociatca w itl operant cor dition log, and Bit dura is associated with observational learning. 17. a. is the anna er. On-line testing systems apply operant principles such as reinforcement, imme
diate teedhack, aod shapin.g to the teaching of

on
0

ix d r

Pa , on tommission, crcf re prc di table.

s thc at Br barr i a c put on your coat I Jore nong ou(sde, r ou I us e learued to reduce the as cult e srmulu of the cold p 32) a. Dis. imination learning ins olves learning to oteka a re onse in the presence of the appropri nulus 1 sr end not other timuli. b Puohhmer t is the suppression of an undesir the pr nntat n of ao a crn e rep tr Ins cc a s c resp nsc that operates on B Eu tim ens irt r r I herefc rc is is an example of perant. not lassical, conditi aning.

new skills. (p. 3371 B. & B. On-nrc testing 3tems pros ida iinmedi ate at d continuou- rein(orcement for correct rcponses but do not use as ersis e control proce dures sucl as punishn ent c. On-lint teshng s stems are based on feedback
for correct respooses; this feedback constitutes cooditioned. rather than primary, reinforcement. 18. B. is the answer. An approving nod from the boss

10. d. th the anus er. (p331) a. Intermittent reinforcement refers to the ratio of raspoilses to reinrorcers. not the overall quantits

of reinforcement delivered. knlike n t nittent reintc cement, in which the ci ak rcemc t is ontingcnt on re err ing sac m rctnforccment is delis ered F en Ic t cf F sub,cct s behas ior. ns de ws ) a techniq c of shaping not inter c ttent reinfo cement.
11. a. ts the aosa or P on are teaching your dog by ren arding him n hen he produces the desired behavior. (p. 32sf B. I h;s is om ciassital conctitioninc because the sOc w a nr sirs reinfor cr piesented after the

is a conditioned reinforcer in that it doesnt satis Pa an innate need but has become linked with desirable conscquenccs. Cessation ot cold, cessa tion of pain, and a drmk arc all primary rein forcers, as hid meet innate needs. (p 330) 19. a. is the ansu er. 1 aste-as ersioo experirr cuts dens onstrate conditioning es en with CS-US intervals
as long as several hours. (pp. 32l322(

B. Despite being peiceivable, a visual or auditors stimulus cannot become a CS for illness in some
animals, such as rats.

ant bc cd
i !it

it

f the dc , lctching the aper thins an rr cmf c t

Se lie I

c. Some an naP such as birds, are biologically pnmed s assocate thc p r inca of load with illr css. 20 c.sth
itt

start coot u. r 13 a. O
,,

dog c as reio)or
0

he

cot

a0 a

ProcI a 1st Ite,is 1. Fp. up

swtr

ft.

34(

d 0 14. d. i. tO i sn ee 4 ( r.t h learned the ma7e but isy I not 4 this P Sm a c until rciot )rcemeot inc i at a oh zeiscl ry opcr stl Pa ri r. 1cm i gt dis B n csn In ) i P U noah. romp hcco the em atitni
0

2. F p. 315; 3. F p. 4 lIp. 130)

5, p 301 6. I pp 2L 3i4(
7. PP 5170333 8. g (pp 2 122)

9, P p.. 3is 10. 1 (p. 11. Iis. 3-Ui

224

ChapterS I.earning

Psychology Applied
MultzpleChoice Questions 1. a. is the answer. Your dog had to learn to assocn ate the rattling sound with the food. Rattling is therefore a conditioned, or learned, stimulus, and aiir ation in response to thi rattling i a learned, 5 or onditioned, response. (p. 317) 2 c. s the ansn er. Reinforcement (the letter) comes after a tixed interval, and as the likely end of the intcrr al approaches, your behavior (glancing out the window) becomes more frequent. (p. 332) a & b. Ihece answers are incorrect because xvith ratio Lhedules, reinforcement is contingent upon the number of responses rather than on the pas Sage of time. d \ssuming that the mail is delivered at about the same time each day, the interval is fixed rather than r ariable. Your behax ior reflects this, since \ on glance out the window more often as the delivery time approaches. 3. h. is the answer. By taking out the garbage, Jack termmates an aversive stimulus his fathers nagging. (p. 2Q) a. Positir e reinforcement would involve a desir able stimulus that increases the likelihood of the response that preceded it. c. This answer would have been correct if jacks father had rewarded Jack for taking out the garbage by pror iding his favorite food. d. Punishment suppresses behar ior; lack is behar ing in order to obtain reinforcement.
.

7. d. is the answer, Sha

representation of the 334)

etta

is itt,

dod hr cc
nit I

mental P

a. Latent learning or learn i the we e reinforcement that is de no 010.1 \ en 1010forcement becomes or ailohk ha-. no Jo. Ci rolex once to the example b. ()hserr ational ]uadninc, lerow to hum hon watching others. c hapi ig is the tee ir qu fo i h sir e approxmiati it s I ci 8 c. is the ansirer. &cOUSi th wiatec .t was with i our i ther scream, a ietCC a fern response, and is thus the CO. p 9. a. is the ansir cr Your mothet roam and evi dent fear which naturailt c d on t ri, r is the PS. (p. 317) 10. d. is the ansvr er Your te, r i r (R A aquired fear is alit or s a c toncd mire (p. 317)
-!
-.

11. 1,. is the answer. Your crying,

a rtomaticanr

trIg

c. is the answer. Studies indicate that uhen a model says one thing but does another, subjects do the same and learn not to practice what they preach. (p. 344)

5, a. is the answer. \s in thi- example, conditioning must be consistent with the particular organisms h mc gical pci dispositions. tpp 33S 36) b S m behaviors, but certainl not all are aqu wd mow rapidh than others when shock is as nega tire reinfonement c. Piceons are able to acquire many nex\ hehar on xr hen food ic used a reinforcement. 6. a. ;s the er Ratio schedules maintain higher i respondinggambling in this example U in do interi al schedules. Furthermore, variable sch dules are not associated with the pause in responding follon ing reinforcement that is tt pi tived Schedules. The clot machine a nuld ai titiotort be used more often, and more consis tem:r if jackpow acre scheduled according to a i anal Ic-ratio schedule. (p 32)
ansir

gered by your mothers sa earn and feat a a the PR. (p. 317) 12, C. is the answer. (p. 33l a. Positive reinforceir or t r t e r boosting productir dv in thi i kpiac it c i spc cific behavior, rather than ran P defined gener al merit, 15 rewarded. \l0. initnedt ire rerntorce merit is much more effectu than the dclar od reinforcement described in a. b. Positive reinforcement a mos e if fir e In boosting produr liv i iii orr goal r t are achievable, rather I tar d. I he text does not s celtic en ire I punishment in the nrkriacc. lion or or, i makes the general point that .htl out UislitCflt mar temporarily suppress runt on rod br}ai :r it does not guide one toward more dinir,hir allOt Therefore a orkers v ho cc iv r I poor
performan e impr e in

ii

the

iv

trrvrr. 13. b. a ti 3d. di u, a t ad h learned Ovcrsio to a ma 10 0 li or a 0 car- hut also to 5 thai ow gr.av p aw re-pond ing a. 1\ hercar d ficrim inotio ii
-

onli to a particular stimulus bill 0 in flier orersi e recponc t igr well. c. Latent learning s Ic nu am
r

Inn;

his

ent onit after reinli

anie :11 1 a

d. Prtin finn C the n t akcnmrr a CS C no onri toil arib No I

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225

su or The gills arc imitating hohas ior C 14. b. i oherr ed and admL od, (p. 331) thor n a. Because thesc hehas mrs are dearly willful aihor man ins cluntari, clasbeal conot1onmg oicss LC tom c. Latent learning piar no role n this o\amplo, d. nhapng is a procedure for teaching the acqut non response hr reinforcing snccossno siriOn 01 approx narions of the hohas or.
15. a. is ti in st c Sr
r su er. Classical e iditmoning proceeds a ion tie CS a T S are reliably t d t d Br tnie or cci predict sbh assor mat ( m I is ft s hkciy to ho true p

was ox idontly motivatod hr the ikc bhood of a reward in mba form of a good grac c. & d. A good grade, ueh as the one lack is e\peetlng, is an inontco. Dris e, hots o. er. are aroused states that resalt trnm pbs heal dopii r a 5 tton; thor are not ins nit od. tn tin ex,tnnti. Essay Question The first step in shaping an operant r spouse 0c U as e r nicer, borne rolling ot or is to bud an offectis sort ot bisnit or dog treat is las roe a v ml train ernmr ers. This primars remnfo comc it I ) Id hr r m mm em it nied by effusive praise (soc nd s on xshenex er the dog riakes a Snece5 Ii Rolhg ox or (the goal rospo IsO shon 4 t e dix id ed into a series of simple apprr xa anon too first ni which is a response, such as lying dnnn on corn irrand, that is already b tile dogs coportoire. 1 his response should he reinforced set orai timer. The ilt-it step is to issue a comniand, such as Roil us er, and xx ithhold reinforcement untd the dog i risrla lh out or h 5 frustration) nrakes a closer approximation isu as rotating slighth in one directiuni. Polioning this example, tire trainer should gradnabs reqrm e closer and closer appr aximations until the ;oi rnponsc is attained, When the ness rospomsr has 1 0O estab

16. b. s h an rset, (p. 322 a, c, & d Taste-at orsior cscarrh demonstrates that nr r ins and some orner animals, such as rats, are hiologicalls primed to assocdato illness Sr ith tno taste of tainted food, rather than with other cues, such as tue tood s appearanco. hioroor or, taste as erions can be acquired ox on when the intors ai hotsr 0011 the CS and tile illness
is sot oral htors.

17.

d. P the nisivor, i3r mating

a more proforrod

acts i v w tohing I F) cor tmgont on a loss pro ft a t t (room do ning, Roggios mothor operant e nd [mr ing tochniquo s r ill r or n orcib 330) po

lished, the trainer should switch fr an rout nnous parhal reinforcement, n orde te strer them h e ski

329 pr

18. e, is e I 5555 or. The F arrot s reinforced for mak ing sUCCC5 ye approxir ratio s of a goal behavior, Tills d hue shaping. (p. 28 a. ShoT c is an operant cc nditioning procedure; sahsation at rho sight of dog biscuits is a classical is conditioned re-ponse. b. Snaring ins oh Os the st-teniatic refnforcornont of suecessiro if rrorinlattons of a more complex hobo ion in tills example there P no indication that the rspenso of stopning at the intersectIon tho nrausai ; o&sihon of simpler inveit

Key Terms
Writing Definitions
1.
L.earning is an relatis oh permanent chan.ge in an organism s behavior doe Ic esperienco. ip.

2. In

[oh
d c aiipk d rrsr
its

learn that c0iTsr 0 t ariations mit assteiatms e learning are L iassieai mmd tinning and. operant conditioning, ip. 3 l
associative learning. organisms yontc occur togothor. tam
IL

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19.
a is r
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x Ins 0 s 3, Also hr po of conditioning m n a am es car trai st f ho am ditmor d rrd r dshr withar

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4. Behaviorism s t i s lost B p ho an ohec is c - lance hint si

able iu t
precesses.

cast or i\inttnci t dn
ho

for its

tntrin, iii,iticitiOll it anting to do ns crd sfl tiii east, prosurnahiv, s(OiettnSia ; htgh r,,di is 0 cii ii k mi-ni at3 n, p. 1 151 a, I npte s ii uc, sam n xt or motivated h iti, 5 saNd. it heroas lack ,oFC toe tiLt
tn

hellos I0i5 withi ira. inn) Franc-ic: Because he a as cm earls ads orate at B sIt ids mit nberr able habit i ir i h if atsi in is often called tue tatlaor at lohax i,,rio.,

,r shoold Ps nix nb it 1010cc C to mental

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Chapter 8 1 earning

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

1L 12.

13

14.

classical conditioning, the unconditioned response (UR) is the unlearned, mx oluntarv response to the unconditioned stimulus, (p. 3] 7) In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is the stimulus that naturally and autom a tica liv triggers the reflexive uncund i tioned response. (p. 317) In classical conditioning, the conditioned re sponse (CR) i the learned response to a previ 5 ouslv neutral conditioned stimulus, which results from the acquired association between the CS and US. p. l7) in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimu lus (CS) Is an originally neutral ctimulus that comes to trigger a CR after association with an unconditioned stimulus. (p. 31 7) In a learning experiment, acquisition refers to the initial stage of conditioning in which the new re sponse is established and gradually strengthened In operant conditioning, it is the strengthening of a reinforced response. (p. 318) Fxtinction refers to the weakening of a CR ix hen the CS is no longer folloix ed hi the US; in operant conditioning extinction occurs when a response is no longer reinforced, (p. 319) Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period (p. 319) Generalization refers to the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the original CS to cx oke a CR. (p. 320) Discrimination in classical conditioning refers to the ability to distinguish the CS trom similar stimuli that do not signal a US. In operant condi tioning, it refers to responding dilterentl to stim uli that signal a hehax mr will he reinforced or will not he reinforced. (p. 320) Operant conditioning is a t\pe of learning in which behax Fir is strengthened it followed hi a reinforcer or diminished it folloxied hi a pun iher, ip. 32h) Fr;:Fc: F niike clas.Uai conditioning, which works on automatic hehai mrs. operant condi tioning ix orks on heha\ mrs that operate on the cm ironment.

17. F. I.. lhorndike proposed the law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by favorable

consequences are likeli to recur, and that behav iors followed hi unfavorable consequences become less likely. p. 327)
IS. An operant chamber (Sknu,ucr Fir)
is an experi mental chamber for the operant conditioning of an animal such as a pigeon or rat. I he controlled environment enables the investigator to present i isual or auditory stimuli, deliver reinforcement or punishment, and precisely measure simple responses such as bar presses or km pecking. (p. 327)

19. Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure for estahli.hing a new response by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired hehax mr. (p. 326)
-

is an cx ent that strengthens the behax ior it follows. (p. 329) 21. in operant conditioning, positive reinforcement strengthens a response hi presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after that response. (p. 329) 22, In operant conditioning, negative reinforcement strengthens a response by remnvzn< an aversix e stimulus after that response. (p. 329)

20. In operant conditioning, a reinforcer

23. The powers of primary reinforcers are inborn and do not depend on learning. (p. 330) 24. Conditioned reinforcers are stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power through their association with primary reinforcers, (p. 330) 25. Continuous reinforcement is the operant proce dure of reinforcing the desired response cx cry time it occurs, In promoting the acquisition ot a new response it is best to ue continuouc rein forcement. (p. 330) 26. Partial (intermittent) reinforcement is the oper ant procedure of reinforcing a response intermIttenth. A response that has been partiallx rein forced is much more resistant to extinction than one that has been continuoush reinforced. (ii.
35,]

15. Respondent behavior that which oc.ur a an .iiitomatic rosponso to sonic .timulus (p- 32t) I: nun plc: In classical conditioning, conditioned and unconditioned responses are examples of respondent behaior in that the. are automatic responses triggered b specific stimuli 16 Operant behaiior i behax or that operatis on the er x ironment, pr ducing consequemes (p

27. In operant conditioning, a fixed-ratio schedule s one in which reinforcement is presented after a set number of responses. (p. 331) Izrawlc: Continuous reinforcement i a pecia kind of fixed-ratio schedule: Reintorcement is presented after each response, so the ratio of rein forcements to responses is one to one.
28. In operant conditioning, a variable-ratio sched ule is one in which reinforcement is presented

after a xary ing number of responses. (p. 332)

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irniliar hut vague is to say, Ihat rings a bell. Sciifln I amilai to iian people, who may 0 h a ieh aivate that his research involved on ng hell Isjcal conditioning).
in hat

the do i as thinktng and teelang means to salivate or prm le n e srit, ft hen rood iLk, is placed in a dogs montO the wil automatically aiivate or drool b P 4 a tme 34 o ft hounded before (or precedes) tIn L in er a r, inn hut of trials, then the CS alone ill he able to elicit salix ation (CR). a. Jecided that the dou internal mental state anJ trehnn; usts not important in reaching drt standing of fundamental learning princi nd that focusing attention on cognitive se and led to tutile arguments fruitiess p
1S (n/a ft/I/ /ot,),

returned bniefix) when he smelled onion breath once more. [1 lie idiom shiver mx timbers has no simple explanation: it may he an old expression dating back to the days of wooden (timbered) sailing hips that would tremble or shiver in a storm, or alternativelx, it may hat e been used in the game of cricket to describe what happens when the cricket ball shakes and scatters slzizeis) the wooden wicket and stumps (timbers).j Page 320: Confronted by a pit bull, aiozia heart mat, confronted by a golden retriever, it probably will not. Pit hulls are dogs (iiot cattle) that are gener ally perceived as aggressive and potentially dangerotis; golden retrievers are dogs that are usually gen tle and friendly, Thus, when you encounter a pit bull, you mar experience physiological arousal (I/O/l? heart aitay race) and } ou mar experience fear, hut the sight of a golden retriex er it ill not likely cause the same reaction, Jo be able to tell the difference (di 5 criminate) between two stimuli (in this case, tn o types of dogs) is an adaptixe ability that has obvious survival ralue
!ace:

If the notna of cake baking flout/I ft aatn lag uhat is the US? Ihe CS? ft brat iou hake i ike in the oven, there is

nell (aoiiv) shah makes von sahate or aterznh) This is an exam hal/i nioutl P i s cii condit ting the taste of the cake in the I tis antomatically produces P ) fT no no is the CS, and, because of a t i or atior r th the T 5, it can now, by t aliva (thr (IT
\Toreos er th nile quail developed a for their capt s ird li(ht district. Iradi

Page 321:

Ihis means without an .willw-nilly forethought. intention, or purposeat random An organism does not randomly (willy nilla,) form asso
.

ciations, The associations have to be meaningful the CS needs to have informational value and he able to reliably predict the occurrence of the US. Page 321: So, even in classical conditioning, it is, especially with humans, not onh the simple CSP S association but also the thought that coiitits, The expression its the thought that counts recognizes that a persons intentions and moth ations (thoughts) are just as important as the actual hehan ion, Myers is making the point that cognitions (thoughit, pc/cap tio;is, expectation) are now viewed as being cniticallx important in the process of learning through ciasci cal conditioning. Page 32$: But it we sac in;,thl,r than Pt lot did, it as because we stand on ij c shoulders, This phrase is not to he taken literally; it simply mean that we non know more than Par mv did (we e Pal ticj hecaue we can build and expand on his great a ork ja:la his -hioindersL Paht 324: Former clot!: coca inc users often feel a tug when they again entounter cues (people, places) associated ruth prexious hiiphs, Crack cocaine users are drug addicts nrho use a drug that is a synthetic, hut very potent, form of cocaine (craft), lor those
who are attempting abstinence, the strong desire (tracing) for the drug may be a classically cond tinned responsc ((IT) to the sight or presence of pc )

it

r a red lamp hung in the window identified use is a brothel and the area of town populat cd hr maui brothels became knoun as the red-light i in Darnjans experIments with male quail a rid l,Irt ((5j WOs used to signal the arrival of a reneptir e t quail L S, which elicited sexual enae arousal h R 11 untuallu, the red light (CS) alone eiictud 5 arousal CR 3, and the male quail C\llOi 0 a ted to Per clue a neneral liking tprefercn e) for thu saee ith the red halrt It/u tcd-izpiit dictrct,.
i

ft ((or ria .i;ft up with his h1e-breathin( I troll al-n exnerienred extinction and -o tin toe, i- ut in. He recalls that the smell of n,.n th ( Si, no lonqer paired with the kissing 5 ine s 0 its ahalitr to .:i t/n;Le P This para rjh decurihu the end at the relationship (lreakmp Pt hi ginltr,t nil i,ntti,rba ii ho loi od to eat 5 annals and thus had hot, smelix breath (fire I ft repeated smell of onions or onion i / lJl() fit (PiP u ithout the PS (kissing) resulted in n of lift ondtoncd aroused state (CR), sequentlv the (S I st ft abilitf to get hun ci 1 ton! n p He later expener cc d :n rerorer (the extinguished (IT
to
-.

Focus on \ ocabulan and Language

229

c ((Ssi. I rese topic or pi us t(Ss) Ldted a ith taking the drug ibui a hich rrnertcre inc hR euphoric feelings or ;i;nl Drug we ad ised to at oid tstee clear of) the a IcEcts eoalc rt ted l 1. c t 0 ,akir S attn t On et tc
tt

procedure that ncx ands cien small inipnot ements

acre Cs

arid recognizes the hild ton making the effort to do better and better,
arc Fntte i sllences the I ige 320 Pushir g the annoshig alan n. 0 cn xc u r,dio ilarm goes off in the morning. you mar press the wmtch f-ren_e tnttee; uhich turns otf the rnitating tone ton a brief perrod ot tune. I or ensuing qcmiet period a rich n-ia?) atlo, s nu to on to. to ceo or a uhIe -nemc ar,d thc aoscnce of hc buzzer are negatis e rein toncers tor pushing he snoozr hutton. [hour button-

kfC?idit
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\\arson and

oh I ABe Albert was the first ins es r c parc might B h class cal condition thc r cess m dc e assed on to future genera [bus the son\ a a ing tron of psi cholegists i :t became a egendt and influ eiLccc ti,en rtseann.
oik a

pushing hehat ior ha been strengthened because it nemot ed an atensi o et ent, the alarm.) F ikeit ise, a

0 w rat I

0 honing

Ia aOl LEtS L,t CAL no. Dat Id hirers rs 444 haoing, run Iavrng with dte English language here. The expic ,sion Lo poll rabbits out of i haD refers to a v to i at t extract rabbits tron s c r en t h Cai on sec thc yap hirers a s mt has twisted this exprescion? Both classical and oper ant cond:t:onng mt oh e teaebing new habits to ar bUs oig uusue incioding rats, Followng classical c hi ung t (S nggws a w, respnnso trom nir u, re C S ails habit cc at 0 rat ), or t the sight or the lever may elicit the habit ot ]ever
pressing tonerant condItionIng;.

regular smoker (n tin i I Bet) may be negatn cit 8 non fo ced for ihih ig Ic bacco smoke (drag log on a ciga/: tic) because coing so diminishes the pain
mpangs,m associated
, ,

ith going

ithout the drrrg.

-

08 Flit

am ng pigeons hne cvcn been

ai i and Stra 4 sc ir i atc bctu en Ba Ii ht c t an. 1. 0 Bach and Stras inskr acre composers whnst tt les it nausical composition were quite dif Dreur. Through hapir.g (ret arding bchasiors that tnd oscr to the target or dcsrred re cbs a o t nsc I pOts hat ccii able 0 train pi I gc ins to discrirunate or chooso hchveen the two musical sounds, For example pigeons mat be re preying, and it crcied Inc pccnmg a dlk a hen Bach ngt F n S avmskv is pla ig Fr i Pt Fr I at i tu or a Ott as r I
is
-

Page 329 ce/in eft and getting a bad exam grade Students may score p iorlv on an exam because they were doing sc methnng unproducth e, such as aatching II instead of stud, ing Ither- tore goebmtg aTh. A- a consequence. thu may decide to change their behas ion and work hard to as omd further exani auxiets md the uupieasant possioility of getting a low grade. The new behas or mar he strengthened it it avoid the at ersit e ronsequences of anxiety negatit e reinforcenienti; in addihon, getting a good score on the exan can positmseh reinforce good I studs habits. Remembc r, reinforcers it either kind (posrtixe or negatn c) alit ys cticngthen behas ion.
,

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flu: the Flair that otten ontes within seconds [after taking drugs] ...Tne ternr inch as used here refers to a jolt of pleasurc (not is in to kick the ball Mt cns is in king the point that bchas iors such a smoking, dunking. and drug taking, in gen erai, are foliuwed bs some immediate pleasurable crinseouence, a Bach controls the oehavmor more than does he dc tied c usc cot e g. lung c mnccr, con a fl 0 los co,ntt mcnio F ieadachc tI e ne\t dat F h i:r A it rir i. ri' nip],
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A tnAdcr a teacher nbc paste a Pa;, 14 caB ten act ring hiP nnt s at r

hi stir sri i s 4 git s ckr and t phaih cliple tnen en a cimsroon bulletin -a a :,ll a: cf Or, sat, th ten heard a-n-a- (I;hut spe rs n Oc r iass, b at irtun itch, it only the cognized to lIt v s r 1 of i str c its i i lost moth a t hc 1 u t cm Li ti,_, iynn c their sor-Jng and Or b tcca r hErd her till oen t get C thu d.ont :ork onrnr Os a shap:ng mto is, 51 ens e e
to

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A a ilesp nun A ie u r nrak i alc with I to i itt sent ncr d cs u r g is tI salts talk itch) cst, lic Inc netcr ed to I crc that the a[vspersi n rises t promote the prod uct or entice. I he bite the angltr r [isltrmair, clre5 OUt gut refers to the tact that throw ing out the hue [t 1 (nip) does rot ls ass res it ii hsh b ing the bait The idea i that r uch F c ur behar ic A not intinuous a reinh tnt id hrrt ersits, neyuth.eless, by hehtg aatr h a fish artiailt cinont ed ecr make e salt only c nrc in i tt hilc dcspr nae rc sp scs) Thus,
Pan

3 1

230

Chapter S Iearning

termittent reu ards encourage the expectation of lutre reinforcement (hopr sJ1ing eternal) and create greater resjstance to extinction ot the behavior corn eared to a continuous schedule.
ii

Pay 3 I paid en a piecework basis This refers to situ iCons in n hich someone is paid for the number of it ms produced and not by the hour or the n eeki A ii orker gets paid only if he or she pro Juce so the number of responses (Le.. the number ot items produced is reinforced on a fixed-ratio schedule. n example would he factory worker sen mg shirts who would be paid five dollars for finished shirt (piecework). The more shirts she makes, the more mnone she earns, and thus the rate of responding is usually high.

Page ,333: d z La F m p hI n m c i bad consequen 0 m es. 5 mm a (a r m LI th 1 using punishment i that the nuhm Hi mom he torn 5 poraril suppressed in the p estot or the rurtmsher hut max reappear in other, semi sttnns (0 addi tion punishme it ma ict sSi( f r and apprehension ci d c a w in those being puni. L As \ n pu m ment teaches mm hat not to do, mm aeroas t ullttorcuivent teaches what to no.
. . .

Page 333: \o nonder

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32. thi fisiiin This refers to a sti le of fishing in nhich artificial insects, such as flies, are usd as bait to catch the fish. People who fh fish are reinforced only once in a while despite making main responses. This variable-ratio schedule ot reinforcement makes the target behavior very per sistent and hard to suppress (the behavior is very resistant to extinction) because ultimately the more responding, the more reinforcement.
Rqi 3 2. a hopp stop-start pattern When rein forcement is for the first response after a set time period (a fixed-interval schedule), responding is typically more frequent as the expected time for the reinforcer gets closer (draws near) and is much less frequent after the reward has been received. I he pafhrn of recponding is consequentit unex en (chop pa heca use cycles of post-reinforcement pauses fo]ion ed hi higher levels of responding (a ctop-tart ratter> are characteristic of the fixed-interval schedule,
eg 33 You begot mail h-mails can arrne at unpredictable times, so it is best to check on-line em em enc in while if you are expecting e-mail to in omcone SImm, steady responding like this, C maci of a variable-interval schedule, may he rein tore d m ith tie 3 on got mail announcement

[.S. parents of and 4 c r a d bet of meanings it a tic m someone or something P H mean to he popuhi r ta .r a oh callv punsh (lilt 01 nit) thema negatim elm reinforced fur cioiu ior is suppressed or eli nmnatr d then that spanking i t a s is a Jut) n ith so r tam r arc nts.
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a 3 the hild nho lnm. z ticat after running into t e -tiect Here the phrase P mm a tnat vters to the withholding of some pleasant conse 3uenta such as a candy bar or piece of cake appeti 1 tim e siimulus tolloxi ing some unix anted hehax ior. Ihi s one type of punishment; it decreases the robabilitr of the behavior being repeated. Another esair pie H tim out, in uhich the hild is put in a sit uch o- in the mimer) in which no reinnirce went O\ ailatilu,
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little relex ance as dcterminants of behavior corn pared to our iron nental factors nh as rexvard and c 11 inline ecs r t i I nwnts er p r
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iearnmg demonstrated that chtidren n ho san an adult eogage in t;ucdcli x iolent heha Dr (an i s/cc ant/ia; sf1 were more inclined to attack and heat up /aI; eat at) a i3oho doll and anflI (e;:,Ld,, tIe e 0 words and gestures used by t nie node

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Learning lnj Obsere a lion hleren Pee 144 dompaed ix ith 0 not exposed to 5 tt e adult mod lose xx h oF serx ed the models en L i t c e niuct no e tikely to lasn out ag
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1 e ed on the screen from a g c as: era 1hu the reel ,orld reter rorks, lies l\ world created F mor ie eor ahie compaoiec, etc. chic en I,a;. Mr er no-e that ted 0 the actual (t ni/) xx orid is not accurateir rehe ii nroxies, LV shows, video ganxes, ahie program flung, and so on (f/ia icc! a-a; ii. A ardnng tile ebes

11e sn e aggression and v;olence repn ted in 1 rnedte tends to be correlated isith iner wed accc a cc nd aggressix e attituues hidiherenec a x ion t a ts higher lex eis ol nt social I c has m