25

CHAPTERTWO
PLANESANDLINESINR3

2.1INTRODUCTION
Inthischapterwewillusevectormethodstoderiveequationsforplanesandlinesin
threedimensionalspaceR3.Thederivedequationswillbevectorequationsthatwewill
beableconvertintononvectorformequations. Wewillalsousevectorstofindthe
distancebetweenapointandaplane,apointandaline,andbetweentwolinesinspace
aswellastofindtheanglebetweentwoplanesandbetweentwolinesinR3.
2.2PLANESINR3
Aplaneisuniquelydeterminedinthreedimensionalspacebyeither:
1.givingtheorientationoftheplaneinspaceandgivingapointontheplane;or
2.givingthreenoncollinearpointsontheplane.
Theorientationofaplaneinspaceisspecifiedbygivingavector n thatisorthogonal
(perpendicular)totheplane.Suchavectorissaidtobeanormalvectortotheplane.
TheequationfortheplanederivedusingthenormalvectornandapointPontheplaneis
calledthepointnormalformoftheequationoftheplane.

Thepointnormalformequationforaplane
Let n =(a, b, c)beanormalvectortoaplaneandletthe
pointP=(x0,y0,z0)beapointontheplane.IfX=(x,y,z)is
anyotherpointontheplane,then,since n PX wehave
n PX = 0 . Let p = OP and let x = OX . Then

PX = PO + OX = OP + OX = OX OP = x p so the
equation n PX = 0 becomes n (xp)=0.Thisvector
equationfortheplaneiscalledthepointnormalform.

n
X
P
p

x
O

Forthenonvectorformofthisequationweusen=(a,b,c)andxp=(xx0,yy0,zz0).
Thenn (xp)=0becomes (a,b,c) (xx0,yy0,zz0)=0

26
ora(xx0)+b(yy0)+c(zz0)=0.
If we write n (xp) = 0 in the form n x = n p and then let n p = d we get
(a, b, c) ( x, y, z ) = d or in nonvector form ax + by + cz = d . This nonvector form
equationiscalledthestandardformequationforaplane.
Example
Ifaplanehasthenormalvectorn=(1,2,3)andpassesthroughthepointP=(4,5,6),
thenitspointnormalformequationis(1,2,3) (x4,y5,z6)=0.
Thestandardformequationofthisplaneisfoundbycomputingthedotproductaboveto
get (1)(x4) + (2)(y5) + (3)(z6) = 0 which when expanded becomes
x 4 + 2 y 10 + 3 z 18 = 0. Thissimplifiestothestandardformequationoftheplane
x + 2 y + 3 z = 32.

Planedeterminedbythreenoncollinearpoints
LetP,QandRbethreenoncollinearpointslyingona
plane.Tofindanequationfortheplanewemakeuse
ofthecrossproduct.Thevector n = PQ PR

is

n
R

anormalvectortotheplane.Usingthisnormalvector
withanyoneofthethreepointsontheplane,sayP,
P
Q
and using the pointnormal form equation from the
preceding section, will result in an equation of the plane. The following example
illustratestheprocedure.

ExampleAplanepassesthroughthreenoncollinearpointsP=(1,2,0),Q=(3,0,1)
andR=(4,2,3).Findastandardformequationoftheplane.
Solution
PQ = (3,0,1)(1,2,0)=(2,2,1)
PR = (4,2,3)(1,2,0)=(3,0,3)
2 1
2 1 2 2
= (6, 3, 6)
n = PQ PR =
,
,

0
3
3
3
3
0

n (x p) = 0 (6, 3, 6) ( x 1, y 2, z 0) = 0
6 x + 6 3 y + 6 + 6 z = 0

27
6 x 3 y + 6 z = 12
2 x + y 2 z = 4

2.2Problems
1. Findanormalvectortoeachofthefollowingplanes.
a.2x+3y+4z=5
b.x+3y2z=6

c.3x+5z=7

2. Findapointonthegivenplane,thenwriteapointnormalformequationforthegiven
plane.
a.3x+2y+3z=6
b.x+2y+3z=12
c.5x+2y3z=7
3. FindanequationfortheplanepassingthroughthepointPandhavingthevectornas
anormalvector.Writetheequationoftheplaneinstandardform.
a.P=(5,3,4)n=(2,3,1)
b.P=(4,1,2)
n=(5,2,3)
c.P=(2,1,6)n=(1,0,1)
d.P=(1,0,2)
n=(2,1,3)
4. Findanequationfortheplanepassingthroughthe3noncollinearpointsP,QandR.
Writetheequationoftheplaneinstandardform.
a.P=(1,2,3)Q=(2,1,4)R=(2,3,6)
b.P=(3,2,5)Q=(2,3,6)R=(4,7,5)
c.P=(1,0,1)Q=(1,1,1)R=(2,1,2)
d.P=(2,1,0)Q=(3,1,2)R=(0,3,4)

2.3LINESINR3
Alineisuniquelydeterminedinthreedimensionalspacebyeither:
1.givingtheorientationofthelineinspaceandgivingapointontheline;or
2.givingtwononcoincidentpointsontheline.
TheorientationofalineinspaceisgivenbyspecifyingavectorinR3thatisparallelto
theline.Theformoftheequationderivedusingavectorparalleltothelineandapoint
onthelineiscalledthepointparallelformequationfora
v
line.
X

x
p
O

28
Pointparallelformequationforaline
LetP=(x0,y0,z0)beapointonthelinelandletthevectorv=(a,b,c)beavectorthatis
paralleltothegivenlinel.IfX=(x,y,z,)isanyotherpointonthelinel,then PX = tv
uuu
r
for some scalar
t.
But
PX
can be written as
uuu
r uuu
r uuur
uuu
r uuur uuur uuu
r
PX = PO + OX = OP + OX = OX OP = x p ,hence PX = tv becomesxp=tvorx
=p+tv.Thevectorequationx=p+tv.iscalledthepointparallelformequationfor
alineinR3.Eachdifferentvalueofthescalartcorrespondstoadifferentpointlocated
ontheline.

Toobtainthenonvectorformparametricequationsforalinewestartwithx=p+tvand
write outthe vectorsasordered triples. Thisgives ( x, y, z ) = ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t ( a, b, c).
Equatingthecorrespondingcomponentsoneachsideproducesthreeequations. These
equationsarecalledthe parametricequations ofthelineandthescalart iscalledthe
parameter.
x=x0+at
y=yo+bt
z=z0+ct
Example
SupposethelinelpassesthroughthepointP=(1,2,3)andisparalleltothevector
v=(4,5,6).Itspointparallelformequationx=p+tvis(x,y,z)=(1,2,3)+t(4,5,6).
v
Equatingthecorrespondingcomponentswegetastheparametricequationsoftheline
thethreeequations: x=1+4t,y=2+5t,z=3+6t.
P
l
Twopointformequationforaline
IfthelinelpassesthroughtwodistinctpointsP=(x0,y0,z0)andQ=(x1,y1,z1)weusethe
pointparallel form with v = PQ = (x1x0, y1y0, z1z0). Equating the corresponding
componentsinthevectorequation(x,y,z)=(x0,y0,z0)+t(x1x0,y1y0,z1z0)resultsin
thenonvectortwopointformparametricequations:
x=x0+t(x1x0)
v
y=y0+t(y1y0)
Q
z=z0+t(z1z0)
P

29
Example
ThelinelpassesthroughthepointsP=(1,2,3)andQ=(4,6,9).Thetwopointvector
formofitsequationis
(x,y,z)=(1,2,3)+t(41,62,93)
or
(x,y,z)=(1,2,3)+t(3,4,6).
Equatingcomponents,thecorrespondingparametricequationsarefoundtobe

x=1+3t
y=2+4t
z=3+6t

Symmetricequationsforaline
Considertheparametricformequationsforalinex=x0+at,y=yo+btandz=z0+ct.
Ifa,bandcareallnonzero,wecansolveeachequationforttoget:
x x0
y y0
z z0
=t,
=t,
= t .
a
b
c
Eliminatingtbetweenthesesequationsgivesthesymmetricformequationsforaline:
x x0 y y0 z z0
=
=
.
a
b
c
Ifanyofa,borcequals0,thenthecorrespondingnumeratormustequal0.Thusfor
y y0 z z 0
=
exampleifa=0,thesymmetricequationsbecomexx0=0and
.
b
c

Example
Findasetofsymmetricequationsforthelinethatpassesthroughthetwopoints
P=(3,2,1)andQ=(4,5,6).
Solution
Thevector v = PQ = (4 3, 5 2, 6 1) = (1, 3, 5) isparalleltotherequiredline.Setting
(a,b,c)=(1,3,5)and(x0,y0,z0)=(3,2,1)wegetthesymmetricformequationsforthe
x 3 y 2 z 1
=
=
line
.
1
3
5

2.3Problems

30

1. Findapointparallelequationfortheline l thatpassesthroughthepointPandis
paralleltothevectorv.Findalsoasetofparametricequationsfortheline.
a.P=(1,2,3)v=(2,1,4)
b.P=(3,1,3)v=(4,2,5)
c.P=(4,1,5)v=(1,0,3)
d.P=(1,2,2)v=(2,3,1)
e.P=(2,0,1)v=(1,2,3)
f.P=(3,2,0)v=(0,1,3)
2. FindasetofparametricequationsforthelinelthatpassesthroughpointsPandQ.
a.P=(1,3,4)Q=(2,5,1)
b.P=(4,3,1)Q=(2,2,3)
c.P=(2,1,3)Q=(1,0,2)
d.P=(5,1,3)Q=(1,1,2)
e.P=(4,0,5)Q=(1,3,4) e.P=(2,2,2)Q=(3,3,0)
3.Findasetofsymmetricequationsforeachofthelinesofquestion2above.

2.4ANGLESBETWEENOBJECTSINR3

InthissectionwewilllookatwhatismeantbytheanglebetweentwoplanesinR3and
bytheanglebetweentwolinesinR3.Wewillusevectormethodstofindtheseangles.

Theanglebetweentwoplanes
Twoplanesthatarenotparalleltoeachotherwillintersect
eachother.Theanglebetweenthetwoplanesisequalto
theanglebetweentheirnormals.Unlesstheintersectionis
arightangle,twodistinctanglesbetweentheplanesare
created, an acute angle and the supplementary angle
180.Inthiscasewewillusethesmalleracuteangle
astheanglebetweenthetwoplanesandrefertoitasthe
dihedralanglebetweentheplanes.[DihedralcomesfromtheGreekwordsdismeaning
twoandhedrameaningface.]
Example
Findthedihedralanglebetweentheplaneshavingequationsx+2y+3z=4and
3x4y+2z=7.

31
Solution
Apairofnormalstothegivenplanesaren1=(1,2,3)andn2=(3,4,2).Thecosineof
theanglebetweenn1andn2is
n1 n 2
(1, 2, 3) (3, 4, 2)
38+ 6
1
=
=
=
cos =

n1 n 2
(1, 2, 3) (3, 4, 2)
1 + 4 + 9 9 + 16 + 4
14 29
1

1
= 87 .Sincethis
Usingacalculatorwefindthedihedralangleis = cos
14 29
angleislessthan90itistherequireddihedralangle.
Example
Findthedihedralanglebetweentheplaneshavingequations2x+3y4z=5and
4x2y+3z=6.
Solution
Apairofnormalstothegivenplanesaren1=(2,3,4)andn2=(4,2,3).Thecosineof
theanglebetweenn1andn2is
n n
(2, 3, 4) (4, 2, 3)
8 6 12
10
10
cos = 1 2 =
=
=
=
n1 n 2
(2, 3, 4) (4, 2, 3)
29
4 + 9 + 16 16 + 4 + 9
29 29
10
1
Usingacalculatorwefindtheangle = cos
= 110 .Sincethisangleisgreater
29
than90,thedesireddihedralangleis180110=70.

Skewlines
Two noncoincident lines in R2 are either parallel and
havenopointsincommonortheyintersectinexactlyone
point. In R3 there is another possibility. Two
noncoincident lines may be nonparallel and
nonintersecting.Suchapairoflinesaresaidtobeskew
lines. Theadjoiningdiagramillustratesapairofskew
linesthatdonotintersectsincetheylieinparallelplanes,
butthelinesthemselvesarenotparallel.Wedefinethe
anglebetweenskewlinestobetheanglebetweenapair
ofintersectinglinesthatareparalleltotheskewlines.

32
Whentwolinesintersect,iftheintersectionisnotatrightanglestwodistinctanglesare
formed,anacuteangle anditssupplement180 . Wewillusetheacuteangleto
describetheanglebetweenthetwolines.
Example
Findtheanglebetweentheskewlinesl1:x=2+3t,y=4t,z=3+2tand
l2:x=1t,y=5+2t,z=6+3t.
Solution
Thevectorv1=(3,1,2)isparalleltolinel1andv2=(1,2,3)isparalleltolinel2.The
anglebetweenthelinesisequaltotheanglebetweenthevectorsv1andv2.Letbethis
v1 v 2
(3, 1, 2) (1, 2, 3)
32+6
1
=
=
=
angle.Then cos =
andso
v1 v 2
(3, 1, 2) (1, 2, 3)
9 + 1 + 4 1 + 4 + 9 14
1 1
therequiredangleis = cos = 86 .
14
2.4Problems

1. Findthedihedralanglebetweenthefollowingpairsofplanes.
a.2x+3yz=5x+y+5z=2 b.x+2y+3z=42x+3y+z=1
c.x+y=17x+7z=2
d.2x+y+z=32x+2y=5
e.2x+2y=32x+y+2z=5 f.x+z=5x+4y+8z=12
2. Findthecosineoftheanglebetweenthepairsofskewlines.
a.x=1+t,y=23t,z=5+t andx=32t,y=5+4t,z=1t.
b.x=7+3t,y=1t,z=2+2tandx=2+t,y=32t,z=1+5t
x 3 y +1 z + 2
x 1 y + 3 z + 5
=
=
=
=
c.
and
2
2
1
3
3
2
x5 y +3 z +2
x2 y+2 z+3
=
=
=
=
d.
and
4
1
2
5
1
3
2.5DISTANCESINR3
Vectormethodsdevelopedinchapteronewillbeusedinthissectiontofindavarietyof
distancesinR3.Wewillfindthedistancebetweenapointandaplane;betweenapoint
andaline;andbetweentwolinesinR3.
Distancebetweenapointandaplane

33
LetPbethegivenpointandlettheplanehavetheequationax+by+cz=d.Anormal
vectortotheplaneis n =(a, b, c). LetQbeanypointontheplane. Thedistance
betweenthepointPandtheplaneisthemagnitudeoftheprojectionof QP

onn.

QP n
Now projn QP =
n andsothedistance= projn QP =
nn
uuu
r
uuu
r
uuu
r
uuu
r
uuu
r
uuu
r
QP

n
QP

n
PQ
n
QP n
n =
n =
=
. Since QP n = PQ n .
nn
n n
n
n
Example
FindthedistancebetweenthepointP=(2,1,3)andtheplane2x+y+2z=3.
Solution
AnarbitrarypointQontheplaneisQ=(1,1,0).Then QP = (2, 1, 3) (1, 1, 0) = (1, 0, 3)
andanormalvectortotheplaneisn=(2,1,2).ThedistancebetweenthepointPand
theplaneisthereforeequalto

QP n
n

(1, 0, 3) ( 2, 1, 2)
(2, 1, 2)

DistancebetweenapointandalineinR3
LetlbealinepassingthroughapointQandparallelto
thevector v. LetPbeapointnotontheline l. The
distancebetweenPand l istheperpendiculardistance
of the point P from l. In the adjoining diagram the
distance between P and l is the length of the line
segmentPD. Let betheanglebetween v and QP .
Thentherequireddistanceis
uuu
r
uuu
r
uuu
r
QP v sin QP v
PQ v
uuu
r
uuu
r
PD = QP sin =
=
=
v
v
v

2+0+6
4 +1+ 4

8
.
3

Example
Find the distance between the point P = (5, 7, 10) and the line having parametric
equationsx=2+3t,y=33t,z=4+t.

34
Solution
Thevectorv=(3,3,1)isavectorparalleltothegivenline.ThepointQ=(2,3,4)isa
pointonthelineso QP =(5,7,10)(2,3,4)=(3,4,6).
uuu
r
4 6
3 6 3 4
,
,
Also QP v =
= (22, 15, 21) .Therequireddistanceisequal
3 1 3 3
3 1
to

QP v
v

(22, 15, 21)

(3, 3, 1)

484 + 225 + 441

1150 25 46
=
=
.
9 + 9 +1
19
19

ThedistancebetweentwolinesinR3
Let l1 bealinethroughPthatisparalleltothe
vector v1. Let l2 be a line through Q that is
paralleltothevectorv2.Thevectorn=v1 v2is
a normal vector to both lines l1 and l2. The
distance between the lines is the magnitude of
the projection of QP on n. If is the angle
between QP and n,thenthe distancebetween

l1

v1

n
l2
v2

thelinesisequalto
uuu
r
uuu
r
uuu
r
QP n cos QP n PQ n
uuu
r
QP cos =
.
=
=
n
n
n

Example
Findthedistancebetweenthelinesl1:x=3+2t,y=53t,z=4+4tand
l2:x=1+t,y=2+2t,z=33t.
Solution
P=(3,5,4)isapointonlinel1andQ=(1,2,3)isapointonlinel2.ThevectorfromQ
toPis QP =(3,5,4)(1,2,3)=(2,3,1).Thevectorn1=(2,3,4)isparalleltolinel1
andthevectorn2=(1,2,3)isparalleltolinel2.Thenormalvectortolinesl1andl2is

35
3 4
2 4 2 3
= (1, 10, 7) .Thedistancebetween
,
,
thevector n = n1 n 2 =
1 3 1 2
2 3
thelinesis

QP n
n

(2, 3, 1) (1, 10, 7)

(1,10,7)

2 + 30 + 7
39
39
=
=
.
1 + 100 + 49
150 5 6

2.5Problems
1. FindthedistancebetweenthegivenpointPandthegivenplane.
a.P=(1,3,2)2x+2y+z=1 b.P=(3,5,4)3x+4y+5z=12
c.P=(1,0,2)2x+y+2z=1 d.P=(2,2,1)3x+y+z=9
2. Findthedistancebetweenthefollowingpairsofparallelplanesbyselectingapoint
ononeplaneandthenfindingthedistancebetweenthatpointandtheotherplane.
a.2x+2y+z=1,2x+2y+z=6
b.3x+y+z=9,3x+y+z=25
3. FindthedistancebetweenthepointPandthelinel.
a.P=(1,3,4)l:x=4+3t,y=5+2t,z=6+3t.
b.P=(5,6,4)
l:x=1+t,y=2tz=2+2t
c.P=(3,2,5)l:x=1t,y=tz=2+t
d.P=(2,3,1)
l:x=5+2ty=6+tz=4t
4. Findthedistancebetweenthetwogivenlines.
a.x=(1,3,2)+t(2,5,3) and x=(3,5,4)+t(1,0,1)
b.x=4+3t,y=5+2t,z=6+3tandx=1+t,y=2tz=2+2t
x 3 y +1 z + 2
x 1 y + 3 z + 5
=
=
=
=
c.
and
2
2
1
3
3
2
x5 y +3 z +2
x2 y+2 z+3
=
=
=
=
d.
and
4
1
2
5
1
3
5. Thelinelisparalleltothegivenplane.Findthedistancebetweenthelineandthe
plane.
a.l: x=(1,3,2)+t(2,5,3)
xy+z=1
b.l: x=(3,5,4)+t(1,0,1)
2x+3y2z=3
c.l: x=1+t,y=2t,z=2+2t 3x+5y+z=2

36

2.6INTERSECTIONS
Twodistinctplanesthatarenotparallelintersectinaline(diagramA). Alineanda
planethatarenotparallelwillintersectinapoint(diagramB).Twononparallellinesin
R3mayormaynotintersect.Iftheyintersect,theintersectionisapoint(diagramC).

Thelineofintersectionoftwoplanes
Let n1 and n2 be normals to a pair of intersecting
planes. Thenthevector v = n1 n2 isparalleltothe
lineofintersectionofthetwoplanes.IfPisanypoint
onthelineofintersection,thenwecanusethepoint
parallelformequationx=p+tvtogetanequationof
thelineofintersection.

Example

n1

nn2

P
P

vv

37
Findapointparallelformequationforthelineofintersectionofthetwoplanes2x+3y
+4z=1andx5y+6z=3.Also,findasetofparametricequationsforthelineof
intersectionofthetwoplanes.
Solution
Theplaneshavenormals n1 =(2,3,4)and n2 =(1,5,6). Thevector v = n1 n2 is
3 4
2 4 2 3
,
,
paralleltotherequiredline. v = n1 n 2 =
= (38, 8, 13) .To
1 6 1 5
5 6
find a point P on the line we must find a point that satisfies the two equations
2x+3y+4z=1andx5y+6z=3.Sincetherearetwoequationswiththreevariables
wesetz=0intheequationstoget 2x+3y=1

and x5y=3.
14
5
Solvingforxandyweget x =
and y = .Combiningthesevalueswithz=0we
13
13
14
5

getthepointP= , , 0 sothepointnormalformequationis
13 13
5
14
x= , , 0 +t(38,8,13).
13 13
14
5
+ 38t, y = 8t , z = 0 13t .
Theparametricequationsare x =
13
13

The intersection ofa plane and a line

Tofindthepointofintersectionofalineanda
plane we use the parametric form of the
P
equation of the line and the standard form
equationfortheplane. Substitutethevalues
for x, yandzfromthelineequationsintothe
equation of the plane and solve for the
parameter. Nowsubstitutethevalueoftheparameterinthelineequationstofindthe
pointofintersection.Thenextexampleillustratestheprocedure.
Example
Findthepointofintersectionofthelinex=1+t, y=2t, z=3+2tandtheplane
4x+yz=6.
Solution
4x+yz=6

4(1+t)+(2t)(3+2t)=6

38
t=3.

4+4t+2 t32t=6

Substitutingt=3intothelineequationsgivesx=1+3=4,y=23=1,z=3+6=9.
Thepointofintersectionistherefore,P=(4,1,9).

Theintersectionoftwolines
To determine whether two lines in R3 have a point in common we equate the
correspondingpartsoftheirparametricequationsandsolvefortheparameters. There
willbethreeequationswithtwovariables(parameters).Ifthissystemdoesnothavea
solution,thelinesdonotintersect.Ifthesystemhasasolution,substitutingthevaluesof
theparametersintotheparametricequationsgivesthepointofintersection.

Example
Findthepointofintersectionofthelinesl1:x=1+2t,y=3+t,z=2+3tand
l2:x=1+s,y=2+s,z=1+2s.
Solution
1+3t=1+s
3+t=2+s
2+3t=1+2s

2ts=0
ts=1
3t2s=1

(1)
(2)
(3)

Solvingequations(1)and(2)fortandsgivest=1ands=2.
Thesevaluesalsosatisfyequation(3),sothesystemhasasolutionandthepointof
intersectionisfoundbysubstituting t =1(or s =2)intothelineequations. Thusfor
exampleifwesubstitutethevalue t =1intotheequationsforthefirstlineweget
x=1+2(1)=3,y=3+1=4,z=2+3(1)=5.Thepointofintersectionis(3,4,5).
[Notethatifinsteadwesubstitutes=2intotheequationsforthesecondlinewewillget
x =1+3=3, y =2+2=4, z =1+2(2)=5andsofind(3,4,5)isthepointof
intersectionasbefore.]

39

Example
Showthatthelines
and

x=1+2t,y=3+t,z=2+3t
x=1+s,y=2+s,z=1+3sdonotintersect.

Solution
1+2t=1+s
3+t=2+s
2+3t=1+3s

2ts=0
(1)
ts=1
(2)
3t3s=1 (3)

Solvingequations(1)and(2)givest=1ands=2.However,substitutingt=1ands=2
intothelefthandsideofequation(3)gives3(1)3(2)=3 1,soequation(3)isnot
satisfiedandhencethereisnopointofintersection.

2.6Problems
1.Findasetofparametricequationsforthelineofintersectionofthefollowingpairsof
planes.
a.x+2y3z=4and2xy+z=1
b.3x+2yz=1and4x+2y+z=
3
c.3x+yz=5andx+y+2z=3
d.xy+2z=4and2x3y+2z
=1
2.Findthecoordinatesofthepointofintersectionofthegivenlineandplane.
a.x=2+t,y=1+t,z=2t x+y+z=6
b.x=4t,y=2+2t,z=3t
2x+y+z=7
c.x=2+t,y=3t,z=1+4t 2x+3y+z=1
d.x=(1,4,1)+t(2,1,2)
(1,1,1) x=4
3.Determinewhetherornotthefollowingpairsoflinesintersect.Iftheydointersect,
findthecoordinatesofthepointofintersection.
a.x=2+t,y=1+t,z=2t and
x=6s,y=5s,z=72s
b.x=2+t,y=3t,z=1+t and
x=5s,y=6s,z=112s
c.x=4t,y=2+2t,z=3tand x=1+s,y=2s,z=4s

40
d.x=2+t,y=1+t,z=2tand x=5+s,y=4s,z=1+2s

2.7DIRECTIONNUMBERSANDDIRECTIONCOSINES
TheorientationofalinelinR3hasbeenspecifiedbygivingavectorv=(v1,v2,v3)that
isparalleltotheline l. Since cv =(cv1, cv2, cv3)isalsoparallelto l weseethatany
orderedsetofthreenumbers(a,b,c)thatareproportionalto(v1,v2,v3) willsufficeto
give the orientation of the line l. We call any
z
ordered set of three numbers (a, b, c) that are
proportional to (v1, v2, v3) a set of direction
numbers fortheline l. Ifwearegivenasetof
l
direction numbers for a line we know its
orientationinspace.
y
Since the orientation of a line l in R3 is not
changedifwemoveittoanewlocationbutkeep
paralleltothedirectionofthelinelinitsoriginal
position,wecanrestrictanyfurtherdiscussionto
linespassingthroughtheorigin.

it
x

Directionangles
Let,and betheanglesthatthelinelpassing
through theoriginmakes withthe positive xaxis,
positiveyaxisandpositivezaxisrespectively.The
angles,andarecalledasetofdirectionangles
forthelinel.Theorientationofalineinspacecan
bespecifiedbygivingthedirectionanglesinsteadof
asetofdirectionnumbers.

l
P(a,b,c)

x
Directioncosines
IfthepointP=(a,b,c)isonthelinelthenthevector OP isequalto
OP = (a, b, c ) (0, 0, 0) = (a, b, c) .

41
Since OP liesonl,thesetofnumbers(a,b,c)areasetofdirectionnumbersforlinel.
Ifwenowlet d = OP , thenthecosinesofthethreedirectionangles , , are
a
b
c
, cos = and cos = .Thesecosinesareproportionaltoa,b,candform
d
d
d
aspecialsetofdirectionnumbersforthelinelcalledthedirectioncosinesofl.
cos =

TheoremIf cos , cos , cos arethedirectioncosinesofalinel,then

cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 = 1.
ProofLetP=(a,b,c)andlet d = OP .
Then cos 2 + cos 2 + cos 2 = ( a d ) + ( b d ) + ( c d ) =
2

a 2 + b2 + c 2 d 2
= 2 =1
d2
d

Example
ThelinelpassesthroughthepointsP=(1,3,4)andQ=(5,4,7).Findasetofdirection
numbersandasetofdirectioncosinesforthelinel.
Solution
PQ = (5,4,7)(1,3,4)=(4,1,3)soasetofdirectionnumbersforlis(4,1,3).
2
2
2
Sinced= PQ = 4 + 1 + 3 = 26 ,asetofdirectioncosinesforthelinelis

cos =

4
1
,cos =
,cos =
26
26

3
.
26

2.7Problems
1. Findasetofdirectionnumbersandasetofdirectioncosinesforthelinethrough
pointsPandQ.

42
a.P=(1,2,3)Q=(3,5,4)
c.P=(2,2,1)Q=(3,4,4)

b.P=(3,5,4)Q=(7,6,5)
d.P=(5,6,7)Q=(4,3,2)

2.Findasetofdirectionnumbersanddirectioncosinesforthefollowinglines.
a.x=1+t,y=23t,z=3+4t b.x=2t,y=3+2t,z=4
c. x = (2,3,1) + t (4, 2,3)
d. x = (5,1,3) + t (3, 0 4)
3. FindasetofparametricequationsforthelinepassingthroughthegivenpointPand
havingthegivensetofdirectionnumbers.
a.P=(2,5,1)
(a,b,c)=(3,2,4)
b.P=(3,2,1) (a, b, c)=(1,0
2)
c.P=(4,1,3)(a,b,c)=(3,0,2)
d.P=(5,0,2)
(a,b,c)=(2,1,2)
4. FindastandardformequationfortheplanepassingthroughthepointPandhavinga
normalwiththegivensetofdirectionnumbers.
a.P=(2,5,1)
(a,b,c)=(3,2,4)
b.P=(3,2,1) (a, b, c)=(1,0
2)
c.P=(4,1,3)(a,b,c)=(3,0,2)
d.P=(5,0,2)
(a,b,c)=(2,1,2)