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Alloys
I) Introduction Metals possess many useful properties, such as high malleability, ductility, luster, good electrical conductivity, tensile strength, toughness, etc. When metals are extracted from their natural sources i.e. minerals or ores. The pure metals are very soft, highly chemically reactive, highly malleable and ductile. Also during extraction of pure metal loses some vital characteristics and becomes practically less useful for engineering purposes. The high chemical reactivity makes pure metal susceptible to corrosion. The properties of pure metals can be improved by alloying the pure metal with another suitable metal/ non-metal. For example, Pure iron can be alloyed to get steel (Fe, C- non metal, Ni & Cr) An alloy is a solid homogeneous mixture of two or more elements out of which one must be metal. An alloy is a substance/material formed by solidification of metallic solution of two or more metals/elements. An alloy is a solid solution where the solutes are the alloying elements whereas the solvent is the element in excess proportion of base or main metal. Purpose of making alloys: Metals are used as a basic material in making various machines, used in industries, household articles or other areas like agricultural, railways, bridges, buildings, ships, etc. But the most important properties of metal are been lost/ reduced. This affects the efficiency of metals during operation under different conditions. Thus alloys help in getting the desirable performance in the given service conditions economically i.e. the main purpose of alloying the meta is to improve Hardness, Tensile strength, Corrosion resistance, Cast ability, Colors etc. while to decrease, Melting point Malleability and ductility and Chemical reactivity. Elements Aluminum Boron Chromium Cobalt Copper Lead Special Effects Deoxidizer Harden ability Harden ability, corrosion & oxidation resistance & Increases high temp. strength Hardness Resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Mach inability
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Manganese Molybdenum

Harden ability & increases strength Harden ability & increases strength, corrosion resistance. Nickel High harden ability, increases strength & toughness. Niobium Increases strength, retards tempering & impart a fine grain size. Phosphorus Mach inability, corrosion resistance, strength & hardness. Decreases ductility. Sulphur Mach inability & lower ductility. Silicon Improves Oxidation stability & strength. Titanium Helps to fix carbon as inert particles & Prevent formation of austenite. Tungsten Hard & abrasion resisting film, Imparts high temp. Hardness & creep strength. Vanadium Harden ability. Improvement in characteristics Sr No 1 Characteristic Main metal Alloying elements Hardness Pure Lead Modification in properties of metal 0.5%Arsenic Hardness of lead improves & it is used to make bullets copper

Ornament of gold are prepared as hardness of gold improves Pure Iron Carbon (up Hardness to 1.5%) of iron improves in the form of steel Pure Tin & zinc alloy is copper harder than pure copper

Pure gold

Tensile strength

Pure Iron

Carbon (1%)

Corrosion resistance

Pure iron

Chromium & Nickel

Cast ability

Pure lead

Tin, Antimony

Color

Silver (white) Silver (white) Copper ( red )

Gold (yellow) Tin(white) Zinc ( white)

Melting point

Pure iron Carbon (2%) M.P.=1539 Bismuth M. P.=271 Cd (321) Pb (327) Sn (232)

Malleability& ductility

Gold Copper

Copper Zinc

Ten times increase in tensile strength of iron Alloy does not get corroded even in presence of acid & moisture Cast ability of this alloy improves & hence it is used in making printing type The alloy is purple in color The alloy is pink in color The alloy is yellow in color Melting point is decreased to1130 Melting point of alloy woods metal is only 71 As alloy is less ductile & malleable

Chemical Iron reactivity

malleability of gold is decreased by addition of copper & same property of copper is decreased by zinc Chromium & Metals are Nickel are chemically highly reactive & alloys are less reactive

II) Types of alloys: (Two types) On the basis of Fe (1) Ferrous alloys & (2) Non-ferrous alloys Non-ferrous alloys i) Alloys of aluminum ii) Alloys of copper iii) Alloys of lead Alloys of AluminumThese alloy materials have higher percentage of aluminum, with other element such as Cu, Mn & Mg. Element Composition i) Duralumin Al = 95% Cu = 4% Mn = 0.5% Mg = 0.5% Properties It is light weighted, Tough, Highly ductile, Easily cast able, Good conductor of heat & electricity, & Corrosion resistant is less compared to pure aluminum but it is increased by al cladding It is strong, tough & lighter than aluminum.
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Uses It is used in aircraft industry. It is also used in making surgical instruments &cables, automobile & locomotive parts It

ii) Magnalium Al = 70-95%

It is used for making scientific instruments,

Mg = 30-5%

It possesses balances mechanical properties parts, etc. similar to brass

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Alloys of CopperThese alloy materials have higher percentage of copper, with other element such as Zn, Ni, etc. There are two types i) Brasses Brass is alloy of Cu & Zn Properties of brass varies with % of zinc ideal % of Zn is in the range of 10 45% 1. Low brasses : Zn % is less than 25% it is softer used for making ornaments & table wares 2. High brass : Zn % is more than 25% it is harder it is of great engineering importance 3. If % of Zn should not be more than 40% as it will become brittle ii Ii] Bronze: Bronzes containing up to 5% Sn are ductile , ductility gradually decrease with Sn Difference between brass & Bronze Brass Bronze 1. Alloy of Cu & Zn Alloy of Cu & Sn 2. Corrosion resistance is less Corrosion resistance is high 3. Zn is cheap so brass is cheap It is expensive as Sn is costly 4. Less stronger & harder More stronger & harder 5. Difficult to machine because Bronzes are easily machined of its toughness Element Composition Brass i) Commercial brass Cu = 90% Zn = 10% ii) German silver (Nickel silver) Cu = 50-62% Zn = 20-18% Ni = 30-20% Properties Uses

Golden in color, hard Architectural metal and stronger than works, jewellery, copper hardwares, screws, forgings, rivets, etc. With increasing % of It is used for making Ni, color is white (like decorative articles, silver). Highly utensils, table wares, resistant to corrosion cutlery, ornaments, etc. in sea water, strong, It is also used as malleable, ductile, coinage material resistant to stains. Alloy with 18% Ni is used for making contact spring in telephone exchange It is used as base for

electroplating Bronze i)Gun metal Cu = 85% Zn = 5% Sn =% Pb =5% ii) High/Low phosphor bronze Cu = 80.6-86% Sn = 10-13% P = 0.4-1% It is highly strong, can It is used for hydraulic resist explosion, hard fittings, high pressure & tough. steam plants, marine pumps, water fillings, etc. Good strength & It is used for springs, resistance to corrosion turbine blades, pumps, under sea water, boiler fittings, bearing castable, can be rolled plates, gear wheels, or drawn into wires. taps, etc. Abrasion resistant, hard, brittle, low coefficient of friction.

Alloys of leadThese alloy materials have higher percentage of lead, with other element such as Sn, Bi, Cd. These alloys are commonly known as solders. Element Composition Properties Uses i) Wood metal Stable, Melting It is useful as a low o Bi = 50% point71 C & Density melting solder, low Pb = 25 9.7 gms/cu.cm temperature casting Sn= 12.5% It is harmful by metal. Also it is used Cd= 12.5% inhalation & may be as filter & for repairing harmful to skin. Skin antiques. It is used for & eye irritant. making fire alarm and water sprinkler It is also used for making safety plugs for pressure cooker & milk cooker ii) Titmans solder Low melting alloys It is used for joining Pb = 34% articles of tin & also Sn = 66% used for tinning III) Recent advances in alloys related materials: Powder Metallurgy: Powder metallurgy is the process of blending fine powdered materials, pressing them into a desired shape (compacting), and then heating the compressed material in a controlled atmosphere to bond the material (sintering).

It is the art or science of manufacturing useful metallic or alloy article by compacting the metal powder or alloy powder in a die with little no melting followed by sintering. The powder metallurgy process generally consists of four basic steps: (1) Metal powder preparation (2) mixing & blending, (3) compacting (4) Presintering (5) sintering [A] Metal powder formation: Metal powders are generally pure products. Their degree of purity, particle size and shape depends on the method by which the metal powder is manufactured. The following methods have been used in powder production. 1) Mechanical Communication (Processes)Grinding & milling using Ball mill, Vibration mill, Planetary mills (material to be ground takes place primarily through the high-energy impact of grinding balls in rotating grinding bowls), Attritor (stirred) mills (It s manufactured by using superior grade of steel.), Roller mills, Cold steam process, Eddy & jet mills (it is best spiral palter), Mechanical alloying & Using metal chips. 2. Mechanical pulverization: It involves mechanical pulverizes consisting of either counter rotating plate or rapidly moving hammer followed by milling e.g. Method is used for metals like Al, Mg & Pb & Zn 3. Atomization: Steps- Melting Solidification Disintegration of melt Capillary drop, Liquid atomization & Gas atomization In this method, liquid metal is forced through a small orifice or nozzle in a stream of air or water & jet of liquid is broken down by blast of compressed gas. Now a day the metal is atomized by striking a rapidly rotating disc. E. g. Al, Mg, Pb Zn Cd & Sn
4. Chemical reduction: This method involves heating metal

oxide in a current of hydrogen which reduces oxide to get pure spongy metal (tungsten) powder which is suitable for cold pressing due to its softness & plasticity. 5. Electrolytic process: When conventional electrolysis is carried out, a powder gets deposited on the cathode surface. The powder is scraped first then washed, dried & then pulverized further to get powder of desired size e.g. Fe, Cu, Ag 6. Decomposition: A typical precipitation method includes preparation of a carbonyl vapors by passing carbon monoxide at a high temperature over the heated metal and producing powder by
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precipitation. e.g. Fe(CO)5 or Ni(CO)4 on decomposition yield very pure Fe & Ni powders [B]Mixing & Blending: Metal powders of desired proportions are uniformly mixed. The mixing is done by choosing the desired metal powders required for the jobs, in appropriate proportions. For effective blending, agents such as lubricants, volatilizing agents or non-metallic particles are also included, which are made to get distributed homogeneously, with the metal powder. Particles with same size, shape and density get mixed very effectively giving perfect homogeneous mixture, whereas if size or shape or density is different amongst the particles, then uneven mixing results. [C] Compacting: Definition: It is a process of obtaining the desired shape of definite dimension from the loose powders. The blended& mixed metal powders are then fed into suitable dies to give them desired shape. This process requires specific pressure. This is an important step in powder metallurgy, because proper shape of finished product governs many properties. It is important because, It reduces void space between metal particles, It increases density of compact, It produces adhesion & cold welding of powders & It facilitates the sintering operation, By deforming the powder plastically & By increasing the contact areas between the powder particles. The compacting is carried out in either hydraulically or mechanically operated press. The dies are usually made of high grade hardened steel with fine finish. The solid mass is called Green Compact It is divided in to following types. 1. Cold compacting: The bulk powder with or with out lubricant or binder is compacted in rigid dies by axially loaded punch. Pressure is applied from both upper & lower & upper sides. It is very economical for mass production. 2. Powder injection molding: The metal powder is converted into moldable state by mixing with binder. Binder also provide green strength & and great stability. Usually heating is done in order to force it through spruce & running channel. Uses: It is used for preparing parts with complicated shapes from materials like cemented carbide, tungsten, heavy alloy & ceramics. 3. Cold powder extrusion: The plasticized powder is forced by piston or screw into a die so that so that product of uniform cross section likes tubes & rods are produced. Plasticizer used in this process is organic binders with medium & high viscosity.

4. Roll compacting: It involves passing metal powder in the gap

between two rollers. This technique is used for producing strips & sheets used in electrical batteries, electronic tubes & thermostats. 5. Hot compaction: Compaction is done at higher temperature & pressure. The powder is placed in a rigid die & compacted using direct current or induction currents. The material used for tooling is graphite, tungsten & cobalt alloys fiber reinforced fiber, heat resistant alloy. [D] Pre sintering: It is process of heating compacted powder below sintering temperature. Main principle behind this process is to remove lubricant & binder. Prsintering is required for metal like tungsten because it becomes difficult to machine after sintering [E]Sintering: Definition: It is process of heating presintered material just below the melting point but not up to melting point in a furnace in hydrogen atmosphere. The sintering operations consist of following steps: Heating the compacted components in furnaces provided with controlled atmosphere, Soaking & Cooling. The heating is done keeping temperature below the melting point of all principal constituents of compact, or in certain cases at least any one constituent of compact. The different types of furnaces used for sintering operation are; Belt type, Walking beam type, Sealed high temperature batch type, Pusher type, Roller hearth type & Vacuum type. In most commonly employed commercial sintering operations, controlled atmosphere applied/maintained, is with respect to endothermic gas, nitrogen-hydrogen mixture, exothermic gas, cracked ammonia, etc. Metal ceramic powder: Ceramics are those compounds which lie between metallic & non metallic elements The traditional & commonly used silicate ceramic are naturally occurring raw materials such as clay, kaolin, etc. However the processing of advanced ceramics requires pure & well defined powders, which are generally made synthetically. Further, the manufacture of ceramic parts is more or less similar to powder metallurgy processing. Therefore advanced ceramics are also usually considered under powder metallurgy products. Ceramic powders are synthesized by employing a wide variety of techniques which yield powders of varying particle size distribution & varying properties. e.g. Chemical & Phase composition, purity, compatibility & senterability.

Sinter grade powders for producing dense fine grained parts must be produced in the lower micron or even sub micron range. Coarse powders are used in abrasives (Al2O3.SiC) & in refractorys (Al2O3.ZrO2 mullite). Some general methods of producing ceramics powders are as follows, 1) Solid state reactionsMany of the oxide ceramics are produced by thermal decomposition of hydroxides, carbonates, oxalates, sulfates & other suitable compounds by the conventional techniques. Depending on temperature & reaction time, loose or agglomerated powder or a sintered cake is produced, which can be milled to obtain the desired particle size. 2) Solid gas reactionsThis method is used for synthesizing oxides, carbides & nitrides by the reaction of metals with oxygen, hydrocarbon & nitrogen or ammonia respectively. 3) Gas phase reactionsThis method is useful for producing ceramic powders having high specific surface area (100m2g-1 & higher). The process comprises of vapor phase decomposition or hydrolysis in a flame & is specially used to produce SiO2 & TiO2 from TiCl4 & SiCl4 respectively. SiCl4 + 2H2O SiO2 + 4HCl 4) MeltingCeramic oxides such as Al2O3 & ZrO2 are manufactured by arc melting with subsequent milling to produce the desired particle coarse grade powders required for the manufacture of refractory materials. 5) Reactions from solutionAqueous or non-aqueous solution of salts is the precursor in several techniques for producing ceramic powders. This process yields very fine powders & uniformly distributed powder mixtures. This process can be carried out by any of the following techniques, Precipitation & Filtration Hydro-thermal reaction, Solution combustions, Solvent vaporization or Dehydration & Sol-gel process. IV) Applications of Powder metallurgy: The method is used to manufacture products such as: Refractory materials Oil pump gears Babbitt bearings for automobiles
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Ferrous products Electrical contact materials Diamond impregnated tools Sintered metal friction material Alloys like Ferro chromes, solders, woods metal etc. Filament of electrical bulb which is normally made up of tungsten Electrical bell Advantages: 1. Energy saving technique 2. Rate of production is high 3. Dimensional accuracy is excellent 4. Surface finish is excellent 5. Life of component part is longer 6. Products are defect free with uniform structure 7. Properties of parent components are retained 8. Complex shape articles can be produced 9. No loss of material 10. Woods metal, Titman & tungsten carbide can de prepares by this method Disadvantages: This process is not suitable for manufacturing small number of articles because of high initial investment on tooling, die casting & other equipments 2. Uniform density is not maintained 3. Product obtained is porous so it is not resistant to corrosion 4. Process is not suitable for metals like Zr; Ti as these metals in powder form may explode & cause fire hazards 5. Desired size & shape of die is limited by available die pressing capacity 6. Higher precaution is required wile storing as powder may undergo oxidation which may result into wastage. 7. Precision dies are costly. V) Manufacturing of oxide & non-oxide ceramic powders: 1. Alumina (Al2O3): This is the most important oxide ceramic & is produced in large scale in powder form & to a wide variety of specifications. Very high purity alumina (>99.99%) are produced by the decomposition of high purity aluminum based salts. Powders of lesser purity are produced from bauxite via the Bayer process. After separating Al2O3 from Fe2O3 & other oxides by converting into sodium aluminates, the latter is converted into Al (OH) 3 by hydrolysis which is then calcined to Al2O3.

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It is used in various ceramic applications such as cutting tools, spark plugs, machine parts, electronic parts, Bio ceramics, Chinaware, special glasses, sodium lamp, etc. 2. Silicon carbide (Sic): This is the most important non oxide ceramic which is widely used for abrasives or wear resistant material. The Silicon Carbide is hexagonal & stable & sic is cubic in structure. The Sic which is stable form is first manufactured in 1891 by Acheson process by following reaction SiO2 + 3C Sic + 2CO The starting material is pure sand, petroleum coke; some saw dust to decrease packing density and 1-3 % of NaCl for purification. This is heated with graphite electrodes at 2000 to 23000C for 30 hours. Sic is obtained by gas phase reaction of SiCl4 with hydrocarbons. SiCl4 + CH4 Sic + 4HCl Uses: Widely used for abrasives, clay bonded or porous recrystalized high temperature or wear resistant material.

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