The OSI Model

Overview
When networks first came into being, computers could typically communicate only with computers from the same manufacturer. For example, companies ran either a complete DECnet solution or an IBM solutionnot both together. In the late 1970s, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to break this barrier. The OSI model was meant to help vendors create interoperable network devices and software in the form of protocols so that different vendor networks could work with each other.
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The OSI model describes how data and network information are communicated from an application on one computer, through the network media, to an application on another computer. The OSI reference model breaks this approach into layers. Layers Departments If programmers are developing a protocol for a certain layer, all they need to concern themselves with is the specific layers functions, not those of any other layer.
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Advantages of Reference Models

1.

2. 3. 4.

divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components, thus aiding component development, design, and troubleshooting. allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of network components. allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate. prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not hamper development.
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The Seven Layers of the OSI Model

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The OSI has seven different layers, divided into two groups.
The top three layers define how the applications within the end stations will communicate with each other and with users. The bottom four layers define how data is transmitted end-to-end.

The OSI reference model remains today the most popular means of comparison for protocol suites.
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Typical Layer functions

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Application Layer (Layer 7)

where users actually communicate to the computer.
Take the case of Internet Explorer (IE).

is also responsible for identifying and establishing the availability of the intended communication partner Typical protocols
World Wide Web (WWW) File Transfer Protocol (FTP) E-mail (SMTP)
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The Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

presents data to the Application layer and is responsible for data translation and code formatting. by providing translation services, the Presentation layer ensures that data transferred from the Application layer of one system can be read by the Application layer of another one. Tasks like data compression, decompression, encryption, and decryption are associated with this layer.
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Presentation Layer Protocols

TIFF Tagged Image File Format; a standard graphics format for high-resolution, bitmapped images. JPEG Photo standards by the Joint Photographic Experts Group compresses images MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface - used for digitized music. MPEG Moving Picture Experts Group - standard for the compression and coding of motion video for CDs. QuickTime - For use with Macintosh programs; manages audio and video applications. RTF Rich Text Format, a file format that lets you exchange text files between different word processors, even in different operating systems.
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The Session Layer (Layer 5)

is responsible for setting up, managing, and then tearing down sessions between Presentation layer entities. provides dialogue control between devices, or nodes. To sum up, the it basically keeps different applications data separate from other applications data.
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Session layer protocols

Network File System (NFS) - Developed by Sun Microsystems and used with TCP/IP and Unix workstations to allow transparent access to remote resources. Structured Query Language (SQL) - Developed by IBM to provide users with a simpler way to define their information requirements on both local and remote systems. Remote Procedure Call (RPC) - A broad client/server redirection tool used for creating procedures on clients and performed on servers. AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP) - Another client/server mechanism, which both establishes and maintains sessions between AppleTalk client and server machines.
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The Transport Layer (Layer 4)

segments and reassembles data into a data stream. provide end-to-end data transport services and establish a logical connection between the sending host and destination host hides details of any network-dependent information from the higher layers by providing transparent data transfer. The Transport layer can be connectionless or connection-oriented.
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Connection-Oriented Communication

Three way handshake.

Setup a call Transfer Data Terminate the call

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Too much traffic for too small a capacity? Solution -> flow control

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Wouldnt it be slow if the transmitting machine had to wait for an acknowledgment after sending each segment? Solution Windowing

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Transport Layer Protocols

TCP - a full-duplex, connection-oriented, reliable protocol
Too much overhead

UDP - doesnt offer all the bells and whistles of TCP either, but it does do a fabulous job of transporting information that doesnt require reliable deliveryand it does so using far fewer network resources.
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The Network Layer (Layer 3)

manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network, and determines the best way to move data transports traffic between devices that arent locally attached. Concerned about network addressing
Network addresses allow a system to be identified on the network by a logically assigned address. The logical assignment of addresses allows a more hierarchical approach to addressing than MAC addresses provide.

Routers are layer 3 devices

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Switching Methods
1.

describes how the data sent from one node reaches another. Circuit switching just like is a telephone call.
The link between caller and receiver is created, then a dedicated communications link between the two points (hence the term circuit) is created. The circuit cannot be broken, meaning no one else can use the line. In a data communications environment, however, this is a disadvantage because the data often originates from various sources.

2.

Packet switching widely used in a modern network environment.

data is broken down into packets that can then be transported around the network. all messages travel over the same path, or it might be that messages travel on different paths. At each point in the journey, a node stores the message before it is forwarded to the next hop on the journey - store and forward. Aman 20 Due to store and forward, thereG. (2007) is some delay.

Network Layer Protocols

IPX - Part of Novell' IPX/SPX protocol suite, s which provides a connectionless transport mechanism. IP - IP performs much the same function as IPX, but IP is part of TCP IP protocol suite.

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The Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

provides the physical transmission of the data and handles error notification, network topology, and flow control. will ensure that messages are delivered to the proper device on a LAN using hardware addresses, and translates messages from the Network layer into bits for the Physical layer to transmit. formats the message into pieces, each called a data frame, and adds a customized header containing the hardware destination and source address. For a host to send packets to individual hosts on a local network as well as transmitting packets between routers, the Data Link layer uses hardware addressing. Switches and Bridges are layer 2 devices they pass data using MAC address WAPs are also considered data-link layer devices because their primary function is to provide connectivity to the Aman G. (2007) 22 network.

1.

has two distinct sublayers Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer - controls the access of the media, allowing multiple high-level protocols to use a single network link.
tells the Data Link layer what to do with a packet once a frame is received

2.

Media Access Control (MAC) - manages and controls access to the network media for the protocols trying to use it.
The MAC address (Physical address) is defined at this layer, as well as logical topologies. Defines how packets are placed on the media. first come/first served access where everyone shares the same bandwidth Line discipline, error notification (not correction), ordered delivery of frames are used at this layer
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The layer 2 device puts the source hardware address in a filter table and keeps track of which port the frame was received on. This information (logged in the bridges or switchs filter table) is what helps the machine determine the location of the specific sending device. The biggest benefit of using switches instead of hubs in a network is that each switch port is actually its own collision domain.
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The Physical Layer (Layer 1)

defines the physical characteristics of the network.

physical characteristics can include the cable and connector type, the format for pinouts for cables, and so on.

also defines how the data actually travels across the network. defines the voltage used on the cable and the frequency at which the signals that carry the data are transitioned from one state to another (speed and maximum distance) defines the physical topology of the network. Hubs and repeaters are layer 1 devices although NICs are physical components, they are defined as data-link layer devices because they are used in physical media access (which is handled at the MAC sublayer) and the logical access of the network media (which is handled at the LLC sublayer).
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Encapsulation and decapsulation

As data is passed up or down through the OSI model structure, headers are added (going down) or removed (going up) at each layer a process called encapsulation (addition) or decapsulation (removal).

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and collision domains in each case.

Exercise Identify the number of broadcast

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