Petroleum Engineering: Production
Petroleum Engineering: Production
Petroleum Engineering: Production
Special Presentstion
Canduciad by IPCS
for
The Conventional Energy Training Project
July 25- 29, 1983
Presented by
Dr. R. Eugene Collins
Intermutional Petroleum '.onsulting Services 1200 New Hampshire Avenue, N.W. Suite 320 Washington, D.C. 20036 U.S.A. Telephone Numbers. (202) 331-8214 (202)331-8215 Telex Number 248826 WOS
IPCS
CONTENTS
WELL PERFORMANCE
Factors Affecting Well Productivity ..................... Objectives of Well Testing ............................. Types of Well Tests .................................... Productivity Index ...................................... Inflow Perfermance Relationships (IPR) ................. Deliverability Tests ................................... Transient Pressure Tests ............................... Factors Affecting Buildup Tests ......................... Well Damage Evaluation ................................. Drill Stem Testing ..................................... .
3
3
4
6
A.
13
17
19
26
GAS LIFT
Two-Phase (Gas/Liquid Flow in Wells) ................... Pressure Traverse ...................................... Effect of Principal Variables .......................... Generalized Two Phase Gradient Charts .................. Application of Continuous Gas Lift ..................... General Guidelines ...................................... Pressure Balance in Continuous Gas Lift ................ Gas Lift Design Problems ............................... Controllable Tubinghead Pressure ....................... Uncontrollable Flowing Tubbing Pressure ................ Individual Gas Lift Well Design ........................ Factors That Influence The Design ...................... Design Steps ........................................... Valve Mechanics ......................................... Bellows Type Valves .................................... Example Data ........................................... intermittent Lift ...................................... 2
2
4
9
10
11
11
13
14
17
21
21
22
26
27
32
33
SUCKER ROD PUMPS General Concepts ....................................... Sucker Rod Pumping ..................................... The Pumping Problem .................................... Pumping Units .......................................... Prime Mover .............................. ............. Sucker Rods ............................................ Downhole Pumps ......................................... Pumping Cycle .......................................... Pump Capacity .......................................... Pump Efficiency ........................................ Slippage of Oil Past Plunger ............................ Net Plunger Stroke ..................................... Dimensionless Plunger Travel ........................... Calculation of Loads .................................... 1
4
6
7
13
13
20
22
23
26
26
27
28
30
31
Dimensionless Load Analysis ............................... Torque Calculation......................................... Counterbalance ............................................. Ideal Couterbalance....................................... Effect of Rod Dynamics..................................... Power Requirements......................................... Rod String Fatigue ......................................... Pumping System Design ...................................... Pumping System Performance................................ Dynamometer Survey ......................................... Ideal Dyramoineter Diagram ................................. Ccntinuous Monitoring of Well Load........................ Fluid Level Survey ......................................... Flowing BHP Calculations...................................
33
37
37
-7Q
39
42
44
46
50
50
50
60
60
61
SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
Introduction ................................................. Components ..... .... ...................................... Design Procedure ............................................. Example Problem............................................ Failure Analysis........................................... I
2
5
8
17
Well Performance
Factors Affecting Well Productivity The basic elements determining well productivity, that is flow rate, can be visualized in the sketch below,
Pt
P
0
"ran k" PG
Psep. Gas
PC
Oil
water
Domog" and
Pw
The driving "force", or energy for flow is pressure and this is dissipated in two ways, one is work against gravity and the other is work against viscous drag, or "friction". The total drop in pressure from the reservoir, at the "drainage
radius" of the well, to the storage tank can be separated into parts thus:
Number
P Pr - Ps P5 - P
Pw - Pt
II
Ill
IV V
Tubing Head
to Separator
Pt -
sep.
Separator to Tank
PSep - Po or PSep G
These are described as follows: P - P is determined by reservoir properties and drive mechanisms: s r permeability, porosity, thickness, relative permeabilities, capillary pressures; fluid properties, absolute pressure level and temperature,
fluid viscosities, and densities; solution gas, fluid expansion, gas cap, or water drive and flow rate. P 5 - P W is determined by formation penetration, flow rate, well bore radius, perforations, formation damage by drilling fluid or completion fluid, or fines migration, stimulation by acid or fracturing, single or multi-phase flow, fluid properties and absolute pressure level and
diameter and roughness, flow rate, pressure level and temperature. IV Pt - PSep is determined by fluid properties, flow rate, absolute pressure level and temperature, pipe and choke size, and pipe line length. V P Sep - PO, or PSep " PG ) is determined by fluid properties , absolute pressure level and temperature, flow rate, pipe diameter, roughness and Icngth.
Objectives of Well Testing: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Determine amount and type of fluius produced. Determine maximum production capability of well. Determine properties of reservoir, K, Determine reservoir pressure. Determine need for remedial treatment of well;
evaluate well damage.
Determine effectiveness of a well treatment, post facto. Determine appropriate well equipment to achive allowable pro duction rate; tcbing size, separator, and artificial lift equipment. Types of Well Tests 1. 2. 3. 4. Periodi .: production tests; gauging Productivity or Deliverability Tests Inflow performance tests Transient pressure tests.
.
Periodic.Production Testing; Gauging This consists of simply measuring the amount and type of fluids produced and is routinely carried out using a gas-oil separator and a stock tank, with a device such as an orifice meter to measure gas flow rate and a hand tape to measure amounts of oil and water ir. the stock tank. more sophisticated sy;tems with automatic recording. Modern techniques use
P-P
r
where conventionally q = Liquid (oil or oi'+water) flow rate V(STB/D) Pr = Shut-in well (Reservoir) pressure (Psi) Pw
=
Here for q = qo, oil Pi is defined and for q=qo+qw , total P I is defined. P I, or J, is determined by reservoir and well properties. Measurement of P I requires a bottom hole pressure measurement, either directly with a
down-hole instrument or indirectly with estimates from surface pressure data, while flowing and when shut-in. The long-term shut-in bottom-hole pressure is a measure of Pr* r Measures of Well Productivity Productivity Index The basic measure of well production efficiency is the Productivity Index, or P I, defined above as J = PI= P q -P
r w
where q is production rate measured at surface conditions and Pr - Pw is the "drawdown" at bottom hole. i.e., Pr is essentially shut-in, or static, reservoir 1
pressure and Pw is flowing bottom hole pressure. Factors affecting the value of P I are shown in part by using Darcy's
-2
-rr kh
3~r rw
=_
constant
0.0070kh Pw re Bl1, kn w
Pr
Here k(md) is reservoir permeability, h(ft) is producing zone thickness,IJ(cp) fluid viscosity and B the fluid formation volume factor. The term SD isa
"catch-all" dimensionless, well damage factor which accounts for non-radial flow near the well-bore and/or damaged or improved permeability near the well. For a completely penetrating well with open-hole completion and a in a skin-zone out to radius rs r
damaged-zone permeability k
SD
(,
-- s )
n re r r
w This quantity is positive SD > 0 for ks < k and negative for ks > k.
SD > 0 could result from fresh water filtrate from drilling mud entering the formation while SD < 0 could result from acid stimulation treatment. Clearly two-phase flow and/or compressibility effects prevent any
rgorous application of these simple relationships. The Specific Productivity Index is often used and is the ratio of P I to the thickness, h, of the producing zone, expressed in feet. i.e.,
STB!DIf t./Psi. While the Productivity Index is a very useful concept it suffers from being non-constant, that is, the PI measured at one drawdown, P "r Pw' will
not have the same value as one measured at another drawdown, even at the same reservoir pressure.
Inflow Performance Test: Oil Wells It is obvious that the productivity index in a real well will not be a simple constant characteristic of the well and reservoir configuration because of multi-phase flow and compressibility effects. J. V. Vogel (1968) developed on
empirical method to account for these effects by solving the material balance equations for radial flow based upon Darcy's law, with some approximations, for "gas" and "oil" flow with gas coming out of solution in the oil. below the bubble point. Specifically he assumed: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)' reservoir is circular with closed boundary well completely penetrates formation porosity, permeability and thickness uniform and constant gravity segregation is negligible
capillary pressure negligible
Flow is
(6) gas-oil in local equilibrium. From many runs of the numerical integration he showed that to a very good approximation the graph of stabilized oil flow rate at the well, versus flowing bottom-hole pressure, could be represented by the 'universa!" relationship dimensionless
qmax
-- q - 0.20
Ly r
-. 0( 080 (
)2 w )
r
Where
qMax is the maximum flow rate into the well resulting when bottom
hole pressure is reduced to zero. Performance -Relationship. The 'PR shows that data of
vs
at different values of w
Pr
10
2400
1 8 itv
NP/N
4% aI
CHARAC"ERISTICS FROM RE WELL SPACING * ZO ACRES 2000 -WE.L RADU Q53 FOOT
7 > 0 61
_
Z
) .
0.4
121. 4%
2oo
K\
~GAME
L-0
REUR
AS
conS
IN FIG- 115
0 " 00 02 04 06 08 i
i.
00 aJ400
PRODUCING FRACTIONI
40
So
IZO
RATE .
'60
200
0 24o
Dimensionless inflow performance relaonshps ot a solution gas drive reservoir (after Vogel)
PRODUCINO
bapd
Since
Pr
drive reservoir the successive curves here represent well performance various stages of cumulative production from the reservoir.
As given above this relationship does not include well damage, or "skin", effects. The effect of a "skin" of higher flow resistance near the well is to
require a lower bottzm-hole pressure, or greater "draw-down", to sustain a given flow rate. Thus the P in the above equation is the undamaged Pw and Ps, the pressure drop across the "skin".
The usefulness of the IPR lies in the fact that a measurement of Pr and the flow rate q at one bottom-hole pressure determines the entire curve:
i.e., determines q at any possibie Pw while this Pr exists. This of course in the absense of damage. above and solve for i.e., given Pr P and q, insert in Vogel equation
flow capability of a well at some bottnm hole pressure other than that used to determine
b.O,
represented by P w
= p
r jq
and clearly this predicts a Pw nO on the Vogel curve except at one point, the point used to determine 3. i.e., the intersection with the Vogel curve. Standing's Forecast of Inflow Performance
0qm(I -. w)_.8( F 2(
r
P__
Pw )2
qm
r
8Pw (+.8
)
r
P
Slope =
Slope=
0
0 _ ___ _ ____ _ __ _ _ __ _ _
10
dr K0 J dP
sre sq or = 2Trh
r w Now as P IV Pr
P
r
Iim5
2nh Ln
0
IP B
re
w
Thus J0
is proportional to K o/U B
V'
1o0
0j
qm'
Ko
0
qm
*Thus if from well test data, Pr' q' Pw a q and also K 0' 0' B
Ko1 4m K
0 0
B
0
1'B'
0
00
Flow-After-Flow Tests; Gas or Oil When a shut-in well, either gas or oil, is opened to flow the bottom--hole pressure declines as the pressure distribution in the reservoir changes with time. With the flow rate restricted through an orifice choke, or partially open valve, the flow rate and bottom-hole pressure will stabilize to essentially constant values. The valve may then be opened further resulting in another q and P are established. Typical data for
C1"
SI
Time. . hours
ii
12
; etc.
constant
and the value of this constant characterizes the well production capability. In fact
J1 2qiPr qi w1i Pr
P-_p2. 2_ 2
r
P-wi Pr -P.
P.
is essentially the same quantity as the productivity index of an equivalent oil 2 Pr is (Pr + Pw.) / 2 . Conventionaliy one plots on log-log paper well. Here P r wr p2. VS q, for the gas well and draws the best straight line.
W1
The difficulty with the flow-after-flow test is the long times required to reach stabilized flow conditions. A modified procedure, also used in oil wells, has been developed to circumvent this difficulty, it is called an isochronal flow test. time The At, 'ell is shut-in then opened to flow at a fixed rate for a period of with P read at times At,, At 2 , A t 3 , etc. The well is shut in The process is repeated for a
higher rate, then for another, etc. Finally at the last rate the well is allowed to flow until a stabilized Pw is reached. From these data on the gas well ? 2 2 /s q for equal times of flow. i.e., using the P one can plot P - Pw
r
should be a straight line whose slope is approximately unity for a gas well. This is done for each of the elapsed times. Finally the one data point for
stabiiized flow is plotted and a parallel line drawn as shown in the sketch below.
13
StabilizedC/
4 hr 1hr 6C 10 / 0.2S hr
'//
o
,2
,
Slope
1/n
~/
3/
10~
/
2 10 Flow rate, q, stb/d 2
102
The point of this test is to establish a prediction equation for stabilized flow conditions, thus defining a ' and an n for the equation (Fetkovitch)
2
_p
)n (q, P ) at stabilized
conditions, which in a tight gas formation could require days to establdsh. This method seems to effectively avoia the need for more than one stabilized flow point because the above equation seems to fit data at corresponding times with the same value of n. Transient Pressure Tests The basis for transient well testing resides in the fact that for single phase flow, at pressures above the bubble point, Darcy's law and a material
14
SV(p-
Pgz))
governing the transient pressure history within the reservoir. Here approximately constant fluid density, vI its viscosity, c
the effective
k_
lc
for
P,
or for P-
ogz
with P - Pgz
the equation for diffusion or heat conduction. The solution for a well of zero radius penetrating a reservoir of thickness h producing at constant rate q from an infinite reservoir with static
pressure Pr is P = Pr where Pr
=
+70.6qB kh
Ei(" 632, kt
P = pressure at r, t (Psi) q = flow rate (STB/D) h = thickness of formation (it) c = effective compressibility (Psi = porosity (fraction) r = radia! distance from well (ft.) t = time on production (days)
- I
-Ei(-x)
e x
<
The general behavior of this solution is shown by the following sketches which provide a lot of intuitive insight into wells. flow and pressure behavior of
t=e'
lp4 I---
Pj
r 3
r
radius,
P L4
L.
r
time, t
Note that in view of the approximation above we have for large t, or small r, p :p r
- 70.6 q~iB
--B L
2n
r+
6.32 kt
.5772]
16
This is called ti e pseudo-steadv-state equation because for an incompressible fluid (c 0) anda well flowing at constant rate q the differential equation is
7 2P = 0
kh
B 9n r
with the constant aruitrarily determined by fixing P at some r. This is truly a steady-state solution. Superposition Principle; Shut-in Pressure Build-Up Test
Since the differential equation above is linear solutions can be added to yield new solutions thus, for example, to represent the pressure history in a well of bore radius r w with the rate history
q=q
q=C we have approximately for small r w P
kh rP- 70.6q u B
, ,
[1nr26.32 kt kn
w
.5772]
kh
for
24c
0 < t < t s
and
70.6 q !iB kh
5772
70.6 kh
[ ;,n
.5772 ]
0rw
for
t > t
s
- q
started at time
t s . Titis
At Lt
with At being elapsed shut-in time after producing at rate q for time t s . Thus if bottom-hole pressure is recorded as a function of time following shut-in a plot of P versus (t s+ At)/ At on semi-log paper should approach a
Factors Affecting Build-up Tests Obviously the above analysis is a gross over simplification of the physical situation in a pressure build-up test. simple analysis are: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) well-bore size reservoir heterogeneity reservoir boundaries interference from other wells multi-phase flow variable rate history after-flow, q not zero at bottom-hole Some factors not accounted for in the
Many of these factors have been successfully treated and the literature on the subject is voluminous. factors. Sketches below indicate effects due to some of these
18
Pr
+ LE
Zn At
r Pw
PP
At
Zn
At
+
6T
At
kn
19
Other Transient Pressure Tests A wide variety of transient tests and methods of interpretation have been devised. "Pulse testing" between wells is used to determine permeability and porosity in the region between wells. producing for a brief Deriod This involves "pulsing" one well by in and detecting the pressure
then shutting
pressure transients in partially penetrating wells, or injection at one point in a well and producing at a neighboring point above or below in the same well, have been proposed. Perhaps the most useful modification of the simple test theory has been in the incorporation of well bore damage effects . This is described as follows.
(1953)
characterize the effect of near well-bore permeability modification on well bore pressure transients. additior to the draw-down " P r -P IN, 7 0.6 This can be described simply by asserting that in
B q ii1
n Ei(
Oijcr
w 6.32 kt
which exists due to pressure losses in the clean formation, arising from flow rate q, there is ar, additional draw-down required to move fluid through a well
AP with SD
70.6 B kh
qj
"correction"
20
22
PP r
w
~
SD+Ei( 6.32kt
70.6Bq kh
m [S
SD is called the "skin factor" of the well. The analysis of shut-in pressure build-up is not changed by this, thus plotting shut-in Pw vs k n (t s+ A t)/ A t still gives kh. Hence if 4 and c are known one uses this equation on flowing data to estimate SD.
~ r
point), the equation of For flow of slightly compressible liquid (above bubble state is c(P-P o )
(1)
P=
Oe
(2)
I +c(P-Po
(4)
and with Darcy's law
-V. (0
,,
(5)
(v P
- Pg)
22
P - Pogz with
I
r r
r
r -P-
P
-
!c
a ~P
t
k r
(7)
2 rh h
Wj
~r
q B t
o0
= 0
rr
kt
(8) P - Po 0 E (A
Jo 0
+ Be
+
U (r,t)
we may need. For boundary
where
kt )r)-J1 ( B R) Y (r)
0 0
(9) P - P
0
-
A (
0
)e
+ G(r,t)
(10)
(11) and
Y'
T'(frR) (BR)J3rw)oW 0
Y'(Brw)= 0
0
(12)
DG (2
'w't)
q ij B0
+" 7knrw
2
23
Eq. (11) provides an infinite set of roots t3 the special solution G(r,t) is needed
I
Now show that usual zero separation constant solution is not acceptable for G(r,t). For (13) G 6= 0 the solution by separation of variables is A Pn r + B it does not satisfy the
G/
(14)
B = constant
Thus try this ! This in the differential equation gives: (15) 1 9-1 ( ) = k1ic B
r 9r
which integrates to give
9r
(16)
= P-P
'
+ A9nr + C + Bt
Since C as the special solution. Here A and C are constants of integration. is still arbitrary modify C dimensionless form, thus 2 (17) G B
+
into proper
A 9.n .+
C + Bt
4R
G/3 r = 0 at r = R gives R2
B R
2
r 2
R 2 9r
+ C
Bt
Ij
24
=qB
rR_ r 2]hq~c
R
w
kt
(21)
Po
. [Yo(
j=1 qt
R) J(
j
B
r)
J0 (R) ] 0
Y (M.r e
r2
_R 2inT
0 ]
q 1B 0
2 TER 2-r
hc
2kh [R 2-r2]
which satisfies all conditions except at t = 0. Finally then setting t = 0 and using the orthogonality of the linear combination of Bessel functions we obtain the A. and solution is complete. Thus we have justified setting C to zero.
Hurst and Van Everdingen (1949) obtained this solution in a different way and give the evaluation of the A..
G(r,t)
P-P 0
as
Note that in the series all exponentials go to zero. state solution with the same distribution of P - P0 shifted p or down depending on sg of q. q
This is a pseudo steady versus r at any time but is positive for production, The sketch below
t-_
+ same aP,
all
"Tank" Solution
radius,
25
I
-"
I I I I
IC 70 5,0 100 XO
) I I I i/
SIX 1000 1O,0W
20_
1*
--
C._
..
b.,,..9P,......Vh-
vP..
0
102
II
II
1A
;_
: Cv, :,
:.am
-*.I
to-.-...C.2*J/d*
1,.
I.
6.2 .W./.
26
Well testing as already described applies to completed wells but flow tests, pressure tests and fluid sampling are also carried out on wells before the well is completed. completion.
DRILL ST EM
Method
Drill stem testing is
REVERSE VALVE
CIRCULATION
carried out with tool mounted on end of drill pipe string. consists of: It IU
' MULTI- FLOW
IF
EVALUATOR
* packer
BY-PASS VALVE
II I companies
Different
service
bers.
ANO)
PRESSURE RECORDERS
Diagram of currcnuiy oprational DST tool. (Aftcr McAlistcr. Nutter and Lcbourg.')
Lij
27
DRILL STEM
.. E.DUAL
CONTROL VALVE
CLOEDOPEN
-M.F E.DUAL
EO.O-L ME AL
.E.DUAL VALVE
CLOSED
mRETRIEVED
LCNRLM.
S
BYPASS VALVE BLOSED
VALVE
LB.H.FLOWING
PACKER S E T SE PA C K E -SAFETYR SEAL LAACTIVATED y
UNDER
PRESSURE BY-PASS IALVE OPEN A E Y SEAA S PACKER DEACTIVATED PULLED LOOSE
I t
.
SAFETY SEAL
COLLAPSEr
CLOSSEED CLFSTD
SAFETY SEAL PACKER SET LEAACTIVATED
IN GOING HOLE
WELL FLOWING
WELL SHUT - IN
OF OUT HOLE
Sequence of opcrations for MFE tool. (After McAlistcr, Nutter and Lebourg.")
--
--
Amerada
A.
B.
tool
TIME -
going in hole
Packer set
record.
C,
D.
up.
E. F.
NOTE:
Between
D-E
7
.
"
s0u1Cs
B
C-
-, 6
t A
1,, wt. rLu)-
W-,..,,
I,,
A *AT1SFACTOOtr
28
Pressure Build-up Analysis Fluid [low is through a chol e (rrifice) and if critical flow occurs then flow rate in flowing period is essentially constant. If this occurs then
Shown
here
is
conventional
, FM I J C1P
t
PWSJ versus
ill
1i I f
r
t'F+ At
n At with
time.
. i,,oocio
I t
I
shut-in
I
I
1
tF
flow time, At
Slope
- -70.6 quB
Sh
NOTE:
"inai"
kh
estimated from collected fluid volume in drill pipe and a value for 1i is also required.
Fluid Sampler Note that the above tool collects a fluid sample at bottom-hole pressure and temperature.
,)A
29
FLARE
SURFACE.
SURFACE
TETTE 1:-,
SUE ,
".. . ,,"
POSITIVE
CHOKE
MANUAL
- I P ---
STEAM OUTL[ET
"
"
I.
I.VESSEL
"
.INE
'/I
KILLi
I.IN l~
SFPARATO P
)R
.. -
PUMP
I.
\ %./':.Y",
DATA
"
ADJUSTABLE CHOKE
R91G AIF-
.1
HEADER
~iIII
I W OUproTdET
de
PUMP d
'I
I
""'
IlaPROL'
' '
"-'
I >'i ':
,-
~h'N
OI
:;o-
tDpraue
welShEAd
0YRUI
PwAER
AI
""
PUMP
."ID,'.G
,lDE.O
.*
4.Coime.dlierbii.
nd
stbiizd
lo
rt
I,
.':E
.
igh
Th. Otls Sprdu vit isd ind
ior
,.,."".,u;"co...
.
6. C on din g
. PF'osv anperrncahits -
foration
well
sectio Estblui ato oftale t fr h pr issuhdr. pl upentrte w it c t b\a theTee, e welclu Whnooel nile an.rl' S'RtIN Se O"'s T Td,'rncree,' , Swn nsuti n rcs ) c~nuctO h ess fiurie, rn wthot rmovn
ne3.'Establish anpreseurvoir)con ihgue thyocrbon
deine o lowsSLadrevnterstak ~ tre Sd,.S Gnd(I'De
e.
IDINGutI'~SI t
4. Aon p b torehbli/prou sn nui(surron~dng. thc. fe rck blowout Th n wee n ti prsur) hdalcal.nge. hi Ome Proilimit ortalre ofo rarbon tap. Codecc leased ~onaitOiCvsepea~ ,.i.,.u. .LCTsIVrE ~ ~ clvWREIN.9. removing SEfucly 4. wne o re andpresrur) N and.rhydr hdrocabonsn RcC ire liis rabi(H crwonn o own trate
-- ,vleer atgcs
ote e .
I n sthouidh orm inogdwth fluid. p u aility and bl~oi rvnlrsac h r~ usgid ca~l'spabciitoffoinx r ~r
r'en~ag.: g pfozedu~onIIra
te. of-pressur aw w n'bercormescn stan'ti{ lt onlad e n tapretsure pt p r PUMP OPE WFlo% properly\ anei
(for otstiorewell3.P
(elotsorn o
ell.
'
ii
IwgttaL
CyE.nm
l.Aslt
Ope
.F)ptnta.i
"lw( a
el
GAS LIFT
continuous gas injection and intermittent gas injection: Gas is introduced continuously at a
Continuous Injection:
controlled rate with the objective of decreasing the gradient of the mixture (oil + water + gas) flowing in the well.
Intermittent Injection:
Gas
is introduced periodically at
high rate and for a short time (2-10 minutes) with the objective of lifting the fluid in the well by the rapid expansion of the injected gas slug. The following table indicates general guidelines for application of the two systems: High/moderate P. I. wells with reasonable
Continuous:
Fluid production:
300 4000 B/D normal size tubing oversize tubing, annular flow
Intermittent:
Fluid production:
20 300 B/D normal tubing sizes
Pressure Traverse
and gas/oil
Considering a well flowing at a steady liquid flow rate ratio. The following diagram represents the pressure-depths relation
It is defined as a pressure traverse. Pressuee
hL
3)~~t
Wf.\
R.TE
SO0 B/D
Mp
to
20 0 0
!
:i
APi
p.
t
q,
1-
AO
so-~
I-
6I
tubing in relation to the liquid and gas rates the flowing pressure
increases due to gas slippage and accumulation of liquid in the well.) The effect of tubing size for various liquid rates is shown in
the following table.
TUBING SIZE EFFECT
(showing flowing bottom holie pressures)
Rate
in. 500 2,042
1,680
1,37 1 1,042
---
Dia.,
3,000
-
4,000
-
8,000
13
1
2 3 4 5
6
. . ..
1,592 1,319
. .
1,819
1,459 1,072 972
2,068 1,285
1,092
1,025
950
:
=
0.650
1.074 35.000
0.000%
ft. psig
100
200
OF OF 2.441 in.
:
=
CUT
500 500
scfistb
stb
Gas-Liquid Ratio
For a given tubing size, liquid rate, surface pressure and fluid
properties the following table and figure illustrate the effect of
gas-liquid ratio.
GAS-LIQUID RATIO EFFECT
GLR 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1,000
1,500 3,000
5,000
10,000 FBHP 2,938 2,669 2,234 1,783 1,398 1,175 1,042 913 862
801 752
768
915
0
.
. __ TU BNG E : 4
?Q :065
2-
100OO
014 (D) F
4 u3 C)
8 1 IO~~~ 20 2 0
ratio increases.
The effect is reversed for gas-liquid ratios greater
increase in mixture velocity causes
than a limiting GLR where the increased frictional losses.
The limiting GLR corresponds -' the minimum flow gradient that can be achieved in a given tub'
.ize at a given liquid rate.
Liquid Rate
For a g~ven tubing size, gas liquid ratio and fluid properties
the following figure shows the effect of liquid rate.
Note Reversol
: I-
00
1000 SCF/STB 07 i',: 06 5
2 A\ ~T 3
u4
GLR
X
jj4
o
7
6' 7-
8
0
00
0
4
16
20
24
28
10
the pressure at scme point in the well (usually BHP or well head
pressure). The point on the chart at the same pressure for the
particular gas-liquid ratio oi" the well, represents the point in the
well. The chart can then be used to calculate the pressure-depth
General Guidelines
FbLursr
I-O
-~
il Fluid
Pc4of
f\
13
The point of balance corresponds to the depth at which casing pressure is equal to tubing pressure. In order to inject gas into
the tubing the operating valve has to be above the point of balance.
The distance from the point of balance depends on the pressure drop
across the value seat due to flow of the required volume of in jection gas. Pvalve X 50-100 psi.)
The following relation can be established for a,,e;age flowing gradients Yaf and Ybf above and below the point of injection: PLf + Yaf Dov + Ybf (Df -D) where
D o= depth of operating value
Df = depth of formation
Pwf"
Yaf = gradient above injection is a function of volume of gas injected. For a given flow rate Pwf is constant so that changes in Dov and
af will
result in changes in the flowing tubing pressure Ptf
Gas Lift Design Problems
The obective is to design a system economically justifiable.
Objective function expressed in terms of energy efficiency or in terms
of present value when comparing alternative artificial lift systems.
14
Tubing Size
Flowline Size
Surface Gas Injection Pressure
Liquid Flowrate Flowing Tubing Pressure Injected Gas-Liquid Ratio
Separator Pressure Two cases are relevant:
1. Flowing tubing pressure is independent of flow rate. This
given condition.
'I
I
SLR A
6 flX
3000
o I
.. AAP
~wrI 6.~~Ui
For each case the variable of interest is the power for injection
and volume of gas required. Compression horsepower is calculated for
16
z." Tv6;,A
,ijoo
Br
FTP = zoo
FTP
-
S00
-PC
e- s
C1.
-FT9
Z-
zoo
17
Injection pressure is selected that will result in minimum horse power over the range of possible flowing tubing pressures, and the
corresponding GRL are determined from above.
Note that when various wells are involved having different produc tivities this will result in different requirements for each well if
the same rate is desired for each wel!.
In this case wells can be grouped in ranges of PI and requirements
calculated for these ranges.
?r:2
"
--
FTP- Zoo
FTrCZO
c4 o;,
Prejjur .
18
which is a function o" the flowrate through the flowline. in gas liquid ratio will cause changes in tubing pressure. a
Changes The
Q=
B/D 600
GLR
I
\~..
Ptf
200
270 235 305
305
/
I3
.
3500
repeating this for various flow rates the performance of the wellbore car, be obtained as:
.30
-,-J
ROD
Fio
19
PRESSURE
86 86 ,,-I1 -I
(PSI/IICOO
I G 2- 5 I
7
__
1.-1.13
.. I__
1.6
4000 GuR
30o63
2.-
Tu
ti G D/D~
Igoo Cf
-,~
~~~
2 w~~o ilf
6000
ft
II
2.<o
2700
20
30oo
Hori-Ln.al
RoLq
goo GLRP
Flow
Ra
-1
Horlo Vertio
Flow
Fiow
Wa
Fl ow, <t
Fiew .I
21
The procedure is repeated for available combinations of casir( jection pressure, tubing and flowline sizes, resulting in familiE.s curves from where operation parameters can be selected for detailed st and efficiency calculations. dividual Gas Lift Well Design
The majority of these problems involve selecting the depth of
e operating valve, the volume of gas to be injected and the spacing
the valves used for unloading the well (unloading valves).
ctors That Influence the Design
From the previous discussion can be concluded that the principal
ctors affecting the design are:
Available injection pressure
Available gas volume
Tubing size
Flowing tubing'pressure
iese parameters must be established prior to undertaking the design.
Generally the following data are needed or appropriate estimates Lve to be made for the unknown quantities. Depth of well
Depth of tubing
Size of tubing and casing
22
23
identical
Prepare a pressure vs.
depth graph with scales 1. to available flowing gradient curves.
Plot static BHP.
2. Pwf rate.
Plot From IPR calculate Pwf at the desired flow 3. static gradient line
4. Calculate static gradient and plot from PS
gradient curves
Use Plot flowing gradient line from Pwf"
5. etc.
for appropriate rate, GOR, tubing size, kick off pressure at
Plot casing injection pressure and 6. surface.
Plot gas pressure gradient line in
7. (Flowing tubing pressure
= 8. Determine point of balance.
casing pressure.)
Determine point where Ptubing
Pcasing =6 Pvalue"
9. flowing tubing pressure (Ptf).
10.
Plot injection with appropriate
11.
Connect Ptf with point of gradient line.
the operating valve and the gas-liquid
These steps yield the depth of in order to obtain the
above the point of injection ratio required
the injection of the gas volume necessary to achieve the design gas liquid ratio.
The second part of the design involves the determination of the
number and spacing of the valves required to unload the well (unloading
valves).
The following diagrams illustrate a typical unloading sequence.
3T.
T" V.I.. 0 -,
To
,G,..
VT4,
25
The process aims at reducing the fluid level in the annulus until the operating valve is uncovered. The important aspect is that at any time only one valve should
be open and injecting gas. If this is not the case the efficiency of
-VI,<;
.,
.,
Ge
iS
" Mc 1.. (C6
1a,
',,,
(Ci*+,' )I(lo6*,l
,',1 + l.,
T6 .. 0.4 V...
1
I B, , SCT, t i d -J V. I... 1 F-..
'1
TL,... VI F.
VAI..a)
T.i,,klo I.-
1hU-
-..4
.
P s,.. . T l.sI
0 - .. 4
. b.-..Y.I..
10
12
14
16
Ie
20
22
24
26
28
Il
"
--
*5
lo.
6*000
,,.
.....
Valve Mechanics
characteristics
The following is a brief outline of the principal of the major types of gas lift values:
C-)
27
Continuous Flow:
SForces
opening valve
Fopen s--+ c (Ab Pt Ap Ap)
-P-
T~TV
SPp
LJ
28
Pd Ab =
c (Ab - A
+ Pt Ap
SPd
Pt (ApIAb)
c/open
1 - Ap/Ab
A
Let A = R
Ab
Pd - Ptk
P Pc/open
t d1- R
R is also known as the tubing effect. Valve open ready to close Force to close = Fc = Pd Ab Force to open = Fo
=
Pc (Ab -Ap)
+ Pc Ap
Pc Ab
Closing valve Pc
= Pd
Assume
__Pt
Spread 77 55
0 200
29
Opening
P (Ab
b
Ap) + P A
_t
P P
cRo
Tc/open
1-R
After opening, the pressure below the stem will be different (less) than P Open to close Pc (AB - Ap) + Pi Ap
Pd AbPi A
Pd Ab
-
P
PPi
P R
Ab -Ap
1 --R
30
B. Balanced
Flexibl'e Sleeve
Pc/o > P Pc/c
<
FdDOOE OOE
od
Pd
'PC
-- ENTRANCE SLOTS _t -FINNED iRETAINER PESILIENT CHECK VALVE DISCHARGE PORTS CLOSED POSITION OPEN POSITION ,
,*%P
C
i p-ENTRAN CE SLOTS FINNED RETAINER RESILIENT CHECK VALVE
DISCHARGE PORTS
Pt
,-
C~iokLJ
Closing mD AB
Opening
=
Pt
(AB-
Ap)
+ Pc (Ap)
-J
P t Pd =P (1 R) Pc R
Also fluid operated valves
with uncharged bellows
and spring load.
~S~~12 fr;
32
Example:
Data
8000 ft.
2" tubing
Depth of Well
Size of Tubing and Casing Producing Conditions: Sand, Paraffin
Size and Length of Surface Flowline
Separator Back Pressure
Expected Flowing Tubing Pressure Desired Producing Rate (Total Fluid)
% Water
of S.G. Injection Gas
Injection Gas Pressure and Volume
IPR
BHT
Surface Flowing Temperature API Gravity of Oil
of S.G. Water
Solution GOR
Static BHP
F.V.F.
Viscosity and Surface Tension
Kill Fluid Gradient
Loaded to Top
to pits Unloading to sep. PKo
Pressure Valves
- first valve
- all others
50 psig
100 psig
600 Bbl/day
95%
0.65
900, no limit
PI = 3
210 0 F
150F
400 API
1.02
200 SCF/Bbl
2900 psig
0.5 psi/ft
33
Intermittent Lift
Fluid pfroduced from the formation is allowed to accumulate in the tubing. Gas is then injected at a high rate into the tubing
D. Valve Closed
34
at the gas lift valve, gas is injected into the casing annulus through
some type of control at the surface for a definite injection time.
When the casing pressure increases to the opening pressure of the
gas lift valve, gas is injected into the tubing string. Under ideal
etration causes part of the liquid slug to fall back into the gas
phase in the form of droplets and/or as a film on the tubing wall.
When the liquid slug is produced at the surface, the tubing pres sure at the valve decreases, increasing the gas injection through the
valve. When the casing pressure drops to the valve closing pressure,
Following production of the slug, a stabilization
time occurs during'which the fallback from the previous slug falls or
flows to the bottom of the well and becomes a part of the next slu
which is feeding in from the producing zone.
Liquid fallback can represent a substantial part of the original
slug. Control of fallback determines the success of an intermittent
The inability to predict liquid fallback has
In many cases high
/r
35
gas was
The following figure shows a typical recording in which a I" ported
injected into 2" tubing at a depth of 5940 feet through gas lift valve. Pressure recordings are illustrated at depths of
initial tubing
5936, 4290, 2493, 1685, 967, 477 and 0 feet.
The 350 psi, and the initial slug volume was
pressure at the valve was
2.345 B(95% salt water).
PRESSURE (PSIG)
TOO
600
PORT 1' P,, - 550 350 PSI LOAD 65 P, 3500 SCF/CYCLE TUBING SIZE - 2" G/L" 2020
RECOVERY - I 75 BBLS INITIAL SLUG - 2 345 BBLS LIFT DEPTH, 5940' 600LMAXIMU,. PRESSURE , UNDERNEATH SLUG
500
0.
400
MINIMUM
300-
AT VALVE
200
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
STABILIZATION ESTABLISHED
0
O 2
I
4 6
. 1 1
B 10
i 1 1 I
12 14 16 TIME (MIN)
I
18
20 22 24 26 28
37
5936 feet recording when the slug was being produced at the surface and after the gas lift valve closed.
38
Pumping
There are three major types of downhole pumping systems: a) b) c) Sucker rod pumping Electrical submersible centrifugal pumping Hydraulic
Their relative importance is approximately such that of all the U. S. wells producing by artificial lift (M 92% of all U. S. producing wells) about 85% use rod pumping, 2% submersible and 2% hydraulic with the remaining 11% being produced by gas lift. The majority (93%) of the rod pumping wells are
strippers (less than 10 B/day) although they usually produce greater volumes of fluid because of large water to oil ratios.
General Concepts In all cases the pump provides energy to move fluid to the surface allowing the use of reservoir energy only to move fluid to the wellbore and up to the pump intake. A pressure-depth diagram for a pumping system will be similar to the following.
2
tf
--
Press ure
it
The pump will be set at a depth greater than the Jiquid level in the casing annulus intake. Pump displacement has to be adequate in relation to pump depth and formation productivity. If the pump capacity is too large the fluid level will drop to the pump level. Gas will enter the pump, reducing its efficiency and possibly damaging it. If the pump capacity is too small the fluid level will rise above that required to maintain the appropriate drawdown will not be possible to achieve the desired production. The efficiency of any pumping system is greatly reduced by the presence of gas in the flowing stream. Whenever possible pump depth should be such (Pr - Pw) and it to insure that sufficient head is available to flow into the pump
that the intake pressure is greater than the bubble point pressure of the fluid
being pumped.
majority of the gas in solution evolve and rise through the annulus tobe produced at the casing head.
Liquid + Gas
Gas out
Gas
-Gas
* C"
00
Gas +liquid
Pump
-" .Liquid
Sucker Rod Pumping (also Beam Pumping) Steel (also fiberglass) rods are used to transmit reciprocating motion to the downhole positive displacement pump from the surface beam pumping unit.
- Counterbalance b) c) d) Sucker Rod string Downhole pump Tubing anchor, gas anchor, polished rod, stuffing box, etc. diagram indicates the relative position of the
II
111kO;Ct
CASING POIHRODS
--:-g_-
-
.LAMP--
PU PNUTE8 W
PB.
CASING CASING
CAIH
RN
SHOES
The Pumpin'g Problem Production engineers are faced with two types of problems with regard to rod pumping: a) b) Design problem Performance problem
Select pumping unit, rods, pump, speed, stroke or for a given pumping unit:
In either case the design objective will be to produce at a certain oil flow rate.
The Performance problem involves analysis of an existing pumping system to determine if it is operating according to design and if not recommend necessary chr--ges.
Descriptiorp of Components
a) Pumping Units
Unit Type
API
Designation
Beam Counterbalance
Air Counterbalance
Mark II (Unitorque)
Long Stroke
CONVENTIONAL UNITS
BALANCE
CONVENTIONAL UNIT.
FULCRUM
-AIR
CE BALANCED) SYSTEM.
10
* -.
rOACE
COUNTEA BALANCE
1Tim
00
rN,0
0
COUNTEU 0WEIG"T
CJ
I~IAI ANC:F.
Fig.
T.
12
Pumping Unit Rating is defined by three parameters: a) b) c) Veak torque - that can be developed at the gear reducer (in-lb) Beam Load - that can be applied to the polished rod (Ibs) Maximum stroke - that can be transmitted to pump.
The following table presents the typical range of above parameters corresponding to the various pumping unit types currently manufactured.
Unit Type
Torque-Range in.-lb
5,000 -
912,000
4,000 -
57,000
7,600 - 47,000
64 - 300
11,000 - 3,648,000
17,300 - 47,000
64- 300
80,000 - 1,280,000
14,300 - 42,700
64 - 216
Long Stroke
360 - 480
Conventional, 228,000 in-lb Double gear reducer, 20,000 lb beam load, 74 in. maximum stroke.
13
b)
Prime Mover:
generally consists of an electric motor operating at The desired pumping speed is obtained by
selecting appropriate size V-belt pulleys in relation to the unit's gear reducer.
Natural gas internal combustion engines are also used generally in remote locations. Casinghead gas can be used as fuel. c) Sucker Rods: Transmit reciprocating motion from the pumping unit to
the subsurface pump. They are subjected to cyclic loading in a corrosive environment. Thus fatigue and corrosion are the principal constraints in design and selection of sucker rods. Standard steel rods are manufactured in diameter from 1/2" to 1-l/81 to cover the wide range of applications. Tapered rod sth'ings are commonly used in deep wells in order to optimize the utilization of rods and reduce overall loading. API RPIIL presents
recommended combinations of rod sizes as a function of the diameter of the pump plunger.
14
TABLE 4.1 ROD AND PUMP DATA See Par. 4.5. 1 Rod" No. 44 54 54 54 54 54 54 54
55
2 Plung. Diant., inchcs D A ll 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
All
3 Rod Weight, lb per ft W, 0.726 0.908 U.929 0.957 0.990 1.027 1.067 1.108
1.135
4 Elastic Constant, in. per lb ft E, 1.990 x 10"0 1.68 1.63:3 1.584 1.525 1.460 1.391 1.318 x x 10 1 x 10-a x 10-0 x 10"t x 10-0 x 10"0
" " 10c "
5 Frequency Factor, F, 1.000 1.138 1.140 1.137 1.122 1.095 1.061 1.023
1.000
6 I 1
10
11
.. ...... ..
........ ......100.0
.
..
1.270 x 10.0
....
....
64 6A 64 61 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 66 75 75 75 75 75 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 77 85 85 85 85
75
1.06 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.25 All 1.06 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 1.06 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.25 3.75 All 1.06 1.25 1.50 1.75
1.307 1.321 1.343 1.369 1.394 1.426 1.460 1.497 1.574 1.634
1.566
. 10.6 8 10 . 100 6
1.098 1.104 1.110 1.114 1.114 1.110 1.099 1.082 1.037 1.000
1.191
........
34.4 37.3 41.8 46.9 . 52.0 .... 58.4 .... 65.2 ..... ..... ... ... ..... 72.5 ... 88.1 100.0
27.0
.. .......
0.883 x 10. 6
0.997 x 10.8 -
0.973 x 0.935 x 0.892 x 0.847 x 0.801 x 0.81]x 0.812 0.804 0.795 0.785 0.774 0.764 0.751 0.722 0.690
1.193 1.189 1.174 1.151 1.121 1.072 1.077 1.082 1.088 1.093 1.096 1.097 1.094 1.078 1.047 1.000 1.261 1.253 1.232 1.201
27.4
..
29.8 33.3 37.0 41.3 45.8 71.5 69.4 66.2 62.5 58.3 53.5 49.2 43.5 31.3 17.7
45.6
. .
1.802 1.814 1.833 1.855 1.880 1.908 1.934 1.967 2.039 2.119 2.224 1.883 1.943 2.039' 2.138
10.8 x 106 x 10"1 x 10. 6 x 10. 6 " x 10 " c x 10 6 x 10.8 x 10"0 x 10. 6
.
23.5 30.6 33.8 37.5 41.7 46.5 50.8 56.5 68.7 82.3 100.0
.... ...
.......
American Petroleum
5 Frequency Factor,
F,
10
11
86 86 86
86
86 86. 86 86
87
0.699 x 10 .C
.......
...... ........
..... I
.......
.......
........
87 87 87
87 87
1.50 1.75
2.00 2.25
2.413 2.430
2.450 2.472
87
87
2.50
2.75
2.496
2.523
0.594 x 10.6
1.062 1.066
1.071 1.075
27.7 30.3
33.2 36.4
72.3 69.7
66.8 63.6
0.588- 106 .6
0.582 x 10
1.079
1.082
39.9
43.9
60.1
56.1
'
87 87 87
88
. ....
.
96 96 96 96 96 96 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 98 98 98 98 98
98 98
1.06 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 1.06 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.2 4 1.06 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.26
2.50 1.25
2.382 2.435 2.511 2.607 2.703 2.806 2.645 2.670 2.707 2.751 2.801 2.856 2.921 2.989 3.132 3.068
3.076
0.670 x 10.0 0.655 x 10.6 0.633 x 10.66 0.606 x 10. 6 0.678 x 10. 0.549 x 10-6 0.568 x 10.6 0.563 x 10 " 0.556 x 10.0 0.548 x 10.0 0.538 x 10.6 0.528 x 10-6 0.516 x 10 6 0.503 x 10 6 0 .475 x 10.6 0.476 x 10.8 0.472 x 10-4 0.470 x 10.0 0.468 x 10 .6 0.465 x 10-0
0.463 x 10.8 0.474 x W-6
1.222 1.224 1.223 1.213 1.196 1.172 1.120 1.124 1.131 1.137 1.141 1.143 1.141 1.135 1.111 1.043 1.048 1.051 1.055 1.058
1.062 1.045
19.1 20.6 22.4 24.8 27.1 29.6 19.6 20.8 22.5 24.5 26.8 29.4 32.5 36.1 42.9 21.2 23.8 25.7 27.7 30.1
32.7 22.2
19.2 20.5 22.5 25.1 27.9 30.7 20.0 21.2 23.0 25.0 27.4 30.2 33.1 35.3 41.9 78.8 76.2 74.3 72.3 69.9
67.3 77.8
19.5 20.7 22.8 25.1 27.4 29.8 60.3 58.0 54.5 50.4 45.7 40.4 34.4 28.6 15.2
...
. ....... .
.....
...
....
" ........
. .
.
98 98 98 98 99
'
. .......
........
...... ..... ..
........
...... ........
Lv
16
~
III' Ill.: lh
CalcuI,,IuIK
Rod String, % of each Bize 1 17.1 18.0 19.5 21.2 23.1 25.0 27.1 29.3 64.9 63.2 60.7 57.7 54.3 50.5 46.3 41.6 31.6 19.9 ......
.........
...
.. ......... ... ..
Rod* No. 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109
x 10- c x 10-6 x 10" x 10"0 x 10-8 x 10-1 x 10" 6 x 10-" x 10 "( x 10" 6
6 10. 6 10. 10-" 10.8 10 "c 10.6 10- c 10.0 10"0 10. 6 10" 0
0.378 x 0.378 x 0.377 x 0.376 x 0.375 x 0.374 x 0.372 x 0.371 x 0.367 x 0.33 x 0.354 x
......
........
..... .............
..........
...... .....
.......
.......
...... ........
*Rod No. shown in first column refers to the lurgest and smallest rod size in eighths of an inch. For example, Rod No. 76 in a two-way taper of 7/8 and 6/8 rods. Rod No. 85 Is a four-way taper of 8/8, 7/8, 6/8, and 5/8 rods. Rod No. 109 is a two-way taper of 1/4 and 1A rods, Rod No. 77 is a straight string of 7/8 rods, etc.
As the pump diameter increases the fluid load carried by the rods increases and the percentage of large rods in a tapered string increases accordingly.
5"
Plunger diameter
34.4% 41. %
75.2
%
65.f6 58.2 %
27.5 %
Rods
Characteristics of Sucker
a) Rod weight (Wr): Weight in air of the combined rod sizes Rod 65 x 106 pump Rod 55 Rod 66 Wr = 1.291 lb/ft.
b) Elastic Constant Stretch of unit length of rod (0 ft) per unit load applied (Ib) Er Er
in lbf
lb-ft
Er = 1.150 x 106
in
lb-ft Spring constLnt of a given length rod string (lbs ) load in pounds to stretch the total length L by one inch.
Kr K I r
E xL r
c) Frequency Factor
Ratio of natural frequency of uniform diameter rod string to natural frequency of tapered rod string. N
I
0-=Fc
No
N' 0
N o ' = tapered string frequency No = uniform diameter frequency (larger diameter) Rod 65 x 1.06 pump -
= 1.085
Natural Frequenc, of Rod String Velocity of propagation in rod immersed in fluid = 16,300 ft/sec.
Fundamental mode. *
I
Maximum
displacement (amplitude) at L. L
F
o 0
16300 ft/sec x 60 sec/min 4 L
4L
245000 L ( ncycles
minute
19
Characteristics of Rod String When sucker rods are combined into a rod string of a given length driving a given pump the characteristics of the system are expressed in terms of certain dimensionless parameters and in design calculations.
Rod Stretch
For a total force F applied to a rod string of length L the rod stretch will be given by:
= Fx(ErL) _
-K
r 12
The where
Ar E
F r 12 E -
LA
L22 A
L3 A3_]
For a unit operating with a polished rod stroke 5, the ratio of the rod stretch to the stroke is a measure of the stiffness of the system and is defined as dimensionless rod stretch. When F (the static load correponding to the
20
S
-
F
SK
Dimensionless Pumping Speed This parameter expresses the relation between the speed of the pumping unit, N (strokes per minute) to the fundamental frequency of the rod string. (N or No' o
Dimensionless Pumping Speed: N
N
0
(N =
2N0
2N0
5 '-
2N are more
No 2
N o
4 . ...
Maximum pumping speed corresponds to the asynchronous speed well below the free fall speed of the rods. d) Downhole Pumps Basically consist of positive displacement single cylinder pumps with one intake and one outlet valve. There are two basic types: tubing pumps and rod pumps.
Rod Pumps -- Run onto the sucker rods, they fit
21
of the tubing.
Types of Barrels:
L - liner
metal plunger.
H - heavy wall S - thin wall P - heavy wall
soft packed
--
Barrel
T. V.
Rod Pump
Tubing Pump
p
22
The rod pump offers the advantage of complete replacement without having to pull the tubing from the well. In the tubing pump both valves and plunger can be replacedbby pulling the rods. Tubing pumps offer the largest plunger area and thus the largest volumetric displacement. Pumping Cl During one complete cycle fluid is admitted into the pump barrel and then transferred to the tubing through the hollow pump plunger. During the upstroke the fluid column in the tubing is supported by the sucker rods through the travelling valve. During the downstroke the fluid is supported by the
tubing through the standing valve. The following diagram illustrates the cycle for a tubing pump
--
--
/,
V,
DOWN
UP
TOP
Pump Capacity:
IF
It is a function of the net stroke of the plunger, the plunger diameter, the pumping speed and the volumetric efficiency: Q = 0.15 x Ev x Ap x Sp x N
Ev = volumetric efficiency
Sp = net plunger stroke (in)
Ap = plunger area (in 2 )
N
=
Standard pumps are characterized by a pump constant: upConstant Pump os(SPM)(inch Barrels per day of travel)
so that the pump capacity can be expressed as: Q = (Pump Constant) (N) (Sp) Also a fluid load factor is tabulated, which corresponds to the weight per foot of the fluid column supported by a given plunger diameter assuming a fluid specific.gravity of 1.00.
24
The following tables present this information for standard size pumps.
PUMP CONSTANTS 2 Plunger diameter, in D. I:, 11/4 1", 1. 2 2V4 2;, 2V 34, 4;4 Plg dlam squared sci n D.3 1 1289 1.5625 2.2500 3.0625 4.0000 5.0625 6.2500 7.5625 14.0625 22.5625 3 Fluid load factor* lb pet It (0.340 . D,,l ) 0384 0.531 0 765 1.041 1.360 1 721 2 125 2.571 4.781 7.671 4
Pump factor (0 1166 - 0,I 0132 0 182 0.262 0.357 0466 0.590 0.728 0.81 1.640 2.630
TUBING DATA
5
Elastic constant. in. per lb It E, 0.500 x 10 1 0.307 x 10-' 0.221 x 10-6 0.154 x 10-' 0.130 x 10-' 0.111 x 10"1
MAXIMUM PUMP SIZE AND TYPE Pump type 1.900 Tubing one-piece. thin-wall barrel (TV)
Tubing one-piece. heavy-wall barrel (TH) Tubing liner barrel (TL) Rod one-piece, thin. wall barrel (RW) Rod one-piece, heavy wall barrel (RH) Rod liner barrel (RL)
Tubing size. in. 2. 1 ,4 1 13, 1V 1I/, 11, 2'6 214 2, 21,, 2 114 14, 3'., 2'1 244 23,t 21,: 2'/4 2!,4
', 1'
1 1',i
25
8UCKER ROD DATA 1 Metal Rod Size ' Aroa, Sq in. 0.196 0.307 0.442 3 liad Weight in a~r, Ib per ft mE 0.72 1.13 1.63 2.22 2.90 8.67 4 Elastic Constant, in. per lb ft 1.990 x 104 1.270 x 104 0.883 z 10
.4
.
1
1000 3/4
23/4
100
2 1it 2 2 1/4 2
/ 14
2
3/ 2 3/4
2 3/4
23/4 2 12 2 14 23/4
13/4 2 1 3/4 2
2 1/142 L 2 2 2 2 1/4
1 3/4
2 1/4
1oz 12
1 1/4 6000
1 1/2 1 1/
1 3/'
1 3/4 1 1/2
1 3/4
1 3/4
1 1/4
7000 1 1/0 1 1/4 1 1/8
1 1/2
1 1/4
26
Pump Efficiency The volumetric efficiency of the pump depends principally upon the fillage of the barrel. This in turn is related to the presence of gas, the
viscosity of the fluid being pumped and the pumping speed. Slippage of oil past the plunger also affects the volumetric efficiency. Slippage of Oil Past Plunger
3 3.6 x dx c x A P x 106 v x L
Q/leak d
In addition leakage of fluid past the valves reduces the pump efficiency
-i
Net Plunger Stroke The cyclic nature of the rod and pump motion introduces sequential loading and unloading of the sucker rods and tubing. The calculation of plunger stroke thus requires correcting the surface stroke at the polished rod for the elastic deformation (stretch) of the rods and tubing. The dynamic nature of
the problem requires consideration of acceleration and vibration effects due to forcing oscillation of the rod string. The generalized problem including stress wave propagation has been solved numerically for numerous cases of standard combinations of rod sizes and pumps resulting in generalized dimensionless plots presented in API RPIIL. In general terms
Sp =
S - Sr - St + overtravel
Sr = rod stretch (inches) due to fluid load St = tubing stretch due to fluid load ( = zero if tubing is anchored) overtravel = acceleration and dynamic effects
28
SP.0
o
r
__
Fo
Kr
1.0
F/
I
-
Fo N
Therefore for a given rod (-Sk r Sp = (-) x S for anchored tubing If tubing is not anchored:
SSp
an d
0
the value (
is known.
=(
)xS
0t
Kt
where K
Et L
witere
29
I
.5
-
.20
.30
40
F
Sk,
-
1. 4
1.3
.0
-
--
1.2
.15
.05
--...
*.
0.4---
0,9
0.5
"
"
K-I.-
,F
-iv
--- i.7-t .-
0.4Kt
i-
--
r .f
-
..-.
- i-
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
No,
FIGURE 4.1
30
If the above dimensionless plot is not available the net plunger travel can be calculated as: 12F
o 1
L2
L3
12 F
LT
+
SN2 M 70500
+ TT
L I _L 2 A2
E
L3
"
The above relation does not include dynamic effects caused by stress wave propagation Li, L 2 , L 3 = lengths of rods of areas A,, A 2 , A3
LT = tubing length, (ft)
(in ) At = tubing cross-sectional area Wr = averages rod weight (lb/ft) S = surface stroke (in) N = pumping speed (SPM) E = Young's modulus (psi) M = machinery factor accounting for pumping unit geometry and its effect on acceleration. Calculation of Loads Pumping system design requires the calculation of maximum and
minimum loads experienced during the pump cycle. These loads determine the size of the pumping unit the torque rating of the gear reducer and the power of the prime mover. Peak Polished Rod Load
31
J Rod !.oad =
t of rods in fluid - acceleration - friction
re determined from static loads by considering acceleration Cts. tor n is simplified considering that sucker rods are subjected to motion. ollowing schematic diagram for a conventional unit.
07
Angle o 0
Angle
32
where C r
N radians/sec.
max
2 TrN )2C
60
-7.
I2Cr
The acceleration
at the
polished
rod
is
obtained by
introducing
on the
aMN2S NM M
91.2
rods is given by a
In practice, acceleration factor should be less than 0.3 so that a maximum pumping speed can be estimated as:
N max
21150
33
The acceleration factor does nit include other effects due to vibration and stress wave propagation in the sucker rods. Dimensionless Load Analysis API RPIIL provides dimensionless vibration effects. charts that include acceleration and
These will depend on how near resonance frequency the They are expressed in
S)
F I
k-r
F,
4-
, dimensionless
--
34
.0 o -1 ,
3
/ I
Fo
- -
- -
- -
- -
_---
II
--
'
0.4
03
02
oc
Ol
0.2
. N
0.4
05
06
35
F
For a given rod and pumping speed the N and o
parameters are Nk r o Fl calculated 2nd the value of Sr 1 is obtained from the chart. The peak
r
Wrf +
Sk
r
x Skr
VII
36
50
Sk
F2
I. .
Skr...
.... .... .
No
N 0
rXSk
37
Torque Calculation Peak ?norque determines the size of the gear reducer for a given unit. Torque is a function of pitman pull, length of stroke and angular position of crank. Tmax =(W
WB)
x Td
in-lb
Wma
(Ibs)
WB
S
Td = dynamic factor
38
wr:f t
Wfr
- -
-
w
WfrIWfr
rf
Torque (Wf+Wrf+Wa
Wfr
Wb)CR
Wd
wa
\ Wb
/
CB Tf wa Torque =(W
Wfr
wbf
Wa
Wfr
39
For ideal operating conditions set: Torque Up = Torque Down and assume same acceleration and iriction W + 2 Wrf = 2 Wb
VI b Wrf + 1 Wf
Wf
+2
NOTE: Wb is the counterbalance effect at the crank counterbalance effect at the P.R.
Wr
-W
rb
7.85- I 7.85
W = 0.87 Wr r
The above assumes that kinetic and frictional effects are the same in the upstroke and downstroke. This is not true due to the unit's geometry. Effect of Rod Dyiamics Peak torque also is a function of the rod dynamics - since it depends on the peak load. This is handled with dimensionless plots of torque: 2K PT = ($ S2T r )x Sk r x S x Ta
Ta is adjustment necessary if
Wrf
-r
0.3
40
.I
N
PEAK TflAQUL. F ,R VALUES OF Wfg/Sir :3 USE TOR~QUE A( JU5TNEHT FOR OTHER VALUES OF Wa /Si,.
:
FIGURE 4.4
rT .....
PEAK TORQUE
75I
,0.6 %9
NN
0.41
0.-
---
---
--
-----
-,.
-5
F k
F,
\j
0.3
1.0%
0.2
'
15%
-T-
0. 0.0/
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
N N0
I't
Skr
--
0,600 0,I18
w it
ADJUSTMENT :3%, FOR EACH 0.1 INCREASE IN TOTAL ADJUsrMENT* 3 x 3 / To - 1.00 4 0.09 : 1.09 NOTE:IF W11 IS LES' THAN
0
ABOVE 0..
90/,
42
Power Requirements Prime mover horsepower can be estimated from the hydraulic power required to lift fluid to the surface: Hydraulic Horsepower = (0.00737) (D) (Q) D = net lift in thousands of feet Q = flow rate BBI/day The brake horsepower is then estimated applying an efficiency factor. Brake Horsepower Efficiency 0.35
=Hydraulic
Horsepower efficiency
more
accurate
calculation
of
power can
be
undertaken
using
the
dimensionless plot of peak polished rod horsepower from API RPI IL.
06
. .... t.~~
.. ... .
..
I.I
..-.... 4
- -- -
--- I...k__ |
I
F0 = Fo
0 .5
017
..... _.... ..
.
..
Fo
.4 -r0 =
Sk
F0
~~~I~t7Fo
.....
-1 --i-....
'-
S-= r
0.2
Sk,
04r 0k0
.J...... I .. .
Tv0
I .... .
1.
,.
V i
i......
7 ---
k S
.. I
f_0- = 0 4 8 0 6
o-
4":'
"
00102
. ...
03
04
0.5.
0.6
0.7
N,
pa
/V
POWVER
44
Rod String Fatigue A modified Goodman diagram is used to insure that the maximum and minimum rod loads result in rod stresses within acceptable range.
Tensile Stren.gth
T/3
b0,000
psi
T/6t
-T
Mean Stress
-T/6
-T/3
For sucker rods the operating region is defined by: T max provided
Tma x
-<
1 6 T+
4
Tav
T/3
45
T .
Vm il M
Tar
- T)
provided T in T max o
and Tmi are obtained by dividing PPRL and MPRL by the rod's cross min
sectional area.
46
Pumping System
esi
Whether the design involves selecting a new unit or using an existing unit the objective will be t exceeding the: Allowable Beam Load
Allowable Torque
Rod Stress
The basic information required includes: Formation Productivity
Fluid Properties
The productivity is used to calculate the depth of the working fluid level at the desired rate. The fluid properties are used in the load calculations and to determine special restrictions on pumping speed (high viscosity). Initial choices are made for: Pump depth Pumping speed Polished rod stroke Pump diameter Rod string design. Then the plunger stroke and pump displacement are calculated and checked with the desired rate. If not satisfied new parameters (rod size, pumping produce the desired amount of fluids without
speed, pump size) are selected until the rate requirement is fulfilled. The loads are then calculated and used to select the appropriate pumping unit size, gear reducer and prime mover. Selection charts and tables published in API BUL11L4 determining initial choico of parameters. are very usefu! in
2000
'
s 1
TORQUE:
912.000
912,000 912.000 640,000 640,000 640.000 640.000
STROKE: 120
144 168 85 100. 120 144 .
.ROD...
96
96 96 97. 96.
000o
1700
" 0
96
96
1600
1
140o 1400
i,
,68 120 86
86 100
85 87 86
96 96
,2
130
120
10 74 74 86
96
9
76
85
85....
120,
I-
<120
0
In
I. -.
900
100
320,000
228.000 228.000 228,000 160.000
100
64 74 74 54
86
75 75 85 65
1000
,.
90020
V)
620
o1
23 130
54 64
"64 48
75 75_ 85.
55 .
2A
700 600
zoo 26
o4
2
27 2 20
2t
AOo
1,2
.48 54 54 42 42
-"-
27
20
to3
33
48
54 36
64. 65 75 55 54 54 54 64 54
80,00OCO80.000
57.000
32
21S
300
36 7 3334
-oo
24
j
:
29
57.000
D
42
54
54
57.000
48
w
37
13/4"""
BEAM LIMIT- 36,500
3 3/4
36 23/4-
1/2,
2 1/411
35
%/
~33
32 '31 2200 3/A "
PROD.
3 3/4"
30
2000 2"
:. 29 01&oo
m 2a w w m 27 1400 U, 2-7 U
026
11
3 3/A"
t2wioo
STRESS
2 3/11,
2 3 '4'*
n1200
-- "
100
25 wDEPTH.
30
30
35
40
45 100 FT.
3/A"
55
60
2 1/4".
Company:
Date:
State:
Ft. - Stroke Length
Field:
.Inches SPM
Tubing Size
Inches -
Rod Size:
Pumping Speed
x
1000 +. x
=
.(
__
4.
5. 6. 7. 8.
x =
_xa
245,000
ax_
9.
TA=+
%.Table7 x
x( 0= 1+ ,FE-.
-. 3),
,o].
CONVENTIONAL UNITS
=
_
MPRL - WRF-
14.
,,
15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
PPRL = WRF + Fo + .85x (F1,Table4 x SKR-Fo) MPRL - PPRL-(F1, Table 4 CBL = 1.06 x F2, Table S) x SKR1.06 x (
_+
.85 + 4
a I
x +2
x
_=
-.
)=
IPPRL
+ MPRL).i-2
x .96 _
x .96'
MARK II UNITS
20. 21. 22. 23. 24. PPRL = WRF' -Fo+.75x(F1,Table4xSKR-Fo= MPRL = PPRL-IF1, Table 4 + F2, Table 5Ix SKI CBL= 1.04 x (PPRL + 1.25x MPRLI-2 = 1.04 xl PT
*
_4 .
.75xi +
)=
_-(
I x
"2 _ 1.2) x
_ _
+ 1.25 x
=
IPPRL x .93-
( -.-
x .93
-_x
+4_
25.
NOTE: Do Not Use Less Than One Size Smaller Reduced Than Required For Conventional Unit
March 1973
50
Pumping System Performance The principal objectives for determining performance are: a) c) d) Determine whether the system is operating according to design Identify changes in operating conditions that require operator's attention. Identify causes of performance change.
The two main techniques for performance analysis are the Dynamometer Survey and the Fluid Level Survey.
Dynamometer Survey The load-displacement curve is measured at the polished rod during one or more complete pumping cycles. The resulting diagram is compared with theoretical or with previously measured diagrams in order to identify abnormal characteristics.
Ideal Dypamometer Diagram The following schematic diagrams illustrate the various components that combine in the dynamometer diagram.
51i
Load-displacement curve, measured at the polished rod for inelastic, "zero" speed case.
upstroke
load
Wf
downstroke
friction
Wrf
plunger stroke
displacement
a)
load
rod stretch
stroke
e-
length
52
b)
Influence of acceleration
load
Increase
due to acceleration
decrease due to
acceleration I I stroke length
c)
load
,5IK.
~-s.v. opens
_T V T.V. l - -_ . opens
stroke
length
53
d)
load
stroke
length
minimum
load
stroke
length
54
Ir
Atlantic Field
8186
FT
Arkansas
SMACKOVER LIKE FORMATION WATER 270 SP. GRAV. DAILY PRODUCTION: OIL.I:-22 A.V.E 68.9 PCT 18 S.P.M. 64 'N. STROKE LENGTH B.H.P, _ PUMPING _ FLUID LEVEL: STATIC . PUMPER - 4 WELL CLASSIFICATION: AGITATOR 0 1L5 RQ- CASING HEAD PRES. DOES WELL POUND-a YF, HzS CORROSIVE CONDITIONS: PITTING-Yr-a 4 _ 2 IN. TUBING SIZE alUCASING SIZESRFEET w
No TUBING ANCHORED GAS ANCHOR TOTAL DEPT
SUCKER RODS: 1 __ 7/8 -3/4_.2"-A. r 5/8"
_
"
3,00-3-50" .15-.30:NI .-
0-,507i7II:MA TYPESTEELC ,07. <
I 1P PLGR. .N_.LI-T -314 IN. 2 PUMP -. CA 2r HP ELETRI MOTOR PUMPING UNITJ-L&--8.LMr---2 0 2 85 0 IN.-0: . PEAK TORQUE UNIT RATING: LOAD-25-M000LRATIO X DOUBLE GEAR BOX: SINGLE.
CARDS SHOW VERY
SMOOTH OPERATION.
THESE DYNAMOMETER
HAVE A REASONABLE
CHANCE
MEANS THE SUCKER RODS
THIs
OPERATION
IN
SPITE OF THE CORROSIVE
:ROUBLE-FAEE
FOR Is 26,000 PsI.
FLUID CONDITIONS.
UNIT STRESS
10L
RPM ENGINE
11,500 L8
3,800 Lb
7,700 LB
18 8PM
64 IN.
11.02
TIME
1170
11:00 AM
ZEKIV
MAX MIN
LOAD LOAD
11,500 LB
3,800 L8
7,700 LB
18 SPM
RANGE
SPEED
STROKE
HP POL ROD
ENGINE RPM
TIME
64
IN.
10.64
1170
11:15 AM
ZERO
55
o.
2
I
.
4' In z W-
WELL CLASSIFICATION: AGITATOR PUMPER . Nonr CASING HEAD PRES. Yrs DOES WELL POUND 0h
No HzS No CORROSIVE CONDITIONS: PITTING CASING SIZE!LtFET 2025 TUBING SIZF 2 I GAS ANCHOR No TUBING ANCHORED No SUCKER RODS: I 7/6 __ 3/4'202e . 5/8"
TYPE STEEL 2 PUMP PUMPING UNIT 1035 CARBON SaZ PLGR.SIZE 7 c ' - /4 -. TWIN CRANK MOTOR IA HP 1-_/4
4-vTi
INr
UNIT RATING: LOAD-1I-0.4Lrin fi PEAK TORQUF 57,000 IN.-LL GEAR BOX: SINGLE DOUBLE L RATIO.2933/1
THESE CARDS ARE STRIPPER WELLS. CHARACTERISTIC IN THIS TYPE OF OF LOW WELL PRODUCTION IT IS OR
OFTEN
0 -
DIFFICULT TO
DECREASE THE PUMP DISPLACEMENT ENOUGH
TO COMPLETELY ELIMINATE THE FLUID POUND. A Ii IN.
PUMP OPERATING AT 20 To 24-42 IN. SPM SHOULD PRODUCE
THE MAXIMUM VOLUME THIS WELL WILL MAKE.
10
MAX LOAD MIN LOAD RANGE SPEED -STROKE POL ROD HP ZERO TIME 6,800 5,000 20
I
LS
LB
sPM IN.
1,800 LB
42 1.71
11:30 AM
MAX LOAD MIN LOAD RANGE SPEED STROKE POL ROD HP TIME
7,200 LB
3,000 LB
4,200 LB
20 sPM
42 IN. I .14 12:15 PM
ZERO
56
0*
Livingston Field
South Texas
WltcO FORMATION B150 FT TOTAL DEPTH 3 SP. GRAV. -WATER 50 Oil DAILY PRODUCTION: A.V.E. 39.2 P T 212 S.P.M. 64 IN. STROKE LENGTH B.H.P._ FLUID LEVEL: STATIC 50B6 FT. PUMPING_ "PUMPER X WELL CLASSIFICATION: AGITATOR a. 30 1 CASING HEAD PRES. DOES WELL POUND---h2Ih No HZS No CONDITIONS: PITTING CORROSIVE IN. ? TUBING SIZF INFEETL25 CASING SIZF L" No TUBING ANCHORED " IN. GAS ANCHOR 10 FT FT 3/4' 1650 FT 5/8-5475 7/8 SUCKER RODS: 1'
4620 NICK!
IOLyHDrNU
t" II
TwIN
Y IS FT
CRANK
R .
PLGR. SIZF
1" IN,
GAS
0 6-
MOTOR.0IITI-CYL
MAX
LOAD
13,000
LB
MIN LOAD
RANGE SPEED STROKE POL ROD
6,600 LB
6,400 Lb
17 SPM
HP
64 IN.
6.1
TIME
8:05 AM
ZERO
MAX
MIN
LOAD LOAD
10,200
9,000
LB
LB
RANGE
SPEED
STROKE POL ROD TIME
1,200 LB
13 SPM
64 HP
IN.
0.9
8:35 AM
ZERO
57
o.
PET
2.
140
_-_
w
U-
THIS
PROGRESSIVE
PUMP-OFF AND
STRING
or 3/4-INcH
FACTORILY STRESS ON IN
CASE, THIS
TOP
THE
TIME ZERO
9:00 AM
MAX
LOAD
4.6 11:30 AM
58
0-
2-
a.
0 Iw
L. In 0
PUMPING UNIT
TWIN
CRANK
MOTOR
GAS
ENGINE
25
HP
6I
15,000 LS PEAK TOROUF 113,000 IN.-Le UNITRATING: LOAD '30.6/I RATIO x DOUBLE GEAR BOX: SINGLE._
THE GENERAL THIRD ORDER AT THE CARDS ARE OF WATER. VOLUMETR;C SUCKER ROD
a-
8EGINNING
DOWNSTROKE,
CONSISTENT IT SHOULD
13,200
LB
3,BO0 LB
9,400 LB
SPEED
STROKE
16 sPM
56 IN.
POL
ROD
HP
9.3
ZERO
MAX MIN
LOAD LOAD
13,200 3,800
9,400
LB
LB
LB
RANGE
SPEED
STROKE
16 56
HP
SPm
IN.
POL
ROD
9.3
ZERO
k'1
59
Dynamometer
curve
indicate possible
o
2S-_
_
_ -I
---
: ,3000
-
,___ /
10500
I.
.- 80-
0 300 c
3600330
600 3000
q00
2700
120)
2400
150
0
I1&0"
e13 1S3
CRANK ANGLE
Torque factor depends on unit geometry. Torque is positive on upstroke and negative on downstroke.
A
4.5
[
A
V &/
-J0
*.GAJkS.2JCT):
3 .0
-~-
l 0 FRON
19o
ro
30
I")
CRANK ANGLE,
60
Computer programs are available to interpret dynamometer information and by removing the dynamic effects j', 1he rod string obtain an equivalent
Continuous Monitoring of Well Load In automated production facilities (CPC Systems) it is possible to
monitor continually the well load. Use beam load monitor (strain gauges) or polished rod load cell. Usually position information is not monitored, but some systems also include an angular position transducer that monitors angular displacement of beam. Load monitoring allows determination of well pump-off when unit can be shut down to save power. malfunctions: a) b) c) d) Rod failures Pump wear Friction Pump efficiency determination
well The same system is available in portable form allowing fast diagnosis of which are not connected to CPC Systems.
Fluid Level Survey Performance analysis of pumping wells requires determination of annulus
61
fluid level. This in turn allows determination of flowing bottom-hole pressure. In some key wells, permanent bottom-hole pressure recorders are installed, that give surface indications of bottom-hole pressure. The problem of determining fluid level has been solved by means of acoustic surveys ($Sonolog).
Since pressure affects soundvelocity
the determination relies on tubing collar reflections. Curves are also available
that include effect of pressure and temperature on gas acoustic velocity.
The following diagram represents a typical record obtained from an Echometer Survey. (Next page).
Flowing BHP Calculations The conversion of fluid level to bottom-hole pressure is complicated by the difficulty in establishing the gradient of the fluid in the annulus. Method I Assume that fluid gradient is not affected by pressure. Two fluid levels are taken with different back pressure in the annulus. Measurements are taken sufficiently far apart to insure that steady state conditions of pumping are achieved.
62
5HOT
2
3
10
'I
12
13
19
14
17
20
21
222
23
24
24
25
26
27
FLUID
LEVEL
JBJECT
G3
Walker's nethod
e.,nIa h" asing A'O-,02;
A e . t
el.t
..
:'.:-
.l,. .
....
.
p.e.it
:"e"
. . .. . .
.*'rn~-, '.h
.lua
suI
as
qJ'dm
P g s +-
Pressure for \
.'cuFlowing
bottoi
-,,--e
assure
fl~
It is imperative that the same fluid production be obtained at the two casing back pressures.
Method 2 Close casing to depress fluid level to the pump, until well pumps-off. Then Pwf CHP +Gg D
The production rate is disturbed by the flow of gas into the tubing. where: CHP + Casinghead pressure (psi) Gg = Gas gradient (psi)
G4
Method 3 Calculetion of the casing liquid gradient based on tI free liquid and the valume of gas that is being annulus. The ratio of q
APO0. 4
correlated with
= ,. k., m
.
at pressure P (psia)
0 0.1
02
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0..
fJ .
...
R
m This allows determining the g~adient of the mixture.
Since the pressure is not
vit~aW known at a given point, successive approximations are required corresponding
Uqu~dGCF b
determined from a pressure build-up of the casing which is shut in after taking the sonolog.
65
R R Prssr (psi/min)
Pressure
time
Time
P 0.68 R(
D
+
A D
g 433 G
mcf
day-sqin.
Pg = gas pressure at D
G = gas gravity
Pg
(.1
D 40000
)P c
P
-
G y=
0.433 x R m x
yZ
psi/ft
\2f
66
PC
Pressure
Pq
pg+AP
\Pg
PI
I
I
Pg+2AP I
PgR3AP 9
I
GL
IAhl I
I I
E
T Ah
2/
H
oil
gas
0 D
2~e
h
3
C,
0
SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS
INTRODUCTION
An electric submersible puming system is
generally considered
It is most applica to be a high volume type of artificial lift. the influence of a water drive or
under ble in wells that are
or low GOR's. This
waterflood and that have high water cuts
on two key characteristics of the submersible
application is based
pumping system:
(1) The system can efficiently deliver the largest
amount of horsepower at
the pump of any pumping
system in the small diameter casing sizes used
in oilfield applications.
at much higher
(2) Centrifugal pumps can produce
displacement pumps in wells
than positive rates
of limited diameters.
The submersible pump is
a multistage electrical centrifugal
pump that operates completely submerged in the fluid it pumps.
tl-e pump, the motor, the
The major components of the system are
such as
seal section or protector, cable, and surface equipment submersible installation transformer aad switchboard. A typical is shown in 'igure 1.
SWITCNKIGO / /---,
ALSURI'AC['
WELL
KEAD
Y[K'l
|O
DRAINfVALVE
'
TUlING
CASING
IUNTAI[
SEAL t[CTION
M OTORI
Figure 1.
Typical Submersible Installation __1
---
COMPONENTS
Motor
The submersible electric motor is a 3-phase, induction
A high
type, that is oil-filled for cooling and lubrication. starting torque enables it to reach full load operating speed of
3475 rpm in less than fifteen cycles, thus reducing drag on the
Cooling is achieved by heat transfer to well power supply. For this reason, the unit is usually fluid moving by the motor. If the motor is to be set producing interval. set above the within or below the producing interval, a cooling jacket (shroud)
over the motor and seal section is recommended to force the produced fluid to travel down and then inside the shroud. In this manner the necessary cooling can be maintained. Seal Section or Protector
seal section performs four basic functions which are:
The 1. Connects the pump housing to the motor housing
by connecting the drive shaft of the motor to the pump shaft.
2. Seals the power end of motor from the wellbore
Uluids while allowing pressure communication
between the motor and wellbore fluids.
3. Houses a marine-type thrust bearing which absorbs
axial loading from the pump.
4. Provides the necessary volume for expansion of
the motor's oil which results from heat generated when the motor is in operation.
Separator or Intake Section
Gas The gas separator is a bolt-on section between the protector
It is designed
and the pump where it serves as the pump intake.
-2
-3
Simple units may contain only push-button, magnetic contac More sophisticated switchboards tots and overload protection. for time-delayed underload mot,. :nrtrollers will use solid state protection oD all three phases, time delayed overload protection,
and automatic protection against voltage unbalance conditions.
Most switchboards will also contain recording ammeters to give
immediate indications of problems or abnormal operation.
Downhole Pressure Monitors
Another valuable device to include is a "donhole-pressure
Valuable reservoir and pump
monitor" strip chart recorder.
-4
Wellhead
The wellhead must be equipped with a tubing head bonnet or
pack-off which provides for a positive seal around the cable and
There are several methods available from we!.
the tuLi.ng. manufacturers for providing this pack-off. Depending on
method used, the pack-off will be capable of holding from 500
psi pressure in the simple pack-off systems to over 3000 psi in
the more sophisticated systems.
Transformer
Transormer selection depends on the primary power system
and the required surface voltage and current. Banks of three
single-phase transformers or three-phase auto transformers are
If the well might require a larger pump unit in the
available. is most economical to install the larger size trans future, it former initially.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Sizing of submersible pumping equipment is critical. Each
model of pump has a limited throughput range within which it
will operate without creating excessive wear due to thrust be tween the pump diffusers and floating impellers.
con The design of a submersible pumping unit, under most
not a difficult task if reliable data is available.
ditions, is the well's capac-
But if the data, especially that pertaining to
In such
ity, is poor, the design will usually be marginal. cases, a pump is usually sized incorrectly. An oversized pump
will run in downthrust and result in excessive thrust bearing and
stage wear, thus reducing the life Of the equipment. Units
operating in a pumped-off condition can accelerate cable failure,
especially-the flat cable.
Here, without liquid to help dissipate
the heat, the temperature can become excessive.
Water Cut Wells
High a In sizing
submersible unit for a high WOR application
the following seven-step procedure should be used:
1. Collect and analyze well production, fluid, and
electrical power data.
2. Determine the well productivity at the desired
pump setting depth or determine the pump setting
depth for the desire- production rate.
3. Calculate the "Total Dynamic Head" (TDH).
-5
is:
The simplified equation for Total Dynamic Head
H = hd + ft + Pd
-6
Pump Selection
Choice ot the pump is based on estimated fluid producing
rates and casing size. The largest diameter pump which the casing
will permit is usually the most economical choice. The pump
selected should have the desired capacity within its optimum
limits and nearest its peak efficiency.
After selecting the correct pump, the number of stages
required to produce the anticipated cpacity against the previously
calculated total dynamic head can be made using the pump perfor mance curve. This may be calculated as follows by reading the
head per stage and the desired pumping rate:
Total Dynamic Head (ft) Head per Stage (ft/stage)
Number of Stages
Motor Selection
Submersible pump motors are available in a wide range of
horsepowers and operating voltages. The required motor size
for a predetermined pump size is proportional to the number
of stages and the specific gravity of the produced fluid. The
equation may be written:
HP or 3HP = No. of Stages x HP/Stage x Sp. Gr.
The motor voltage selected for a given installation is
dependent on available surface voltage, casing-tubing dimensions,
economics, and future horsepower requirements. The required
surface voltage is the sum of the cable IR drop and the rated
motor operating voltage. When the voltage loss becomes too
great, a higher voltage (lower amperage) motor is required.
Generally, when the pump setting depth is 5,000 ft or more,
a higher voltage motor will yield the best economics for an
-7
Switchboard
Switchboards are offered in a range of voltages from 440
Selection is based upon ratings of voltage,
through 5000&volts. amperage, horsepower and future requirements.
Transformers
The type of transformer required depends on the primary
power system and the required surface voltage. Three-phase
auto-transformers are generally required for increasing voltages
fom a 440/'480 volt system to an 800 to 1000 volt range. A
bank of three single-phase transformers is usually needed for
reducing the higher voltage primary to the required surface
voltage if they are below the 440/480 volt level.
In choosing either type of transformer, the following
equation is recommended.
1.73 x Vs x Am
KVA =
1,000
Where: KVA Vs
= =
1000 volt-amperes Surface Voltage (Vm + V I ) This value is the sum of motor nameplate 1 voltage (Vm) and the voltage loss (V ) in the electric cable between the motor and the switchboard Motor nameplate current in Amps
Am
l.
Physical Description
a. Casing Size b. Tubing
7" OD, 29#
6300 ft of 3-1/2"OD UE 8rd
-8
c.
d.
Total Depth
Perforations
7500 ft
6400 ft - 6900 ft
e. f. 2.
Production Data
a. Static Fluid Level (Pi) b. Present Pumping Fluid
Level
(Pwf ) Producing Rate c. Present d. BH Temperature e. Gas-Fluid Ratio f. Water-Oil Ratio g. Surface Discharge
Pressure h. Casing Pressure
i. Static Bottom Hole
300
0.876
1.02
Power Supply
a. b. Voltage Service Line capacity 12,470 v.30, 6Hz
Adequate
q/qmax =
l-0.2(P/Ps) - 0.8(P/Ps)
-9
.lo.
5TA'C.
LIQUID LCVEL
ZOOO
-&co
vi
,-vo
PRu
4000
. ..
..
+" . "I'R" 0
LsLPD4)
+5D.BFD
i0
After the weli data has been collected and plotted, the
next step is to determine the well's production rate at the
desired pump setting depth. This rate should be chosen from
the IPR curve at a producing fluid level where there is some,
but not an excessive amount of fluid over the pump.
From the IPR data, we would design for a production rate
of 4,500 BFPD with a producing liquid level of 6,000 ft.
Total Dynamic Head (TDH)
TDH = hd hd + ft + Pd
=
6,000 ft
ft
6300 ft 00 ft
x 53
334 feet
Pd
specific gravity
= discharge pressure head.
Assume or 1.02
of heaviest fluid to be pumped 100 psi x 2.31 psi/'t
= 226.ft
1.02
=
Pd
6560 ft
Pump Selection
After calculating the TDH and knowing the casing size, the
pump type can be selected and number of stages determined. The
casing size determines the series, or largest outside diameter
of the pump and motor that can be used.
7", 29# casing for this example and using a
Assuming REDA Pump for illustration, (see Table 1 and Figure 3), the
correct pump would be "G" type, 540 series (5.13 in. OD) pump.
I. For a desired rate of 4500 BFPD:
Select G-150, Recommended Range 4400-6400 BFPD
Pump stages are designed to be in hydraulic balance near
the peak efficiency. The recommended range on the pump
curve defines these limits.
Pump will operate in downthrust
to the left of the recommended range or operate in upthrust
to the right of the recommended range. Mechanical wear
due to unbalance can shorten the pump life and the pro tector thrust bearing load will be significantly increased.
-11
TABE1E 1
WREDA
PUMPS 60 Hz 3500 RPM
,U TSIE
OIAMETER SERIES JI NCHES) PUMP
TYPE
A-10
TABLES
" BP
_rr___r___
CAPACITY RANGE
7S
'4800 5 I 1()Q 75 I 1
280.J50
100-060 120-1800 780-460 30o-Im
45 1?
76-10
1l2.16
11-7c
191-2Q6 43-72 -6
.
338
3.3
9OO-500
100 =0 100
151-2!5
] 71 2]-] .
e oa
450 4.62 -A
20o
) 1
-0 ee
10-7,
6 334ort
175-272
E-100 ,-52E
540 5.13 G-62E (,-I5 g
I 'i
25
205 205 0
0O 29.00-4 o(
1600-2700 2200-3200 50J0 400 -6 Q00 060-OD
.,
a-H4 25--4 i
-g 3,0 $ 9-/ '
824
.5
00
3.00 00-875O
I
58713967
l 0-715 100 -I1 ' 94!7
- 150 ;-(20
-12-00-1500 30 )? )
562
650
S.62
6.62
M-350
1-250 1-300 J-400 J-600 L-IOSO 9M-520 5 O
1
1 1 I 1 I 1 1 105
-yo
510 slo ID10 510 1000 1 5 ]10 1000 IO000
1
1 I
9200-15200
6S00-9000 8ooo-,1boo 13600-19000 i7000-24000 32000-120%00 I(0-) 19000-)OOOO 1 1 1 1 1 1 I1 I
1462-2-06!
1033'$430 ,172-,822 2162-236Z 702.3816 5087-i677 008-3316 3020-.1;70 3816A)
6T5 825
6.7 .ZS
1 1
1 1
Z40O0-46OOG 35000-S550
N4-1S00 1
5564.3748,
FIGURE
TRW
Mvn,.u
Apri 1977
Cjta," S, e
, Fe
-,er .--- :
ot
. .
. .
.t
od
L.
4000
-,:
II
,.l I i ;
f I !!i
jI
6QV 20 30
2500 500 5
SoI
10
BPD
2000 300 4
3000
5000 too
6030 1050
0 70 20
000
CPM.BPO.34.3
CaaiyTYPO
CIS
;i:
,l
i-13
32.0
205 Stages
Motor
6,400 ft (Cable) x
Vs
= =
-14
-1
0
711/
/OX,
IIX
SIZA-11 11/W
AL . ALUMINUM
FIG.-
KVA
TO F1ND Amoer c
When Horse Powur (Input)
Is Known
Amps
KW X 1000
KV X> 1000
Volu
1OO
1000
Amps. X Volu
1000
Amps. X Volu X 1.73
kva
Flo-atts
1000
X 1000
1000
K\V X
1000
[Io.-r Factor
Amps. X Volts
or KW k"t
Horj
Por
AmpL X Volts X
ElciCncy
(Output)
744
Pa-er Factor and Efficinoy -hen used in sbove formulas should be exprrised as dctirmals. I For !.pha.4. A.wtrvsubstitute 2 instead of 1.73. f For -pksc. 3.-wire substitute 1.41 iisteJ of 1.73.
TABLE 2
-16
FAILURE ANALYSIS
-17
too
/9
DARco
_ _
-I,
%off
The start up on
t'is
t'inuing good production rate. Very little, or nc gas or rood gas separation, is inc..cated by the smooth steady current holding at CHAJU I 381 74 amperes. The "bLips" shown at reg'uLar intervals are caused by power fluctuations. Thc.: arc prooabLy due to periodically starting another heavy electric load on the power system.
REDA
PUMP
COMPANY-
BARTLESVILLE.
OKLAHOMA
-18
FIGURE 6
D.
V.-_ zz 6A.M .
?~
I!
L~
j
=
TRANS. RAnio
t.o..
4N
>4
CIrWUIT
PU
prdcinrt
osi
,lwdcinadgaual
eoe
te unercrren oil n
reay.e
-19-
Z- . n7 gasn,bublot
sow
CI.NOFTWIC A The amperage on this chart indicates that after a normal start.
production rate goes into a slow decline, and gradually becomes
very gassy: the unit pumped off or gas locked at 8 a.,m. and went
of'f on the undercurrent relay. The gas bubble point is shown to
be very near the pump.
This condition can often be remedied by lowering the pump in the
well a iew more joints. Ineffective gas separation is indicated
and/or pumped-off condition.
ARED A
P U MP
O KLAH,%2MA
FIGURE 7
. .
N-9.
7/
/R
A S AT I O ,
C IA-UIT
CtAT NO.,al
0L .;~
0E'
______________ (71
From a static lc-el this well pumped off in 5 hours 10 minutes. After a llowing 35 minutes build up time, the pump started again and ran about 45 minutes, then Dumped off again. Indication: The well is not prolific enough for this Large a pump. Possible remedie : Well work-over (frac, acid. re-perforating. clean out, etc.) in attempt to bring more fluid into well. If work over f-i.ls to produce more fluid, the need for a smalier pump is clearly indicated. This could result in continual running time, higher efficiency, lower pumping unit cost, better overall economy.
REDA
FUMP
COMPANY-
BARTLESVILLE.
OKLAHOMA
-20
RECENT INNOVATIONS
Several unique submersible installations which are gaining
in use are:
" * * " Cable Suspended Systems
Variable Speed Systems
Tapered Submersible Pumps
Rotary Gas Separator
-21
500
1000
1500
2 001
2500
"3000
3500
.. . . ...
...... .
" '. ,i :I . .i:....i.:
I
i:.DEPTH
F_
. ,...
-PRESSURE
TRAVERSES
!: . : !: E i ,
TUBING DIAMETER (S) - 1.995 INCHES B/D - 100 D LUI U:::l RATE 10 - 0 ATER CUT W ....
... ".-
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'CRESSURE,
0 0. 500 1000 15(-10
Psit.
2000 2 5000 3000 3500
3 TRAVERSES
TUBING DIAMETER (S) - 1.995 INCHES B/D -100 : L IUI1D RATE - 0.650
ATER CUT
,, ,. Q, _:.. .
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500
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21.00
"3000
3 t00
L ":LL~iZ; ,
,
I "
,FIGURE
4
TRAVERSES B/ D
.]
I I :I :,
DEPTH,- PRESSURE 2 00 0
t_:_..___:... __.
..
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.
7H
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' I '
: :.. 'FIGURE
F I GUR
5 ,
I-
PRESSURE
-200
TRAVERSES
INCHES
- 1.995
BiD
-0.65'
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.
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.
00500
1000
21500
'"
3000
3500
~~
F GU R E
, : :: ::
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DEPTH
TUBING
-PRESSURE
-
TRAVERSES B/D
.......
DIAMETER (S)
1.99.5 INCHES
, :
'::!.:i:ii-:LIQUID RATE
..........
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PRESSURE, PSIA
0 500 1000 500 000 )OO 3000
------
FI SURE
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.......
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3000
1500
. .. ..
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.TUBING DIAMETER (S) -
.!
:
TRAVERSES
B/D ..-.
, .. -.. ,.
1.995 INCHES
"---
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RATE CU
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3000
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FI GURE
DEPTH
TUBING
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ATER
PF'ESSLJRE
--
TRAVERSES
DIAMETER (S)
CUT
LIDUID RATE
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Resume"
DR. R. EUGENE COLLINS
For more than thirty years, Dr. R. Eugene Collins has been
involved with research, teaching, and consulting in petroleum
engineering, reservoir engineering, He has and well completion research.
of Petroleum Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. two years he also has been president of his own Research and Engineering Consultants.
Among Dr. Collins numerous memberships in professional honary societies are memberships in Sigma Pi Honor Society, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Epsilon Tau. Dr. Collins and the honary society
consulting firm,
and
the
Pi
is a Registered
Professional
Engineer in Rexas.