The SQL Standard

SQL Structured Query Language a standard that specifies how a relational schema is created data is inserted / updated in the relations data is queried transactions are started and stopped programs access data in the relations and a host of other things are done Every relational database management system (RDBMS) is required to support / implement the SQL standard.

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History of SQL
SEQUEL developed by IBM in early 70s relational query language as part of System-R project at IBM San Jose Research Lab. the earliest version of SQL SQL evolution SQL- 86/89 SQL- 92 - SQL2 SQL- 99/03 - SQL3 (includes object relational features) And the evolution continues.

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Components of SQL Standard(1/2)

Data Definition Language (DDL) Specifies constructs for schema definition, relation definition, integrity constraints, views and schema modification. Data Manipulation Language (DML) Specifies constructs for inserting, updating and querying the data in the relational instances ( or tables ). Embedded SQL and Dynamic SQL Specifies how SQL commands can be embedded in a high-level host language such as C, C++ or Java for programmatic access to the data.

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Components of SQL Standard(2/2)

Transaction Control Specifies how transactions can be started / stopped, how a set of concurrently executing transactions can be managed.

Authorization Specifies how to restrict a user / set of users to access only certain parts of data, perform only certain types of queries etc.

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Data Definition in SQL

Defining the schema of a relation create table r ( attributeDefinition-1, attributeDefinition-2,,
name of the relation

attributeDefinition-n, [integrityConstraints-1], [integrityConstraints-2],,[integrityConstraints-m])

Attribute Definition attribute-name domain-type [NOT NULL] [DEFAULT v] E.g.: create table example1 ( A char(6) not null default 000000, B int, C char (1) default F );
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Domain Types in SQL-92 (1/2)

Numeric data types integers of various sizes INT, SMALLINT real numbers of various precision REAL, FLOAT, DOUBLE PRECISION formatted numbers DECIMAL ( i, j ) or NUMERIC ( i, j ) i total number of digits ( precision ) j number of digits after the decimal point ( scale ) Character string data types fixed length CHAR(n) n: no. of characters varying length VARCHAR(n) n: max.no. of characters Bit string data types fixed length BIT(n) varying length BIT VARYING(n)
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Domain Types in SQL-92 (2/2)

Date data type DATE type has 10 position format YYYY-MM-DD Time data type TIME type has 8 position format HH : MM : SS Others There are several more data types whose details are available in SQL reference books

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Specifying Integrity Constraints in SQL

Also called Table Constraints Included in the definition of a table Key constraints PRIMARY KEY (A1,A2,,Ak) specifies that {A1,A2,,Ak} is the primary key of the table UNIQUE (B1,B2,,Bk) specifies that {B1,B2,,Bk} is a candidate key for the table There can be more than one UNIQUE constraint but only one PRIMARY KEY constraint for a table.

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Specifying Referential Integrity Constraints

FOREIGN KEY (A1) REFERENCES r2 (B1) specifies that attribute A1 of the table being defined, say r1, is a foreign key referring to attribute B1 of table r2 recall that this means: each value of column A1 is either null or is one of the values appearing in column B1 of r2

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Specifying What to Do if RIC Violation Occurs

RIC violation can occur if a referenced tuple is deleted or modified action can be specified for each case using qualifiers ON DELETE or ON UPDATE Actions three possibilities can be specified SET NULL, SET DEFAULT, CASCADE these are actions to be taken on the referencing tuple SET NULL foreign key attribute value to be set null SET DEFAULT foreign key attribute value to be set to its default value CASCADE delete the referencing tuple if the referenced tuple is deleted or update the FK attribute if the referenced tuple is updated
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Table Definition Example

create table students ( rollNo char(8) not null, name varchar(15) not null, degree char(5), year smallint, sex char not null, deptNo smallint, advisor char(6), primary key(rollNo), foreign key(deptNo) references department(deptId) on delete set null on update cascade, foreign key(advisor) references professor(empId) on delete set null on update cascade );
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Modifying a Defined Schema

ALTER TABLE command can be used to modify a schema Adding a new attribute ALTER table student ADD address varchar(30); Deleting an attribute need to specify what needs to be done about views or constraints that refer to the attribute being dropped two possibilities CASCADE delete the views/constraints also RESTRICT do not delete the attributes if there are some views/constraints that refer to it. ALTER TABLE student DROP degree RESTRICT Similarly, an entire table definition can be deleted

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Data Manipulation in SQL

a set of attributes from relations R1,,Rp that are from R1,R2,,Rp required in the output table. the set of tables that where contain the relevant tuples to answer the query. a boolean predicate that specifies when a combined tuple of R1,,Rp contributes to the output. Equivalent to: Assuming that each attribute A1 ,A 2 ,....A n ( (R 1R 2 .....R p )) name appears exactly once in the table.
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Basic query syntax select A1,A2,,Am

Meaning of the Basic Query Block

The cross product M of the tables in the from clause would be considered. Tuples in M that satisfy the condition are selected. For each such tuple, values for the attributes A1,A2,.,Am ( mentioned in the select clause) are projected. This is a conceptual description - in practice more efficient methods are employed for evaluation. The word select in SQL should not be confused with select operation of relational algebra.

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SQL Query Result

The result of any SQL query a table with select clause attributes as column names. duplicate rows may be present. - differs from the definition of a relation. duplicate rows can be eliminated by specifying DISTINCT keyword in the select clause, if necessary.
SELECT DISTINCT name FROM student

duplicate rows are essential while computing aggregate functions ( average, sum etc ). removing duplicate rows involves additional effort and is done only when necessary.
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Example Relational Scheme

student (rollNo, name, degree, year, sex, deptNo, advisor) department (deptId, name, hod, phone) professor (empId, name, sex, startYear, deptNo, phone) course (courseId, cname, credits, deptNo) enrollment (rollNo, courseId, sem, year, grade) teaching (empId, courseId, sem, year, classRoom) preReq (preCourseId, courseId)
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Example Relational Scheme with RICs shown

student (rollNo, name, degree, year, sex, deptNo, advisor) department (deptId, name, hod, phone) professor (empId, name, sex, startYear, deptNo, phone) course (courseId, cname, credits, deptNo) enrollment (rollNo, courseId, sem, year, grade) teaching (empId, courseId, sem, year, classRoom) preRequisite (preReqCourse, courseID)
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Example Queries Involving a Single Table

Get the rollNo, name of all women students in the dept no. 5.

select rollNo, name from student where sex = F and deptNo = 5;

Get the employee Id, name and phone number of professors in the CS dept (deptNo = 3) who have joined after 1999.

select empId, name, phone from professor where deptNo = 3 and startYear > 1999;

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Examples Involving Two or More Relations (1/2)

Get the rollNo, name of students in the CSE dept (deptNo = 3)along with their advisors name and phone number.
select rollNo, s.name, f.name as advisorName, attribute phone as advisorPhone renaming in from student as s, professor as f the output where s.advisor = f.empId and s.deptNo = 3;
table aliases are used to disambiguate the common attributes table aliases are required if an attribute name appears in more than one table. Also when same relation appears twice in the from clause.
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Examples Involving Two or More Relations (2/2)

Get the names, employee IDs, phone numbers of professors in CSE dept who joined before 1995.

select empId, f.name, phone from professor as f, department as d where f.deptNo = d.deptId and d.name = CSE and f.startYear < 1995

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Nested Queries or Subqueries

While dealing with certain complex queries beneficial to specify part of the computation as a separate query & make use of its result to formulate the main query. such queries nested / subqueries. Using subqueries makes the main query easy to understand / formulate sometimes makes it more efficient also sub query result can be computed once and used many times. not the case with all subqueries.

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Nested Query Example

Get the rollNo, name of students who have a lady professor as their advisor. IN Operator: One of the ways of making use of the subquery result

select s.rollNo, s.name from student s where s.advisor IN (select empId from professor where sex = F);

Subquery computes the empIds of lady professors

NOT IN can be used in the above query to get details of students who dont have a lady professor as their advisor.

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Set Comparison Operators

SQL supports several operators to deal with subquery results or in general with collection of tuples. Combination of { =, <, , , >, < > } with keywords { ANY, ALL } can be used as set comparison operators.
Get the empId, name of the senior-most Professor(s):

select p.empId, p.name from professors p where p.startYear <= ALL ( select distinct startYear from professor );

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Semantics of Set Comparison Operators

op is one of <, , >, , =, < > v op ANY S true if for some member x of S, v op x is true false if for no member x of S, v op x is true v op ALL S true if for every member x of S, v op x is true false if for some member x of S, v op x is not true IN is equivalent to = ANY NOT IN is equivalent to < > ALL v is normally a single attribute, but while using IN or NOT IN it can be a tuple of attributes
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S is a subquery

Correlated Nested Queries

If the nested query result is independent of the current tuple being examined in the outer query, nested query is called uncorrelated, otherwise, nested query is called correlated. Uncorrelated nested query nested query needs to be computed only once. Correlated nested query nested query needs to be re-computed for each row examined in the outer query.

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Example of a Correlated Subquery

Get the roll number and name of students whose gender is same as their advisors.

select s.rollNo, s.name from student s where s.sex = ALL ( select f.sex from professor f where f.empId = s.advisor );

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EXISTS Operator
Using EXISTS, we can check if a subquery result is non-empty EXISTS ( S ) is true if S has at least one tuple / member is false if S contain no tuples
Get the employee Id and name of professors who advise at least one women student.

a correlated select f.empId, f.name subquery from professors f where EXISTS ( select s.rollNo from student s where s.advisor = f.empId and s.sex = F );

SQL does not have an operator for universal quantification.

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NOT EXISTS Operator

Obtain the department Id and name of departments that do not offer any 4 credit courses.

select d.deptId, d.name from department d where NOT EXISTS ( select courseId from course c where c.deptNo = d.deptId and c.credits = 4 );

Queries with existentially quantified predicates can be easily specified using EXISTS operator. Queries with universally quantified predicates can only be specified after translating them to use existential quantifiers.
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Example Involving Universal Quantifier

Obtain the department Id and name of departments whose courses are all 3-credit courses.

Equivalently, obtain the department Id and name of departments that do not offer a single course that is not 3-credit course
select d.deptNo, d.name from department d where NOT EXISTS ( select c.courseId from course c where c.deptNo = d.deptId and c.credits 3);

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Missing where Clause

If the where clause in an SQL query is not specified, it is treated as the where condition is true for all tuple combinations. Essentially no filtering is done on the cross product of from clause tables.
Get the name and contact phone of all Departments.

select name,phone from department

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Union, Intersection and Difference Operations

In SQL, using operators UNION, INTERSECT and EXCEPT, one can perform set union, intersection and difference respectively. Results of these operators are sets i.e duplicates are automatically removed. Operands need to be union compatible and also have same attributes in the same order.

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Example using UNION

Obtain the roll numbers of students who are currently enrolled for either CS230 or CS232 courses. (SELECT rollNo

FROM enrollment WHERE courseId = CS230 and sem = odd and year = 2005 ) UNION (SELECT rollNo FROM enrollment WHERE courseId = CS232 and sem = odd and year = 2005 );
Equivalent to: (SELECT rollNo

FROM enrollment WHERE (courseId = CS230 or courseID = CS232) and sem = odd and year = 2005 )
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Example using INTERSECTION

Obtain the roll numbers of students who are currently enrolled for both CS230 and CS232 Courses.

select rollNo from enrollment where courseId = CS230 and sem = odd and year = 2005 INTERSECT select rollNo from enrollment where courseId = CS232 and sem = odd and year = 2005;

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Example using EXCEPT

Obtain the roll numbers of students who are currently not enrolled for CS230 course.

(SELECT rollNo

FROM enrollment WHERE sem = odd and year = 2005 ) EXCEPT (SELECT rollNo FROM enrollment WHERE courseId = CS230 and sem = odd and year = 2005);

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Aggregation of Data
Data analysis need for computing aggregate values for data total value, average value etc Aggregate functions in SQL five aggregate function are provided in SQL AVG, SUM, COUNT, MAX, MIN can be applied to any column of a table can be used in the select clause of SQL queries

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Aggregate functions

AVG ( [DISTINCT]A): computes the average of (distinct) values in column A SUM ( [DISTINCT]A): computes the sum of (distinct) values in column A

Optional keyword

COUNT ( [DISTINCT]A): computes the number of (distinct) values in column A or no. of tuples in result MAX (A): computes the maximum of values in column A MIN (A): computes the minimum of values in column A

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Examples involving aggregate functions (1/2)

Suppose data about Gate in a particular year is available in a table with schema
gateMarks(regNo,name,sex,branch,city,state,marks)
Obtain the number of students who have taken GATE in CS and their average marks

Select count(regNo) as CsTotal avg(marks) as CsAvg from gateMarks Output CStotal CSavg where branch = CS
Get the maximum, minimum and average marks obtained by Students from the city of Hyderabad

Select max(marks), min(marks), avg(marks) from gateMarks where city = Hyderabad;

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Examples involving aggregate functions (2/2)

Get the names of students who obtained the maximum marks in the branch of EC
Select name, max(marks) from gateMarks where branch = EC
Will not work

Only aggregate functions can be specified here. It does not make sense to include normal attributes ! (unless they are grouping attributes to be seen later)
Select regNo, name, marks from gateMarks Correct way of where branch = EC and marks = specifying the query (select max(marks) from gateMarks where branch = EC);
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Date Aggregation and Grouping

Grouping Partition the set of tuples in a relation into groups based on certain criteria and compute aggregate functions for each group All tuples that agree on a set of attributes (i.e have the same value for each of these attributes ) are put into a group
Called the grouping attributes

The specified aggregate functions are computed for each group Each group contributes one tuple to the output All the grouping attributes must also appear in the select clause
the result tuple of the group is listed along with the values of the grouping attributes of the group

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Examples involving grouping(1/2)

Determine the maximum of the GATE CS marks obtained by students in each city, for all cities.

Select city, max(marks) as maxMarks Grouping attributes from gateMarks must appear in the where branch = CS select clause Grouping group by city;

Result:
City
Hyderabad Chennai Mysore Bangalore
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attribute maxMarks
87 84 90 82
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Examples involving grouping(2/2)

In the University database, for each department, obtain the name, deptId and the total number of four credit courses offered by the department

Select deptId, name, count(*) as totalCourses from department, course where deptId = deptNo and credits = 4 group by deptId, name;

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Having clause
After performing grouping, is it possible to report information about only a subset of the groups ? Yes, with the help of having clause which is always used in conjunction with Group By clause
Report the total enrollment in each course in the 2nd semester of 2004; include only the courses with a minimum enrollment of 10.

Select courseId, count(rollNo) as Enrollment from enrollment where sem = 2 and year = 2004 group by courseId having count(rollNo) 10;

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Where clause versus Having clause

Where clause Performs tests on rows and eliminates rows not satisfying the specified condition Performed before any grouping of rows is done Having clause Always performed after grouping Performs tests on groups and eliminates groups not satisfying the specified condition Tests can only involve grouping attributes and aggregate functions
Select courseId, count(rollNo) as Enrollment from enrollment where sem = 2 and year = 2004 group by courseId having count(rollNo) 10;
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String Operators in SQL

Specify strings by enclosing them in single quotes e.g., Chennai Common operations on strings pattern matching using LIKE comparison operator Specify patterns using special characters character % (percent) matches any Substring e.g., Jam% matches any string starting with Jam character _ (underscore) matches any single character e.g., (a) _ _ press matches with any string ending with press, with any two characters before that. (b) _ _ _ _ matches any string with exactly four characters
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Using the LIKE operator

Obtain roll numbers and names of all students whose names end with Mohan
Select rollNo, name from student where name like %Mohan;

Patterns are case sensitive. Special characters (percent, underscore) can be included in patterns using an escape character \ (backslash)

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Join Operation
In SQL, usually joining of tuples from different relations is specified in where clause
Get the names of professors working in CSE dept.

Select f.name from professor as f, department as d where f.deptNo = d.deptId and d.name = CSE;

The above query specifies joining of professor and department relations on condition f.deptNo = d.deptId and d.name = CSE

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Explicit Specification of Joining in From Clause

select f.name from (professor as f join department as d on f.deptNo = d.deptId) where d.name = CSE;

Join types: 1. inner join (default): from (r1 inner join r2 on <predicate>) use of just join is equivalent to inner join 2. left outer join: from (r1 left outer join r2 on <predicate>) 3. right outer join: from (r1 right outer join r2 on <predicate>) 4. full outer join: from (r1 full outer join r2 on <predicate>)
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Natural join
The adjective natural can be used with any of the join types to specify natural join. FROM (r1 NATURAL <join type> r2 [USING <attr. list>]) natural join by default considers all common attributes a subset of common attributes can be specified in an optional using <attr. list> phrase REMARKS Specifying join operation explicitly goes against the spirit of declarative style of query specification But the queries may be easier to understand The feature is to be used judiciously
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Views
Views provide virtual relations which contain data spread across different tables. Used by applications. simplified query formulations data hiding logical data independence Once created, a view is always kept up-to-date by the RDBMS View is not part of conceptual schema created to give a user group, concerned with a certain aspect of the information system, their view of the system Storage Views need not be stored as permanent tables They can be created on-the-fly whenever needed They can also be materialized Tables involved in the view definition base tables
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Creating Views
CREATE VIEW v AS <query expr> creates a view v, with structure and data defined by the outcome of the query expression
Create a view which contains name, employee Id and phone number of professors who joined CSE dept in or after the year 2000. name of the view

create view profAft2K as (Select f.name, empId, phone from professor as f, department as d where f.depNo = d.deptId and d.name = CSE and f.startYear >= 2000);

If the details of a new CSE professor are entered into professor table, the above view gets updated automatically
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Queries on Views
Once created a view can be used in queries just like any other table. e.g. Obtain names of professors in CSE dept, who joined after 2000 and whose name starts with Ram
select name from profAft2K where name like Ram%;

The definition of the view is stored in DBMS, and executed to create the temporary table (view), when encountered in query

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Operations on Views
Querying is allowed Update operations are usually restricted because updates on a view may modify many base tables there may not be a unique way of updating the base tables to reflect the update on view view may contain some aggregate values ambiguity where primary key of a base table is not included in view definition.

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Restrictions on Updating Views

Updates on views defined on joining of more than one table are not allowed For example, updates on the following view are not allowed
create a view Professor_Dept with professor ID, department Name and department phone

create view profDept(profId,DeptName,DPhone) as (select f.empId, d.name, d.phone from professor f, department d where f.depNo = d.depId);

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Restrictions on Updating Views

Updates on views defined with group by clause and aggregate functions is not permitted, as a tuple in view will not have a corresponding tuple in base relation. For example, updates on the following view are not allowed
Create a view deptNumCourses which contains the number of courses offered by a dept.

create view deptNumCourses(deptNo,numCourses) as select deptNo, count(*) from course group by deptNo;

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Restrictions on Updating Views

Updates on views which do not include Primary Key of base table, are also not permitted For example, updates on the following view are not allowed
Create a view StudentPhone with Student name and phone number.

create view StudentPhone (sname,sphone) as (select name, phone from student);

View StudentPhone does not include Primary key of the base table.

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Allowed Updates on Views

Updates to views are allowed only if defined on single base table not defined using group by clause and aggregate functions include Primary Key of base table

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Inserting data into a table

Specify a tuple(or tuples) to be inserted

INSERT INTO student VALUES (CSO5D014,Mohan,PhD,2005,M,3,FCS008), (CSO5S031,Madhav,MS,2005,M,4,FCE009);

Specify the result of query to be inserted

INSERT INTO r1 SELECT FROM WHERE

Specify that a sub-tuple be inserted

INSERT INTO student(rollNo, name, sex) VALUES (CS05M022, Rajasri, F), (CS05B033, Kalyan, M); the attributes that can be NULL or have declared default values can be left-out to be updated later
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Deleting rows from a table

Deletion of tuples is possible ; deleting only part of a tuple is not possible Deletion of tuples can be done only from one relation at a time Deleting a tuple might trigger further deletions due to referentially triggered actions specified as part of RICs Generic form: delete from r where <predicate>;
Delete tuples from professor relation with start year as 1982.

delete from professor where startYear = 1982;

If where clause is not specified, then all the tuples of that relation are deleted ( Be careful !)
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A Remark on Deletion
The where predicate is evaluated for each of the tuples in the relation to mark them as qualified for deletion before any tuple is actually deleted from the relation Note that the result may be different if tuples are deleted as and when we find that they satisfy the where condition! An example: Delete all tuples of students that scored the least marks in the CS branch: DELETE FROM gateMarks WHERE branch = CS and marks = ANY ( SELECT MIN(marks) FROM gateMarks WHERE branch = CS)
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Updating tuples in a relation

update r set <<attr = newValue> list> where <predicates>;
Change phone number of all professors working in CSE dept to 94445 22605

update professors set phone = 9444422605 where deptNo = (select deptId from department where name = CSE);

If where clause is not specified, values for the specified attributes in all tuples is changed.
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Miscellaneous features in SQL (1/3)

Ordering of result tuples can be done using order by clause e.g., List the names of professors who joined after 1980, in alphabetic order.
select name from professor where startYear > 1980 order by name;

Use of null to test for a null value, if the attribute can take null e.g., Obtain roll numbers of students who dont have phone numbers
select rollNo from student where phoneNumber is null;

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Miscellaneous features in SQL (2/3)

Use of between and to test the range of a value e.g., Obtain names of professors who have joined between 1980 and 1990
select name from professor where startYear between 1980 and 1990;

Change the column name in result relation e.g.,

select name as studentName, rollNo as studentNo from student;

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Miscellaneous features in SQL (3/3)

Use of distinct key word in select clause to determine duplicate tuples in result.
Obtain all distinct branches of study for students

select distinct d.name from student as s, department as d where s.deptNo = d.deptId;

Use of asterisk (*) to retrieve all the attribute values of selected tuples.
Obtain details of professors along with their department details.

select * from professor as f, department as d where f.deptNo = d.deptId;

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Application Development Process

Host language (HL) the high-level programming language in which the application is developed (e.g., C, C++, Java etc.) Database access using embedded SQL is one approach SQL statements are interspersed in HL program. Data transfer takes place through specially declared HL variables Mismatch between HL data types and SQL data types SQL 92 standard specifies the corresponding SQL types for many HLs.

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Declaring Variables
Variables that need to be used in SQL statements are declared in a special section as follows:
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION
char rollNo[9]; // HL is C language char studName[20], degree[6]; int year; char sex; int deptNo; char advisor[9];

EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION

Note that schema for student relation is student(rollNo, name, degree, year, sex, deptNo, advisor) Use in SQL statements: variable name is prefixed with a colon(:) e.g., :ROLLNO in an SQL statement refers to rollNo variable
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Handling Error Conditions

The HL program needs to know if an SQL statement has executed successfully or otherwise Special variable called SQLSTATE is used for this purpose SQLSTATE is set to appropriate value by the RDBMS run-time after executing each SQL statement non-zero values indicate errors in execution different values indicate different types of error situations SQLSTATE variable must be declared in the HL program and HL program needs to check for error situations and handle them appropriately.

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Embedding SQL statements

Suppose we collect data through user interface into variables rollNo, studName, degree, year, sex, deptNo, advisor A row in student table can be inserted
EXEC SQL INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (:rollNo,:studName,:degree,

:year,:sex,:deptNo,:advisor);

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Impedance mismatch and cursors

Occurs because, HL languages do not support set-of-records as supported by SQL Acursor is a mechanism which allows us to retrieve one row at a time from the result of a query We can declare a cursor on any SQL query Once declared, we use open, fetch, move and close commands to work with cursors We usually need a cursor when embedded statement is a SELECT query INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE dont need a cursor.

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Embedded SQL (1/2)

We dont need a cursor if the query results in a single row. e.g., EXEC SQL SELECT s.name, s.sex
INTO :name, :sex FROM student s WHERE s.rollNo = :rollNo;

Result row values name and phone are assigned to HL variables :name and :phone, using INTO clause Cursor is not required as the result always contains only one row ( rollNo is a key for student relation)

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Embedded SQL (2/2)

If the result contains more than one row, cursor declaration is needed e.g., select s.name, s.degree
from student s where s.sex = F;

Query results in a collection of rows HL program has to deal with set of records. The use of INTO will not work here We can solve this problem by using a cursor.

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Declaring a cursor on a query

Cursor name

declare studInfo cursor for select name, degree from student where sex = F;

Command OPEN studInfo; opens the cursor and makes it point to first record To read current row of values into HL variables, we use the command FETCH studInfo INTO :name, :degree; After executing FETCH statement cursor is pointed to next row by default Cursor movement can be optionally controlled by the programmer After reading all records we close the cursor using the CLOSE studInfo command.
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Dynamic SQL
Useful for applications to generate and run SQL statements, based on user inputs Queries may not be known in advance e.g., char sqlstring [ ] = {select * from student};
EXEC SQL PREPARE runQ FROM sqlstring; EXEC SQL EXECUTE runQ;

Sqlstring is a C variable that holds user submitted query runQ is an SQL variable that holds the SQL statements.

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Connecting to Database from HL

ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) and JDBC (Java Database Connectivity) accessing database and data is through an API many DBMSs can be accessed no restriction on number of connections appropriate drivers are required steps in accessing data from a HL program select the data source load the appropriate driver dynamically establish the connection work with database close the connection.
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