1

Experiment 1

Name of the Experiment:

Voltage, Current and Resistance Measurements (Simple Circuit)

1.1 Objective:

The objectives of this experiment are to measure voltage, current and resistance of a simple
electric circuit using DMM (Digital Multimeter). These require knowledge of measurement
techniques of voltage, current and resistance of a electric circuit.

1.2 Introduction:

The digital multimeter (DMM) is one of the most useful device to measure voltage, current
and resistance. Comparing to the analog multimeter, digital multimeter gives us easy to read (seven
segment digits) and parallax error free measurement values. DMM can measure AC and DC
voltages as well as currents. Every DMM has manufacture specification. This manufacture
specification tells us the lower range and the upper range of values it can measure. Suppose if we
are planning to measure AC current then the manufacture specification will tell us what is the
highest and lowest value of both amplitude and frequency of the current up to which we will able to
measure.

Most of the DMM has three terminals and two probes. One terminal is black (zero potential/
Ground) and other two terminals are red. One red terminal is for measuring voltage and another one
for current. One probe is continuously connected to black terminal and another probe connects to
one of the two red terminals depending on the measurement mode. Recently some advance DMM
can also measure capacitance, inductance, detect terminals of transistors etc.

To avoid damage of DMM, before connecting the DMM, the measurement mode must be
selected and its meter range should placed to its highest value.

In this experiment, the measurement of current, voltage and resistance will be performed by
DMM.

1.2 Theory Background:

1.2.1 Voltage Measurement:

Voltage is measured across the circuit elements / components. That is - a parallel connection
is made with DMM and the desired element. Voltage measurement requires negative and positive
polarity consideration. If the reading gives a positive value the the polarity consideration is correct.

1.2.2 Current Measurement:

Current is measured through the circuit components. So, current measurement requires
series connection with the DMM. Current measurement also requires polarity consideration. Similar
to voltage measurement a positive reading will indicate right current flow consideration.
 2

1.2.3 Resistance Measurement:

Resistances are the most simplest form of circuit components. Commercially resistors comes
in many shapes, sizes. Most common type of resistors are color coded carbon composition or cabin
film resistors. Color codes are multi-colored bands that determines the resistors value and tolerance.
To measure the resistance two probes of DMM are connected two ends of the resistor. Again
resistance mode (Ohm meter) must be selected before start measuring.

Another way of measuring resistance is reading color code (printed colored rings) on the
resistors. One example of color code calculation for axial lead resistor is given in figure 1.1.

Figure: 1.1

Mathematically coded resistance can be expressed as-

R[ohm]= AB×10C

For five color band resistors the first three are the first three numbers and the fourth one is
the multiplication factor.

For radial lead resistors (not very popular in use) the color equivalent numerical values are
same as axial lead resistors but the color code arrangement is different (radial lead resistors have no
band 5 and band 6 color ). Figure 02 shows a radial lead resistors with color code arrangement.

Figure: 1.2
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So, the calculated resistance of this resistor is -

R[ohm ]= AB×10C
1.3 Apparatus:

i.Bread Board
ii.Four Resistances
iii.DMM
iv.DC Voltage Source
v.Wires

1.4 Procedure:

i.Construct the resistive circuit according to the figure 1.3 . Place the four resistance in any
order.
ii.Using DMM fill in the second column (Measured) table 1.1 on next page.
iii.After measurement fill in the third column of the table 1.1 using color code reading (for the
resistance) and proper theory for measuring voltage and current.
iv.Compare the calculated value and measured value by finding the percentage of error. Take
calculated value as the ideal value.
v.Write down the precautions and conclusion for this experiment in their respective fields.

I1 R1 I2 R2
A B C

+ V1 - + V2 - I3

+ + +
V V4 R4 V3 R3
- - -
I4

Figure 1.3
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Table: 1.1
Parameters /Variables Measured Calculated Percentage of Error
(%)
R1 (Ώ)
R2 (Ώ)
R3 (Ώ)
R4 (Ώ)
i1 (mA)
i2 (mA)
i3 (mA)
i4 (mA)
v1 (V)
v2 (V)
v3 (V)
v4 (V)
P1 (W)
P2 (W)
P3 (W)
P4 (W)
ΣPdev (W)
ΣPdiss (W)

1.6 Calculation: P.E.=∣CalculatedCalculated

value−Measured value∣
value
×100 %

1.7 Precautions:
 5

1.7 Conclusions:
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Experiment 2

Name of the Experiment: Verification of Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL).

2.1 Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to prove Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) though both
theoretical calculations and experimental measurements.

2.2 Introduction:

Circuit analysis is a process by which each and every elements and nodes are specified by
some common parameters (such as voltage, current and resistance). Ohm's Law is the one of the
most basic law for circuit analysis. It actually deal with individual circuit elements. The law helps
us to determine the voltage across the circuit element or current through it or resistance. Another
two laws (KVL and KCL) given by Kirchhoff mainly deals with the interconnectivity of the
elements rather than individual elements in a circuit. This behavior of interconnectivity between
elements in the circuit helps use to design new circuit for desired need of any circuit element. In this
experiment Kirchhoff's Voltage Law will be examined by investigating the behavior of a given
simple circuit.

2.3 Theory Background:

Kirchhoff's voltage law expresses the voltage relation across every circuit elements in a
closed loop lumped circuit. It says-”the algebraic sum of all the voltages across a closed circuit is
zero”.

∑Vi = 0
2.3 Apparatus:

i.Bread Board
ii.Five Resistors
iii.DMM
iv.Wires
v.One DC Voltage Source

2.4 Procedure:

i.Construct the circuit given in figure 2.1. Place eight resistors that are provided in any order.
ii.Record the given parameters to appropriate location in table 2.1 by measurement from the
constructed circuit. Parameters in the table 2.1 are marked in the in the given circuit in figure
2.1. Calculate theoretical values and compare.
iii.Identify the loops and meshes in the circuit. List them in the conclusion part.
iv. Using table 2.2 apply KVL on all possible loops using recorded values from table 2.1.
v.Write down relevant precautions and conclusion of this experiment in appropriate blank space.
 7

R 1 b1 b R3 c c1 R15
a
+ V1 - i3 - V3 + i5 + V5 -
i1

a b11 c11
+ - + d
+
VS1 R2 V2 R4 V4 VS2
Figure 2.1
- + - -
e
e
i2 i4

e e

Table 2.1
Variable Calculated values Measured Values
v1 (V)
v2 (V)
v3 (V)
v4 (V)
v5 (V)

Table 2.2
Mesh abea Mesh cdec Mesh bceb
vab vcd vbc
vbe vde vca
vea vec veb
Sum Sum Sum
 8

Loop abcea Loop bcdeb Loop abcdea

vab vbe vab
vbc vcd vbc
vca vde vcd
vea veb vde
Sum Sum vea
Sum

2.5 Precaution:
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2.6 Conclusion:
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Experiment 3

Name of the Experiment: Verification of Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

3.1 Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to analyze a simple circuit to verify Kirchhoff's current
law (KCL). This verification also involves theoretical calculation to compare the parameter values
obtain from the measurement.

3.2 Introduction:

Kirchhoff's voltage law gives us the information about voltages across the elements as the
are interconnected to each other. The second law Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) gives us
informations about current flow through each element interconnected in the circuit. In this
experiment is primarily intended to verify KCL.

3.3 Theory Background:

Kirchhoff's current law states that the algebraic sum of all the incoming and outgoing
current to and from a specific node is equal to zero.

∑ij= 0
3.4 Apparatus:

i.Bread Board
ii.Five Resistors
iii.DMM
iv.Wires
v.One DC Voltage Source

3.5 procedure:
i.Construct the circuit given in figure 2.1. Place eight resistors that are provided in any order.
ii.Record the given parameters to appropriate location in table 3.1 by measurement from the
constructed circuit. Parameters in the table 3.1 are marked in the in the given circuit in figure
2.1.
iii.Identify the nodes and supernodes in the circuit. List them in the conclusion part.
iv.Using table 3.2 apply KCL on all possible nodes using recorded values from table 3.1.
v.Fill up table 3.3 using table 2.1 and table 3.1.
vi.Write down relevant precautions and conclusion of this experiment in appropriate blank
space.
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Table 3.1
Variable Calculated values Measured Values
i1 (mA)
i2 (mA)
i3 (mA)
i4(mA)
i5 (mA)

Table 3.2
Node b Node c Supernode b1 c1 c11 b11 b1
i1 i3 i1
i2 i4 i2
i3 i5 -i4
Sum Sum -i5
Sum

Table 3.3
Power Dissipated Power Delivered
PR1 PS1
PR2 PS2
PR3 Sum
PR4
PR5
Sum
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2.5 Precautions:

2.6 Conclusion:
 13

Experiment 4

Name of the Experiment: Verification of Thevenin's Theorem

4.1 Objective:

To verify Thevenin's theorem by both theoretical and experimental procedure.

4.2 Introduction:

It is sometimes required to change a particular circuit element in a complex circuit. For this
change, the whole circuit behaves differently. The currents and voltages are redistributed to each
circuit elements according to the basic laws of circuit analysis. It also requires recalculation for
determining voltages and currents of the changed elements. If the circuit is a big one then this
process becomes time consuming and lengthy. Thevenin's theorem reduces that complexity.
Thevenin's theorem applies to a circuit when only one circuit element is changed and all the other
circuit elements remain unchanged. The desired circuit that has to be changed is considered as load.

4.3 Theory Background:

According to Thevenin's Theorem, if a two port network consisting only linear circuit
elements and voltage / current sources then the whole network can be reduced to a voltage source
(Vth) and a resistance (Rth) connecting in series with the voltage source. Figure 4.1 shows a two port
network with its Thevenin's equivalent representation.

Rth Ith
Ith

Two Port + RL
Vth
RL -
Linear Network

Figure 4.1

Here Vth is the voltage measured across the two terminals of the network after removing the
load resistance and Rth is the appeared equivalent resistance after inactivating the voltage and
current sources in the network.

4.4 Apparatus:

i. Trainer Board
ii. Resistors (one - 4.7 K, two - 3.3 K, one - 100 K, one – 10 K, one - Rheostat )
iii. Wires
iv. Digital Multimeter
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IIthth

Figure 4.2

4.5 Procedure:

i. Construct the circuit in the figure 4.2 on the trainer board.

ii. Take 3.3 K and 10 K resistors as loads.
iii. Place 10 K first at the load side. Measure the voltage VAB and Ith with the help of DMM.
Record the values in the proper field in the table 4.1.
iv. Replace 10 K by 3.3 K resistors. Measure the voltage VAB and Ith with the help of DMM.
Record the values in the proper field in the table 4.1.
v. Now disconnect the load resistance RL. Place the DMM at open two port network to
measure VAB, which is the Thevenini's Equivalent voltage. Vth.
vi. Disconnect the 13 volt source and make the connection short. Measure the equivalent
resistance Rth placing the Ohm meter at terminals AB.
vii. Record these values in the table 4.2.
viii. Now set the value of the voltage source in the trainer board equal to Vth.
ix. Set the value of the Rheostat equal to Rth and connect it in series with the voltage source.
x. For fill up table 4.3 first place 10 K resistor and then place 3.3 K in series with the V th
and Rth and measure the voltage VAB and Ith for both the load resistors.
xi. Compare table 4.1 and 4.3.
xii. Write down the necessary precautions in the section 4.6.
xiii. In section 4.7 write down the conclusion of this experiment. Mention the
objectives whether they are achieved or not. Also calculate the percentage of error in the
experiment while comparing table 4.1 and table 4.3. Explain why this percentage of
error showed up.
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Table 4.1
Load Resistance (Ω) VAB (Volt) Ith (mA)

Table 4.2
Vth (Volt) Rth (Ω)

Table 4.3
Load Resistance (Ω) VAB (Volt) Ith (mA)

4.6 Precaution:
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4.7 Conclusion:
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Experiment 5

Name of the Experiment: Verification of Superposition Theorem

5.1 Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to verify Superposition Theorem using multi source
linear circuit. This experiment also demand theoretical analysis of the same circuit using
Superposition theorem.

5.2 Introduction:

Like other circuit theorem Superposition Theorem very much applicable in circuit where
multiple power supply are used. This theorem determines voltages and currents of different circuit
elements for individual power sources.

5.3 Theory Background:

The Superposition Theorem states that total current through or voltage across any branch of
multi powered linear circuit equals the algebraic sum of the currents and voltages produced by
each source acting separately throughout the circuit. To realize the influence of a particular power
source (voltage/current) on a desired branch of a circuit all the power sources must be made inactive
(make it short for voltage sources / make it open for current sources. Except for all the sources, in
turn, the same procedure is followed. The addition of the results for certain element finally gives the
total influence of all the sources activated simultaneously.

5.4 Apparatus:

i. Trainer Board
ii. Digital Multimeter
iii. Resistors
iv. Wires
v. Three Voltage Sources

Figure 5.1
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5.5 Procedure:

i. Construct the circuit given in figure 5.1 .

ii. Measure the voltage across and current through the load resistor RL. Record these values in
appropriate places in table 5.1.
iii. Now to determine the influence of voltage source V1 deactivate voltage source V2 and V3 by
disconnecting V2 and V3 then join two terminals for each of them in the circuit in order to
make it short.
iv. Measure the current and voltage for the load. Record these values in table 5.2.
v. To measure the influence of voltage sources V2 and V3 follow procedure iii and iv twice.
vi. Record all the measures values in the given tables.
vii. Solve the circuit theoretically in the section 5.6 (Calculation).
viii. Write down the precautions relevant to this experiment.
ix. Write down the conclusion for this experiment mentioning the objectives, experimental
results. Compare the result from the table 5.1 and table 5.2. Calculate the percentage of
error in the comparison. Also compare the theoretical result obtained from the section 5.6
and experimental results.

Table 5.1
VL (Volt) IL (mA)

Table 5.2
Sum Sum
Active Source VL (Volt) IL (mA) VL = VL1+VL2+VL3 IL = IL1+IL2+IL3
(Volt) (mA)
V1 Activated VL1| IL1|
V2 Activated VL2| IL2|
V3 Activated VL3| IL3|
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5.6 Calculation:
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5.7 Precaution:

5.8 Conclusion:
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Experiment: 6

Name of the Experiment:

Verification of Maximum Power Transfer and Graphical Analysis of Circuits.

6.1 Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to verify maximum power transfer theorem with
graphical analysis.

6.2 Introduction:

In a two port linear circuit, it is desired to find what load can receive maximum power from
the circuit. Any two port network can be represented by Thevenin's equivalent circuit. That is a
voltage source, a resistor and a load all are in series.

6.3 Theory Background:

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that – a load will receive maximum power
from a network when the load resistance is exactly equal to the Thevenin's resistance.

Rth Ith

+ RL
Vth
-

Figure 6.1

In this figure (figure 6.1) the load resistance will get highest power supply if - RTh =R L .
Using the figure 6.1 the current through the each resistor is -

V Th V Th V Th
IL = = =
RTh R L RTh RTh 2 RTh

Then the power equation becomes,

V Th 2 V R
P L = I 2L R L =   RTh = Th 2 Th
2 RTh 4 RTh

2
V Th
or, P L Max =
4RTh
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Note: If the load applied is less than the Thevvenin Resistance, the power to the load will
drop off rapidly as it gets smaller. However, if the applied load is greater than the Thevenin
Resistance, the power to the load will not drop off as rapidly as it increases.

6.4 Apparatus:

i. Resistances (one - 4.7 KΩ, one - 10 KΩ, one - 100 KΩ, two – 3.3 KΩ)
ii. Trainer Board
iii. Digital Multimeter
iv. Wires

Figure 6.2
6.5 Procedure:

i. Construct the circuit given in the figure 6.2.

ii. Find out the Thevenin's Equivalent Two port network considering the load resistance RL. For
this part students can take a review from experiment 4.
iii. Record the Thevenin's Voltage and Resistance in the table 6.1.
iv. Set the Thevenin's Equivalent circuit in the Trainer Board along with a Rheostat.
v. Start with different values of load resistance in increasing order in a long range. The range
should cross the value of Rth. Measure the voltage across the load resistance for each values.
Record them in the table 6.2.
vi. Calculate the power in the table for each load resistance values.
vii. Determine the load resistance for which the maximum power transfers to the load.
viii. Plot the graph for power vs. load resistance in the section 6.6.
ix. Theoretically analyze the given circuit and determine the maximum power and its
requirements in the section 6.7.
x. Write down the precautions that must be taken during the experiment in the section 6.8.
xi. Write down the conclusion (section 6.9) of this experiment. Mention what is the objective
was, how much of the objectives are fulfilled, calculate the errors occurred in the experiment
(compare the measurement values with calculated values), reasons for the errors etc..
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Table 6.1
Thevenin's Voltage Thevenin's Resistance

Table 6.2
Serial No. Load Resistance Voltage Across the Power transfer to the
(KΩ) Load Resistance Load
(Volt) (Watt)
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6.6 Graphs:
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6.7 Precaution:

6.8 Conclusion:
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Experiment No: 7

Name of the Experiment:

Introduction to the Basic Properties Alternating Current (AC) Waves.

7.1 Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to study AC (sine) waves and measure its frequency,
amplitude and phase then compare the values to another sine wave using oscilloscope. This
experiment also requires to measure the effective r.m.s value of the supplied voltage and current.

7.2 Theory Background:

Any periodic variation of current or voltage where the current (or voltage), when measured
along any particular direction, goes positive as well as negative, is defined to be an AC quantity.
Sinusoidal AC wave shapes are the ones where the variation (current or voltage) is a sine function
of time.
v

Vm

Figure: 7.1

For the wave form in figure 7.1,

Time period = T
Frequency f = 1/T
v = V sin 2π ft = V sin(2π / T )t

Effective value:

Effective (r.m.s) values of sinusoidal waveforms are given as:

T
1 2 V
V= ∫
T 0
v dt = m
2
(For sinusoidal wave)

T
1 2 I
I= ∫
T 0
i dt = m
2
(For sinusoidal wave)
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These values are directly measured in ac voltmeter / ammeters and can be used in power
calculation as:
P = I 2R = V 2 / R

Phase Difference:

v/i

t
θ

Figure 7.2

Phase difference between two ac sinusoidal waveforms is the difference in electrical angle
between two identical points of the two waves. In fig. 2, the voltage and current equations are given
as:

v = V m Sin(2π / T )t
i = I m Sin(2π / Tt − θ )

Relation between the voltage across and the current through any component of an ac circuit
is given by impedance. For the voltage and current waveforms in Fig. 2, the corresponding
impedance Z is given as:

Z = Vm / I m ∠ θ = Vrms / I rms ∠ θ

7.3 Apparatus:

i. Oscilloscope
ii. Function Generator
iii. Capacitor (1 μF)
iv. Resistor (100 KΩ)
v. Digital Multimeter
vi. Trainer Board
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AC Voltage Source
Channel 1 (Oscilloscope)
~ Vp-p

Figure 7.3

7.4 Procedure:

i. Connect the output of the function generator directly to channel 1 of the oscilloscope as
shown in figure 7.3. Set the amplitude of the wave at 10V and the frequency at 1 kHz.
Select sinusoidal wave shape.
ii. Sketch the wave shape observed on the oscilloscope. Determine the time period of the
wave, calculate the frequency and r.m.s voltage.
iii. Measure the voltage with an AC voltmeter and compare with oscilloscope result.
iv. Change the frequency to 500 Hz and 2 kHz. Note time period.

7.5 Data:

• Time Period of Sine Wave =

• Frequency of the Source Voltage =
• Amplitude (peak – to – peak) of the Source Voltage =
• R.M.S Value of the Source Voltage (from oscilloscope) =
• R.M.S Value of the Source Voltage (From voltage) =

6.7 Precaution:
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6.8 Conclusion: