Approximate solutions to equations

When a mathematical model is applied to a reallife situation the resulting

equations are very different from those we have seen so far: there are
fewer whole numbers and the solutions tend to be the best approximations
from the available information. A different approach is necessary and a
vast array of techniques has evolved together with the formidable
assistance of computers. In this chapter we shall see how we can find
solutions to certain types of equations.
Given y = f(x). To find the root/roots of the equation y = f(x), we draw the
curve y = f(x) and find the value/values of x at which the curve y = f(x) cuts
the x–axis. Another method is by finding the value/values of x at which
two graphs intersect.

Finding the number of roots

Consider the equation x 3 − x − 2 = 0 . To find the number of roots to this

equation

i) Draw the curve. If this curve is drawn accurately, the curve cuts the x-
axis only once and therefore there is only one real root to this equation.
ii) Rearrange the equation x 3 − x − 2 = 0 into x 3 = x + 2 . Draw the two
graphs i.e. y = x 3 and y = x + 2 . Then find the intersection of these two
graphs to obtain the root of the equation x 3 − x − 2 = 0 .

In both cases however, it is difficult to obtain the exact root of the

equation, but we can easily determine the number of real roots of the
equation y = f(x). In general, roots of the equation f(x) = 0 can be located
by considering the sign change of the function f(x).
Consider the function f(x) = x 3 − x − 2 .

f(1) = 13 − 1 − 2 = − 2 (negative value)

f(2) = 23 – 2 – 2 = 4 (positive value)

The sign of f(x) changes from x = 1 to x = 2. Therefore, we say that the root
of the equation f(x) = x3 – x – 2 lies between x = 1 and x = 2. Or we write
1 < α < 2. This is the first stage in finding an approximate numerical value
to the root.

1. Show that the following equations have a root in the given interval:
a. e x = 5x between x = 0 and x = 1
b. x = 3 sin x between x = 2.2 and x = 2.3
c. x + x + 1 + x + 2 = 5 between x = 1.8 and x = 2
d. tan x = 2x between x = 1 and x = 1.2
−
e. sinx = cos x1 between x = 0.7 and x = 0.8
2. Determine the number of roots of the following functions. State the
interval between which the roots of the equation f(x) = 0 lies.

1
 π π
a. f(x) = ex – 10 cos x 3
<x <
2

b. f(x) = 3 ln x + x – 8
3 < x <4
c. f(x) = tan x – 2x 1 < x <1.2

We have already seen how we can find an approximate value for a root of
the equation f(x) = 0 by looking for a change in sign of the function f(x).

Iteration

The next stage is to improve the accuracy of the first approximation. This
is done by generating a sequence of approximation which approach more
and more closely to the value of the root that we’re looking for. We use a
recurrence relation of the form xn+1 = F(xn) so that when we substitute xo for
xn the expression gives us the value for x1. We then substitute x1 for xn
and the value x2 emerges and so on. We keep going until the
approximation is correct to the required degree of accuracy. This method
of using the last value to estimate the next is called iteration, and the
recurrence relation is called the iterative formula.
Suppose for example, that we wanted to find 2 and we are given the
xn2 + 2
iterative formula xn +1 = , together with the starting point xo = 1. The
2xn
formula with n = 0 tells us that

12 + 2
x1 = = 1.5
2(1)
1.5 2 + 2
x2 = = 1.417 = 1.42
2(1.5)
2
1.417 + 2
x = = 1.4142 = 1.41
3 2(1.417)
2
1.412 + 2
x = = 1.4142 = 1.41
4 2(1.412)

Since x3 and x4 have the same rounded off value, therefore the root, α =
1.41, correct to 3 significant figures.

Iterative Formulae

Each equation has many possible rearrangements and these might lead to
different roots, or possibly none at all. As an example, let’s take the

2
equation ex = 5x. If we put f(x) = ex – 5x, we find that f (0) = 1, f (1) = – 2.3,
f (2) = – 2.6, f (3) = 5.1 and so we can say that there is a root of the
equation, α, between 0 and 1 and another, β, between 2 and 3.
1 1 xn
If we rearrange ex = 5x ⇒ x = e x ⇒ xn +1 = e .
5 5

Alternatively, by taking ln’s of both sides,

ln e x = ln 5x ⇒ x = ln 5x ⇒ xn +1 = ln 5xn

Lets take xo = 2

1 xn
xn +1 = e xn +1 = ln 5xn
5
x0 = 2 x0 = 2
x1 = 1.47 x1 = 2.303
x2 = 0.88 .
x3 = 0.48 .
x4 = 0.32 .
x5 = 0.276 .
x6 = 0.264 .
x7 = 0.260 .
x8 = 0.259 x8 = 2.543

The first iterative formula shows that the iteration converges to the root
between 0 and 1, while the second iterative formula converges to 2.543,
which is the root between 2 and 3. So, different formula can converge to
different roots from the same starting point. The first approximation that
we use is also important. If we start just a little bit higher, say at x0 = 2 .
6, the sequence gets bigger and bigger very quickly and so we say that the
approximation diverges from the root.

Derivation of the iterative formula

A formula can be found by rearranging the original equation until we end

up with something like x = f(x) and then putting x = xn+1 into the LHS and x
= xn into the RHS to give xn+1 = f(xn). For example, we could rearrange the
equation x 3 − x − 2 = 0 into x3 = x – 2 ⇒ x = 3 x - 2 . From this we could
derive the iterative formula xn +1 = 3 xn - 2

Rearrange the following equations into the given form:

a
a) 2x3 +3x – 5 = 0 into xn +1 =
b + cxn2
a
b) x2 +7x – 2 = 0 into xn +1 = +b
xn
c) e2x = 2 – x into xn+1 = a ln (b + cxn)

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d) 3x + sin x – 4 = 0 into xn+1 = sin-1(a + bxn)

e) x2 – 5x + 1 = 0 into xn +1 = axn + b

b
f) x2 – 5x + 1 = 0 into xn +1 = a +
xn
g) 4 ln x = x into xn+1 = e axn

h) 3ex + x – 9 = 0 into xn+1 = ln (a + bxn)

a
i) x ln x = 5 into xn
xn +1 =e
j) 2 cos x + 3x – 1 = 0 into xn+1 = cos -1
(a + bxn)

Answer

a) a = 5, b = 3, c = 2 (one root ⇒ α = 1)
b) a = 2, b = –7 (only for negative approx.)
c) a = ½ , b =2, c = –1; α = 0.4 (1 d.p)
d) a = 4, b =–3

In each case find an equation in its simplest form possible, from which the
iterative formula could have been derived:
1 2 xn
a) xn +1 = (2xn − 5) 3 b) xn +1 = +
xn 5
4 1 3
c) xn +1 = d) xn +1 = (xn − 3)
xn2 −2 2
5xn − 2 2
e) xn +1 = f) xn +1 = 3 +
xn xn2

Iterative Process

The general iterative formula is xn+1 = F(xn). If the iteration xn+1 = F(xn) is
convergent, it will produce a sequence of approximations to a root of the
equation x = F(x). In general xn+1 = F(xn) converges to root α if
i) xo = is a fairly good approximation to α and
ii) –1 < f '(α) < 1. (Perkins & Perkins pg 481)

a) Pg 484 ex/23.4 Q2 - Q10

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 1
b) Show that the equation x = has a root α between 0 and 1.
2+ x
By using an iterative formula of the form xn+1 = F(x n), find α correct to
two decimal places. You should show clearly your sequence of
approximations.
x+a
c) Rearrange the equation 2x2 – x – 20 = 0 into the form x = , stating
b
the values of the constants a and b. Starting with x0 = 3 use the
xn + a
iteration formula x n +1 = with the values of a and b that you have
b
found to find the positive root of the equation.

d) The iterative formula xn+1 = 1 – sin xn can be used to solve the equation
sin x = 1 – x. Use this formula with x0 = 0.5 to find the root of this
equation correct to 2 decimal places.

Answer

b) α = 0.38 c) a = 20, b = 2 α = 3.422 d) α = 0.51

Approximate Solutions To Equations

1. Solve the following equations, using the iterative formula and starting
at the given point correct to 3 significant figures.
3
(a) x 2 + 5 x − 3 = 0 using x n +1 = ; x0 = 0
xn + 5
(b) x 3 − 4 x − 2 = 0 using x n +1 = 3 4 x n + 2 ; x0 = 2
(c) ex = 3− x using x n +1 = ln(3 − x n ) ; x0 = 0.8
xn + 1
(d) x ln x = 1 using x n +1 = ;x = 2
1 + ln x n 0

5
 (e) 2 x = tan x using x n +1 = tan −1 (2 x n ) ; x0 = 1.2
π
(f) sin x = cos-1x using xn +1 = cos (sin xn ) ; x0 =
4
x xn
(g) x = e − 5 using x = e −
5 ; x0 = 1
n +1

2. The equation f(x) = 0, where f(x) is a polynomial, can be solved using the
1
iterative formula x n +1 = ( x n + 10) 4
a. Find the polynomial f(x).
b. Starting with x0 = 1, find x1 , x 2 , x3 and x 4 to 4 decimal places. Hence
give the value of the positive root of the equation correct to 3 decimal
places.
1 c
3. (a) Show that the iterative formula x n +1 = ( x n + 2 ) can be used to find
2 xn
the cube root of c.
(b) Starting with x0 = 1.6, find 3 4 to 3 significant figures.

4. f(x) = 5x – 4 sin x – 2.
a) Evaluate to 2 significant figures, f(1.1) and f(1.15).

b) State why the equation f(x) = 0 has a root in the interval [1.1, 1.15].

An iterative formula of the form xn +1 = p sin xn + q is applied to find an

approximation to the root of the equation f(x) = 0 in the interval
[1.1, 1.15].

c) Stating the values of p and q, use this iteration formula with x0 = 1.1,
to find x4 to 3 decimal places. Show the intermediate results in
your working.

5. (a) By sketching the curves with equations y = 4 − x 2 and y = ex , show

that the equation x 2 + ex − 4 = 0 has one negative root and one
positive root.
(b)Use the iteration formula x = (4 − ex n ) , x0 = −2, to find
n +1
x1 , x 2 , x3 and x 4 and hence write down an approximation to the
negative root of the equation giving your answer to 4 decimal places.

An attempt to evaluate the positive root of the equation is made using

the iteration formula x = (4 − ex n ) with x0 = 1.3.
n +1
(c) Describe the result of such an attempt.

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 1 3
6. f(x) = e 0.8x − ;x ≠
3 − 2x 2
(a) Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be written as x = 1.5− 0.5e-0.8x
(b) Use the iteration formula x n +1 = 1.5− 0.5e-0.8xn with x0 = 1.3, to obtain
x1 , x 2 and x3 . Give the value of x3 , an approximation to a root of f(x) =
0, to 3 decimal places.
(c) Show that the equation f(x) = 0 can be written in the form
x = p ln(3 – 2x), stating the value of p.
(d) Use the iteration xn +1 = p ln(3 - 2xn ) with x0 = −2.6 and the value of p
found in part (c), to obtain x1 , x 2 and x3 . Give the value of x3 , an
approximation to the second root of f(x) = 0, to 3 decmal places.

7. (a) Show that the equation 21− x = 4 x + 1 can be arranged in the form
1
x = (2 − x ) + q, stating the value of the constant q.
2
1 −x
(b) Using the iterative formula x n +1 = ( 2 n ) + q, x0 = 0.2 , with the value
2
of q found in part (a), find x1 , x 2 , x3 and x 4 . Give the value of x4 , to 4
decimal places.

8.

7
 B

r
θ
O
r A

The diagram shows a sector OAB of a circle of radius r. The chord AB

subtends an angle θ radians at the center O of the circle. Given that
AB divides the sector into two regions of equal area, show that θ = 2 sin
θ.
Use theiterative formula θn +1 = 2 sin θn with θ1 = 2, to find the value of θ
correct to 1 decmal place.
xn
9. The sequence given by the iteration formula x n +1 = , with x1 = 1,
tan x n
converges to the number α, where 0 < α < 1.
(a) Find x 2 and x3 correct to 3 decimal places.
(b) State the equation of which α is a root and hence find the exact
value of α

10.The equation x 3 + 3x − 10 = 0 has exactly one real root, α. An iteration for

1
finding α is x n +1 = (10 − 3 x n ) 3 . Use this iteration, with a first
approximation x1 = 1.6 , to find α correct to 3 decimal places.

1
11.Show, by means of a graphical argument, that the equation x = 10e − 4 x
has exactly one real root (denoted by α), and determine the pair of
consecutive integers between which α lies. The iterative formula
1
xn can be used to find α. Starting with the nearest integer
x n +1 = 10e − 4
above α, carry out four applications of this iteration, and state the
number of significant figures to which α has been determined as a
result of these calculations.

8
 2( x n3 + 1)
12.Use the iterative formula x n +1 = , where x0 = 1, to calculate x1 , x 2
3 x n2
and x3 . Give your answers correct to 6 decimal places.(1.333333;
1.263889; 1.259933)
Given that the iteration converges, find and simplify an equation in x
whose real root is approximated by this approximation.
x3 – 2 = 0

Hence write down the exact value of this root.

exact root = 3 2
Find the absolute error e1 , e2 , e3 in the first three approximations x1 , x 2
and x3 , giving your answers to 6 decimal places.
0.073412; 0.003968; 0.000012

13.By means of sketches of curves y = ln(x – 1) and y = ¼ x, show that the

equation ln (x – 1) = ¼ x has exactly two real roots, α and β, (α < β).
(a) Verify that 3< α < 4 and 7 < β < 8.
(b) Use the iterative formula x n +1 = 4 ln( x n − 1), with x0 = 7.2, to find the
value of β, correct to one decimal place.
(c) Using the same iterative formula as in part (b), a student tried to
find an estimate forα. He started with x0 = 4, find the values of x1 and
x 2 . What comment would you make about these results?

14.Show that the equation x 3 + 3 x 2 − 7 = 0 may be arranged into the form

a
x= , and state the values of a and b. Hence, using the iteration
x+b
a
formula x n +1 = with x0 = 2 , together with your values of a and b,
xn + b
find the approximate solution x4 of the equation, giving your answer to
an appropriate degree of accuracy.

15.The solution to 3x ex = 1 is to be found using simple iteration. The

1 − xn
equation is rearranged to give xn+1 = e .
3
1
(a) Carefully sketch the graphs of y = x and y = e− x on the same axes.
3
(b) Use the iteration with x1 = 1, to find x 2 , x3 and x 4 .
(c) Use these four values and a cobweb diagram on your graph to
illustrate how this method works.

9
16.(a) Show that the equation x sin x – 1 = 0 has two roots in the interval
[0, π].
(b) Verify that the smaller root lies between 1.0 and 1.2 and use the
1
iterative formula x n +1 = , to estimate this root, giving your
sin x n
answer correct to 2 decimal places.

(c) The curve with equation y = x sin x has one maximum point in the
interval [0, π]. Show that the x-coordinate of this maximum point
satisfies the equation x + tan x = 0.

Answer

1(a) α = 0.541 (b) α = 2.21 (c) α =0.792 d) α = 1.76

(e) α = 1.17 (f) α = 0.77 (g) α = 0.845
4
2(a) x − x − 10 = 0 b) x1 = 1.821, x2 = 1.854, x3 = 1.856 and x 4 = 1.856; α = 1.856
3 b) α = 1.59
4 a) f(1.1) = - 0.065; f(1.15) = 0.099
c) p = 0.8 ; q = 0.4 ; x1 = 1.1, x2 = 1.1130, x3 = 1.1176 and x 4 = 1.119
5 b) x 0 = - 2. x1 = 1.9659, x2 = 1.9647 , x3 = -1.9646 and x 4 = −1.9646; root = - 1.9646
5
6 b) x 0 = 1.3, x1 = 1.323, x2 = 1.327 and x3 = 1.327 c) p=−
4
d) x 0 = −2.6, x1 = −2.630, x2 = −2.639 and x3 = −2.642
1
7 a) q = − b) x1 = 0.1853, x2 = 0.189, x3 = 0.1884 and x 4 = 0.1888
4
8. θ = 1.9
π
9 a) x1 = 1 x2 = 0.801 x3 = 0.789 b) tan x = 1 ; α =
4
10. 1.699
11. α = 4; 1 significant figure
12. 1.333333; 1.263889; 1.259933; exact root = 3
2
0.073412; 0.003968; 0.000012

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