RHCSA / RHCE Preparation

A Creative Commons Courseware

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Course Outline Contents

Course Outline Session One: Introductions Introductions: Your Instructor Introductions: Your Instructor Qualifications: Personal: Introductions: Fellow Students Please Introduce Yourselves Introductions: The Course Course Goals Introductions: Reasonable Expectations Introductions: Preparation Recommendations Introductions: Preparation Recommendations Introductions: An OS for Practice and Study Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 4 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Introductions: Online Information Introductions: Classroom Infrastructure Red Hat Enterprise Linux The Red Hat Certification Landscape Exercise 1-1: Install RHEL6 on a Virtual Machine RHCSA Objectives RHCSA Objectives: Understand & Use Essential Tools RHCSA: Operate Running Systems RHCSA: Configure Local Storage RHCSA: Create and Configure File Systems RHCSA: Deploy, Configure & Maintain RHCSA: Manage Users and Groups RHCSA: Manage Security RHCE Objectives RHCE: System Configuration and Management RHCE: Network Services RHCE: HTTP/HTTPS Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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RHCE: DNS RHCE: FTP RHCE: NFS RHCE: SMB RHCE: SMTP RHCE: SSH RHCE: NTP Operating a System Boot, Reboot, Shutdown Runlevels Single User Mode Exercise 1-2: Use Single-user mode to recover a root password Exercise 1-3: Boot into runlevel 3 Log Files Exercise 1-4: View Logs from an x-term and a virtual terminal Start/Stop Virtual Machines Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Virtual Machine Consoles Virtual Machine Text Console Virtual Machine Text Console Caveat Start, stop, and check the status of network services Exercise 1-5: Manipulate the cups service Modify the system bootloader Supplemental Reading Supplemental Exercises Reading Session 2 User Mgmt, Storage, and filesystems User Administration with Config Files Structure of /etc/passwd Structure of /etc/shadow Structure of /etc/group Structure of /etc/gshadow User Admin with CLI tools User Admin with GUI tools Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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User environment Common Contents: System-wide Shell Config Files User-configurable Environment Files Exercise 2-1: Configure Users and Groups "Filesystem" - Disambiguation Linux Filesystem Hierarchy Disk and Filesystem tools Working with Partitions Exercise 2-2: Work with Basic Partitions Working with Logical Volume Management Removing Logical Volume structures Exercise 2-3: Work with Logical Volume Management Commands to Know Working with LUKS encrypted storage Persistent mounting of LUKS devices Working with SWAP Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Using a file for SWAP Mounting Using UUIDs and Filesystem Labels Local Storage: Adding New Storage File systems: Working with Common Linux Filesystems Filesystem Permissions: Basic Permissions Three Sets of Permissions: Three Types of Permissions: Three Extended Attributes: Viewing Permissions Setting Permissions Setting Permissions with Numeric Options Setting Extended Attributes with Numeric Options Setting Extended Attributes with Symbolic Values: Extended Attributes in Directory Listings Umask Umask Examples SGID and Stickybit Use Case -- Collaborative Directories Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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File Access Control Lists getfacl Working with CIFS network file systems Working with NFS file systems iSCSI Devices Accessing iSCSI Devices Disconnecting from iSCSI Devices Additional References Reading Labs Session 3 Managing software, processes, kernel attributes, and users and groups The Red Hat Network (RHN) RHN Subscription Activation 3rd Party Yum Repositories Yum Repository Mandatory Configuration Items Yum Repository Common Optional Configuration Items Managing Software: Using yum Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Yum-related man pages RPM Architecture RPM Package Naming Package Naming Example Installing and Upgrading Packages Upgrading a Kernel RPM and Modified Config Files Uninstalling RPM over a Network Common RPM Queries RPM Verification Validate Package Signatures RPM Checksig Sample Output Verify Installed Files Change Codes from rpm --verify RPM Verify Sample Output Identifying Installed Packages Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Managing Software: Building RPMs Inside an RPM package Main contents of a .spec file Preamble directives Required Spec file sections Package Building Tools Setting up a Build Environment Viewing the Build Environment Building the RPM RPM Building Exercise Signing Your RPMs Create a Repo with your files RPM Packaging, Other Documentation: Manage Processes and Services Persistent Configuration of Services Manage Processes and Services: Configure systems to boot into a specific runlevel automatically Monitoring Processes Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Killing Processes Prioritizing Processes nice and renice commands Manage system performance Session 4 Networking and Routing Network Configuration and Troubleshooting IP Address and Subnet Mask Routing and Default Gateway Hostname Name Resolution Two Controlling Services Switching between Controlling Services Network Configuration Files Reference Future (Near!) Network Device Naming Scheme Session 5 Firewalls and SELinux Firewalling in RHEL6 Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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iptables Built-in Chains iptables Targets Connection Tracking States Iptables Command Options Matching packets Iptables Tips SELinux SELinux in Action SELinux Enforcement Modes Important SELinux Filesystem locations Related Packages Useful Commands Additional Documentation Setting the SELinux Enforcement Mode SELinux Policy Types SELinux Contexts Setting SELinux file contexts Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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SELinux Booleans Modifying SELinux Booleans Help for SELinux with regard to specific services Monitor SELinux Violations Session 6 Virtualization Virtualization Terms RHEL6 KVM requirements KVM Virtualization Components Installing Virtualization Capabilities Virsh Commands Creating Virtual Machines with Virt-Manager Creating Virtual Machines with virt-install SELinux considerations Session 7 Logging and remote access RHEL 6 Logging with Rsyslog Accepting Remote Logs Rsyslog Configuration: Message Selection Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Rsyslog Configuration: Actions Practice Remote Access via SSH Investigate SELinux implications for SSH SSH key-based authentication SSH Security Considerations Remote Access via VNC Configuring a VNC remote display Investigate SELinux implications for VNC Session 8 Network Time Protocol and System Performance Reports NTP Overview NTP Packages NTP Documentation Installing, Starting, and Configuring Persistence Defining NTP Terms Configuration of NTP NTP "restrict" options Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Configure as a Client Configure as a Server Configure as a Peer Investigate SELinux implications for NTP Investigate Firewall Implications for NTP Reporting on System Performance Tools for System Utilization Reporting Session 9 HTTP and FTP Apache Web Server Installation and Basic Configuration Installing a Signed SSL Certificate Virtual Host Configuration Name Virtual Host Configuration Example Virtual Host Configuration Configuring for CGI-BIN scripts Apache Access Control Host Based Security directive formats Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Access Control with .htaccess files User Based Security with htpasswd flat file Configuring Passwords User Based Security with LDAP authentication SELinux Implications for HTTP Important SELinux Contexts Firewall and SELinux for httpd Very Secure File Transfer Protocol Daemon Installation and Basic Configuration FTP Documentation Investigate SELinux implications for FTP Investigate Firewall Implications for FTP Configuring a Secure "Drop-box" for Anon Upload Session 10 NFS and Samba Network File System (NFS) Packages Configuration Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Configuring an NFS server (Network File System) /etc/exports Commands SELinux Mounting Automounter Auto.master Auto.* Understanding Automount Samba Accessing SMB/CIFS Shares Samba Packages: SELinux Services /etc/samba/smb.conf (Global) /etc/samba/smb.conf Security Types Samba Users and Passwords Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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/etc/samba/smb.conf (Shares) Testing Configuration Samba Firewalling Considerations HowTo: Enable Home Directory sharing via Samba HowTo: Configure a Group Share Session 11 DNS and SMTP Types of DNS servers Included DNS Servers BIND Packages Installing and enabling Bind Useful Commands Configuration Files Enabling caching-only for localhost Allowing queries from other systems Enabling Forwarding Firewall Considerations SELinux Considerations Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Email TLAs: MTA, MUA, MDA Red Hat's New Default MTA: Postfix Postfix configuration tool Reading Mail Session 12 Finish uncompleted topics, Review, or Practice Exam Supplemental Topics Manage Processes and Services: Schedule tasks using cron Cron Format of a crontab file Controlling Cron at Jobs Securing cron and at User Admin with Config Files Structure of /etc/passwd Structure of /etc/shadow Sample Contents Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Structure of /etc/group Sample Contents Structure of /etc/gshadow Sample Contents User Admin with CLI tools User Admin with GUI tools User environment Common Contents: System-wide Shell Config Files User-configurable Environment Files CUPS Printing System Controlling Jobs from the Command Line CUPS Web-Based Interface Troubleshooting Booting Booting - (MBR) Booting - GRUB Stage 1.5 (Driver to read filesystem) Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

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Booting - GRUB Stage 2 (Menu) Booting - Kernel Booting - initrd (initial ramdisk) Booting - init process Booting - inittab Booting - rc.sysinit Booting - services Networking X TCP_Wrappers Which Services are Protected? Identifying Protected Services Hosts Access Files Syntax Source Repository

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Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session One: Introductions

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: Your Instructor

Scott Purcell [email protected] http://www.linkedin.com/in/scottpurcell http://twitter.com/texastwister http://www.facebook.com/Scott.L.Purcell

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: Your Instructor

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Qualifications:
RHCSA, RHCE #110-008-877 (RHEL6) Also: CTT+, CLA, CLP, CNI, LPIC1, Linux+ Curriculum Developer and Trainer for a major computer manufacturer for going on 11 years Linux Enthusiast since 2000

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Personal:
Husband, father, disciple and Fun: Part-time Balloon Entertainer

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: Fellow Students

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Please Introduce Yourselves

Name Where you work or what you do. What Linux experience do you already have? What goals do you have for this class? Something fun about yourself.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: The Course

Our Textbook: RHCSA/RHCE Red Hat Linux Certification Study Guide (Exams EX200 & EX300), 6th Edition (Certification Press) Michael Jang ISBN-10: 0071765654 | ISBN-13: 978-0071765657 Publication Date: June 17, 2011 | Edition: 6 Our classroom time will not follow it closely, but it is invaluable for your background reading, later reference, and out-of-class practice and study.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Course Goals
Primary Goal: Preparation to Pass the RHCE Exam (assumes passage of the RHCSA Exam) Secondary Goal: Preparation to Pass the RHCSA Exam Tertiary Goal: Acquiring high-level Enterprise-oriented Linux skills NOT a Goal of this course: Acquiring basic or user-oriented Linux skills. These are assumed as prerequisite for this course.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: Reasonable Expectations

Should I be able to pass the RHCE on this class alone? A stunning number (estimated at 50% or more) of seasoned professionals taking Red Hat's own prep courses fail to pass on first attempt. Planning for more than one attempt is prudent. Pass rates go up substantially on 2nd attempts. Maximizing your out-of-class preparation time is prudent.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: Preparation Recommendations

1. Build a Practice/Study Environment Scenario 1 -- A single virtualization-capable system with multiple vm "guests". Host must have a 64 bit CPU with HW virtualization extensions 4 GB or more of RAM recommended as a minimum -- 2GB is likely an absolute minimum 60 GB of HDD space recommended as a minimum -- enough for the host OS and several VMs. Scenario 2 -- Several physical systems, networked together. These can be 32-bit (i386 / i686) or 64-bit (x86_64) systems Each should have 768 MB of RAM as a minimum. Each should have 12-20 GB of HDD space as a minimum.

Caution
You may be unable to practice a few of the objectives (those related to virtualization) in this scenario.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: Preparation Recommendations

2. Take initiative -- form a study group. Find Participants: In class At work Linked-In groups Local LUGs MeetUps 3. Practice, practice, practice!

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: An OS for Practice and Study

RHEL 6 http://www.redhat.com/wapps/eval/index.html?evaluation_id=1008 CENTOS 6 https://www.centos.org/ ClearOS Core (Not Enterprise) http://www.clearfoundation.com/Software/downloads (64-bit only) Scientific Linux http://www.scientificlinux.org/ Fedora 13 http://mirrors.fedoraproject.org/publiclist/Fedora/13/x86_64/

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: Online Information

Red Hat docs: http://docs.redhat.com/docs/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/index.html RHCSA/RHCE Objectives and other information at: http://www.redhat.com/certification/

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Introductions: Classroom Infrastructure

RHEL6

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Red Hat Enterprise Linux

Overview Server and Desktop variants Add-on Functionality LifeCycle

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

The Red Hat Certification Landscape

RHCSA RHCSA is new, replacing the RHCT. It is the "core" sysadmin certification from Red Hat. To earn RHCE and other system administration certs will require first earning the RHCSA. RHCSA Details RHCSA Objectives RHCE RHCE is a senior system administration certification. It is an eligibility requirement for taking any COE exams and is thus a requirement for the upper-level credentials as well. RHCE Details RHCE Objectives

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

 Certificates of Expertise COEs are incremental credentials demonstrating skills and knowledge in specialized areas. They are worthy credentials in their own right, but also the building blocks of the upper level credentials. Overview of COEs RHCSS, RHCDS, RHCA These upper level credentials recognize those who have achieved expertise in several related specialized areas. Each one requires multiple COEs.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Exercise 1-1: Install RHEL6 on a Virtual Machine

Following the instructor, install your first virtual machine.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCSA Objectives

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCSA Objectives: Understand & Use Essential Tools

Access a shell prompt and issue commands with correct syntax Use input-output redirection (>, >>, |, 2>, etc.) Use grep and regular expressions to analyze text Access remote systems using ssh and VNC Log in and switch users in multi-user runlevels Archive, compress, unpack and uncompress files using tar, star, gzip, and bzip2 Create and edit text files Create, delete, copy and move files and directories Create hard and soft links List, set and change standard ugo/rwx permissions Locate, read and use system documentation including man, info, and files in /usr/share/doc . [Note: Red Hat may use applications during the exam that are not included in Red Hat Enterprise Linux for the purpose of evaluating candidate's abilities to meet this objective.]

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCSA: Operate Running Systems

Boot, reboot, and shut down a system normally Boot systems into different runlevels manually Use single-user mode to gain access to a system Identify CPU/memory intensive processes, adjust process priority with renice, and kill processes Locate and interpret system log files Access a virtual machine's console Start and stop virtual machines Start, stop and check the status of network services

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCSA: Configure Local Storage

List, create, delete and set partition type for primary, extended, and logical partitions Create and remove physical volumes, assign physical volumes to volume groups, create and delete logical volumes Create and configure LUKS-encrypted partitions and logical volumes to prompt for password and mount a decrypted file system at boot Configure systems to mount file systems at boot by Universally Unique ID (UUID) or label Add new partitions, logical volumes and swap to a system non-destructively

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCSA: Create and Configure File Systems

Create, mount, unmount and use ext2, ext3 and ext4 file systems Mount, unmount and use LUKS-encrypted file systems Mount and unmount CIFS and NFS network file systems Configure systems to mount ext4, LUKS-encrypted and network file systems automatically Extend existing unencrypted ext4-formatted logical volumes Create and configure set-GID directories for collaboration Create and manage Access Control Lists (ACLs) Diagnose and correct file permission problems

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCSA: Deploy, Configure & Maintain

Configure networking dynamically Schedule tasks using cron Configure systems to boot into a specific runlevel automatically Install Red Hat Enterprise Linux automatically using Kickstart Configure a physical machine to host virtual guests Install Red Hat Enterprise Linux systems as virtual guests Configure systems to launch virtual machines at boot Configure network services to start automatically at boot Configure a system to run a default configuration HTTP server Configure a system to run a default configuration FTP server Install and update software packages from Red Hat Network, a remote repository, or from the local filesystem Update the kernel package appropriately to ensure a bootable system Modify the system bootloader and hostname resolution statically or

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCSA: Manage Users and Groups

Create, delete, and modify local user accounts Change passwords and adjust password aging for local user accounts Create, delete and modify local groups and group memberships Configure a system to use an existing LDAP directory service for user and group information

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCSA: Manage Security

Configure firewall settings using system-config-firewall or iptables Set enforcing and permissive modes for SELinux List and identify SELinux file and process context Restore default file contexts Use boolean settings to modify system SELinux settings Diagnose and address routine SELinux policy violations

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE Objectives

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: System Configuration and Management

Route IP traffic and create static routes Use iptables to implement packet filtering and configure network address translation (NAT) Use /proc/sys and sysctl to modify and set kernel run-time parameters Configure system to authenticate using Kerberos Build a simple RPM that packages a single file Configure a system as an iSCSI initiator that persistently mounts an iSCSI target Produce and deliver reports on system utilization (processor, memory, disk, and network) Use shell scripting to automate system maintenance tasks Configure a system to log to a remote system Configure a system to accept logging from a remote system

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: Network Services

Network services are an important subset of the exam objectives. RHCE candidates should be capable of meeting the following objectives for each of the network services listed below: Install the packages needed to provide the service Configure SELinux to support the service Configure the service to start when the system is booted Configure the service for basic operation Configure host-based and user-based security for the service RHCE candidates should also be capable of meeting the following objectives associated with specific services:

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: HTTP/HTTPS
Install the packages needed to provide the service Configure SELinux to support the service Configure the service to start when the system is booted Configure the service for basic operation Configure host-based and user-based security for the service Configure a virtual host Configure private directories Deploy a basic CGI application Configure group-managed content

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: DNS
Install the packages needed to provide the service Configure SELinux to support the service Configure the service to start when the system is booted Configure the service for basic operation Configure host-based and user-based security for the service Configure a caching-only name server Configure a caching-only name server to forward DNS queries Note: Candidates are not expected to configure master or slave name servers

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: FTP
Install the packages needed to provide the service Configure SELinux to support the service Configure the service to start when the system is booted Configure the service for basic operation Configure host-based and user-based security for the service Configure anonymous-only download

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: NFS
Install the packages needed to provide the service Configure SELinux to support the service Configure the service to start when the system is booted Configure the service for basic operation Configure host-based and user-based security for the service Provide network shares to specific clients Provide network shares suitable for group collaboration

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: SMB
Install the packages needed to provide the service Configure SELinux to support the service Configure the service to start when the system is booted Configure the service for basic operation Configure host-based and user-based security for the service Provide network shares to specific clients Provide network shares suitable for group collaboration

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: SMTP
Install the packages needed to provide the service Configure SELinux to support the service Configure the service to start when the system is booted Configure the service for basic operation Configure host-based and user-based security for the service Configure a mail transfer agent (MTA) to accept inbound email from other systems Configure an MTA to forward (relay) email through a smart host

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: SSH
Install the packages needed to provide the service Configure SELinux to support the service Configure the service to start when the system is booted Configure the service for basic operation Configure host-based and user-based security for the service Configure key-based authentication Configure additional options described in documentation

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHCE: NTP
Install the packages needed to provide the service Configure SELinux to support the service Configure the service to start when the system is booted Configure the service for basic operation Configure host-based and user-based security for the service Synchronize time using other NTP peers

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Operating a System

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Boot, Reboot, Shutdown

Power On GRUB Menu Display Manager Screen Gnome or KDE Terminal commands: shutdown, halt, poweroff, reboot, init

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Runlevels
Default From GRUB Menu

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Single User Mode

Password Recovery Note: SELinux bug prevents password changes while set to "Enforcing".

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Exercise 1-2: Use Single-user mode to recover a root password

Reboot your virtual machine Activate the GRUB Menu Boot the system in Single User Mode Set SELinux to Permissive Mode Change the root password Set SELinux back to Enforcing Mode Activate runlevel 5 Login as root with the new password

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Exercise 1-3: Boot into runlevel 3

Reboot your virtual machines Activate the GRUB Menu Boot the system into runlevel 3 Login as root Transition the system back to runlevel 5

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Log Files
/var/log/* /root/install.log /root/anaconda-ks.cfg View with cat, less or other tools Search with grep

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Exercise 1-4: View Logs from an x-term and a virtual terminal

Launch a gnome-terminal session and browse the /var/log/messages file. Invoke a virtual terminal, login as root, and view /var/log/secure

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Start/Stop Virtual Machines

Using virt-manager Using virsh commands

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Virtual Machine Consoles

virt-manager virt-viewer

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Virtual Machine Text Console

With libguestfs-tools installed and the VM in question shut-down, from the host: # virt-edit {VMname} /boot/grub/menu.lst There, append to the kernel line: console=tty0 console=ttyS0. After saving, the following commands should allow a console based view of the boot process and a console login: # virsh start {VMname} ; virsh console {VMname}

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Virtual Machine Text Console Caveat

After this change, some messages that appear only on the default console will be visible only here. For example, the passphrase prompt to decrypt LUKS-encrypted partitions mounted in /etc/fstab will not be visible when using virt-viewer and the vm will appear to be hung. Only by using virsh console can the passphrase be entered to allow the boot process to continue.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Start, stop, and check the status of network services

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Exercise 1-5: Manipulate the cups service

Check the status of the cups service Stop the cups service. Start the cups service. Configure cups to start only on runlevels 3 and 5

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Modify the system bootloader

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Supplemental Reading
Jang, Chapters 1-3

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Supplemental Exercises
Setup a practice environment following instructions in Jang, Ch 1.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Reading
Topics from this class: Jang, Chapters 1-3 Topics for next class: Jang 4,6,8

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 2 User Mgmt, Storage, and filesystems

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User Administration with Config Files

/etc/passwd World-readable file of user information /etc/shadow Restricted-access file with password and expiry info. /etc/group World-readable file of group information /etc/gshadow Restricted-access group password, admin, membership info If editing directly, vipw and vigr should be used.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Structure of /etc/passwd
Name:Password:UID:GID:Comments:Homedir:Shell Sample Contents
$ cat /etc/passwd root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash sshd:x:74:74:Privilege-separated SSH:/var/empty/sshd:/sbin/nologin ntp:x:38:38::/etc/ntp:/sbin/nologin gdm:x:42:42::/var/gdm:/sbin/nologin scott:x:500:500:Scott Purcell:/home/scott:/bin/bash

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Structure of /etc/shadow
Name:Password:Lstchg:May:Must:Warn:Disable:Expire Sample Contents # cat /etc/shadow root:$1$IyApEyOS$dZ5SMuC7Yw9/PDMyWi1H11:14373:0:99999:7::: sshd:!!:14373:0:99999:7::: ntp:!!:14373:0:99999:7::: gdm:!!:14373:0:99999:7::: scott:$1${...}:14374:0:99999:7::: bob:$1${...}:14398:7:30:7:7:14457:

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Structure of /etc/group
Name:Password:GID:Users Sample Contents # cat /etc/group root:x:0:root scott:x:500: bob:x:501: mary:x:502: sales:x:503:bob,mary training:x:504:scott

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Structure of /etc/gshadow
Name:Password:Admins:Members Sample Contents ** # cat /etc/gshadow root:::root scott:!!:: bob:!:: mary:!:: sales:!::bob,mary training:!::scott

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User Admin with CLI tools

useradd, usermod, userdel Create, delete, and modify user accounts groupadd, groupmod, groupdel Create, delete, and modify group accounts chage Modify password aging and expiration

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User Admin with GUI tools

The GUI tool for managing users and groups is the Red Hat User Manager. It can be launched from the menu at System | Administration | Users and Groups or from the CLI as system-config-users.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User environment
Home directories /home/{user}/ or /root/ /etc/skel Contents copied to home directory of each new user.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Common Contents:
.bashrc .bash_logout .bash_profile

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

System-wide Shell Config Files

/etc/profile Executed with each user login. Sets paths, variables, etc. Runs scripts in /etc/profile.d. /etc/profile.d Scripts that extend /etc/profile, usually added by applications. /etc/bashrc System-wide functions and aliases

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User-configurable Environment Files

~/.bashrc User aliases and functions ~/.bash_profile User paths, variables, and environment settings

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Exercise 2-1: Configure Users and Groups

On your client virtual machines, perform these tasks: 1. Create Groups "goodguys" and "villains" Use custom GIDs so that the automatically created GIDs for the UPG scheme remain in sync with the usernames. 2. Create Users "bugs", "tweety" and "roadrunner" and make them members of "goodguys" 3. Create Users "taz", "sam", and "wiley" and make them members of "villains" 4. Set sam's account to expire in 30 days ("wabbit season" ends!)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

"Filesystem" - Disambiguation
Several meanings for the term: The way files are physically written to storage devices, as in the ext3, Fat-32, NTFS filesystems, or etc. The unified directory structure which logically organizes files The standard which defines how directories should be structured and utilized in Linux

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Linux Filesystem Hierarchy

The directory structure of a Linux system is standardized through the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (explained at http://www.pathname.com/fhs) The Linux Manual system has an abbreviated reference: $ man 7 hier Red Hat has a more complete description, along with RedHat-specific implementation decisions in their Deployment Guide at http://www.redhat.com/docs/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/5/html/Deploym

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Disk and Filesystem tools

fdisk or parted -- Used to partition hard disks or other block devices mkfs and variants -- Used to create filesystems on block devices (actually a front-end for a variety of FS-specific tools) fsck and variants -- Used to run filesystem checks (a front-end to FS specific tools) mount -- Used to mount a filesystem to a specific location in the directory structure /etc/fstab -- Configuration file used to describe the filesystems that should be persistently mounted blkid -- used to identify filesystems or other in-use devices by UUID or filesystem labels. df -- used to display the capacity and utilization % of mounted filesystems. partx -- used to force implementation of a new partition table on an in-use device w/o the need to reboot.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Working with Partitions

Overview of process for using Basic Storage Devices: Install the device or otherwise make it available to the system. Partition it with fdisk or parted. Create a filesystem on the partition with mkfs or other tools. Choose or create a directory to serve as a mount point. Mount the partition. Add an entry to /etc/fstab to make it persistent.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Exercise 2-2: Work with Basic Partitions

On your Host machine: Use virt-manager to create a 20 GB virtual disk for your Client VM. On your Client virtual machine: 1. Use fdisk -luc to verify that it is seen after a reboot of the VM. 2. Use fdisk to create a 5 GB partition (leaving the remainder unused. 3. Create an ext4 filesystem on the new partition. 4. Create a new directory at /shared/villains and mount the new filesystem there. 5. Verify with df -h that the new space is seen. 6. Create an entry in /etc/fstab to make it persistent. Optional Steps: Save a test file to /shared/villains/. Use ls to verify that it was saved as intended. Use umount to unmount the new partition. Use ls to verify that the file is no longer seen. Remount the partition.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Working with Logical Volume Management

Overview of process for using Logical Volume Management: Install the device or otherwise make it available to the system. Create a type 8e partition with fdisk or parted. Initialize the partition as a physical volume with pvcreate. Add the storage of the PV to a volume group with vgcreate. Allocate storage from the volume group to a logical volume with lvcreate. Create a filesystem on the logical volume with mkfs or other tools. Choose or create a directory to serve as a mount point. Mount the partition. Add an entry to /etc/fstab to make it persistent.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Removing Logical Volume structures

Unmount the lv you want to remove Edit /etc/fstab to remove its entry Remove the logical volume: lvremove /dev/<vg>/<lv> Before removing a VG, ensure there are no more LVs within it. Remove the volume group: vgremove /dev/<vg> Remove the LVM signature from the partitions: pvremove /dev/<part>

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Exercise 2-3: Work with Logical Volume Management

On your Client virtual machine: 1. From the unallocated space on the disk you added in the previous exercise, create a 5 GB partition (type 8e) for LVM 2. Initialize it with pvcreate 3. Use vgcreate to create a volume group named "shared" from the physical volume. 4. Use lvcreate to create a 2.5 GB logical volume called "goodguys" from the "shared" volume group. 5. Create an ext3 filesystem on /dev/shared/goodguys. 6. Create a directory /shared/goodguys and mount the LV there. 7. Create an entry in /etc/fstab for persistance. 8. Use df -h to verify the available space. 9. Use lvextend to add another 1 GB to /dev/shared/goodguys. 10. Use resize2fs to grow the filesystem on /dev/shared/goodguys to use the new space. 11. use df -h to verify the available space.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Commands to Know
fdisk Always use -u and -c for best compatibility with newer storage devices Can't create partitions >= 2TB, use parted with GPT instead mkfs Used to create filesystems on devices Front-end for mkfs.<fstype>) blkid Shows device name, Fileystem Labels, and UUID of detected block devices. May not show block devices until a filesystem is created on them. May not show block devices used in non-standard ways (for example, a filesystem on a whole disk instead of on a partition) mount used to make a new filesystem available other filesystem-specific tools (usually named

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Working with LUKS encrypted storage

cryptsetup-luks-1.1.2-2.el6.x86_64 Overview of process for using LUKS encryption: Create a new partition Encrypt it with cryptsetup luksFormat /dev/<partition> Open the encrypted device and assign it a name with cryptsetup luksOpen /dev/<partition> <name> Create a filesystem on the named device (/dev/mapper/<name>) Create a mountpoint for the device Mount the device To lock the volume: unmount it Use cryptsetup luksClose <name> to remove the decryption mapping

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Persistent mounting of LUKS devices

To persistently mount it Create an entry in /etc/crypttab:
<name> /dev/<partition> <password (none|<blank>|<path/to/file/with/password>)>

If the password field is "none" or left blank, the system will prompt for a password. Create an entry in /etc/fstab

Note
At reboot, the password prompt goes only to the default console. If console redirection is enabled, as it might be in the case of enabling a virtual machine to accessible through virsh console <name>, then the only place where the prompt is seen and the passphrase can be entered is at that redirected console.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Working with SWAP

Overview of process for adding SWAP space using a partition: Create a type 82 partition Initialize as swap with mkswap /dev/<partition> Identify the UUID with blkid Add an /etc/fstab line: UUID=<UUID> swap swap defaults 0 0 Activate the new swap space with: swapon -a

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Using a file for SWAP

Overview of process for adding SWAP space using a file: create a pre-allocated file of the desired size: dd if=/dev/zero of=/path/to/<swapfile> bs=1M count=<size in MB> Initialize as swap with mkswap /path/to/<swapfile> Add an /etc/fstab line: /path/to/<swapfile> swap swap defaults 0 0 Activate the new swap space with: swapon -a

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Mounting Using UUIDs and Filesystem Labels

Configure systems to mount file systems at boot by Universally Unique ID (UUID) or label

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Local Storage: Adding New Storage

Add new partitions, non-destructively logical volumes, and swap to a system

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

File systems: Working with Common Linux Filesystems

Create, mount, unmount and use ext2, ext3 and ext4 file systems Extend existing unencrypted ext4-formatted logical volumes

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Filesystem Permissions: Basic Permissions

Linux permissions are organized around: Three sets of permissions -- User, Group, and Other Three types of permissions -- Read, Write, and Execute Three extended attributes -- SUID, SGID, and Stickybit

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Three Sets of Permissions:

Any given file or directory can be owned by one (and only one) user and one (and only one) group. Three different sets of permissions can be assigned. User -- User permissions apply to the individual user who owns the file or directory. Group -- Group permissions apply to any user who is a member of the group that owns the file or directory. Other -- Other permissions apply to any user account with access to the system that does not fall into the previous categories.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Three Types of Permissions:

Read ("r") On a file, allows reading On a directory, allows listing Write ("w") On a file, allows editing On a directory, allows creation and deletion of files Execute ("x") On a file, allows execution if the file is otherwise executable (script or binary) On a directory, allows entry or traversal (# cd {dirname})

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Three Extended Attributes:

SUID (Set User ID) On an executable, runs a process under the UID of the file owner rather than that of the user executing it. SGID (Set Group ID) On a directory, causes any files created in the directory to belong to the group owning the directory. "Stickybit" On a directory, ensures that only the owner of a file or the owner of the directory can delete it, even if all users or other members of a group have write access to the directory.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Viewing Permissions
Permissions are displayed with positions 2-10 of a "long" filelisting:

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Setting Permissions
The chmod command is used to set permissions on both files and directories. It has two modes -- one using symbolic options and one using octal numbers. chmod [option] [ugoa...][+-=][rwxst] filename where ugo are user, group, other, or all and rwxst are read, write, execute, s{u/g}id, stickybit. chmod [option] XXXX filename where XXXX is a number representing the complete permissions on the file.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Setting Permissions with Numeric Options

User Permissions Numeric Value Sum example.txt Permissions Numeric Value Sum # chmod 751 myfile.txt r 4 7 r 4 0-7 User w 2 x 1 r 4 5 w 2 x 1 r 4 0-7 GroupOther w 2 0-7 GroupOther 0 1 x 1 0 0 x 1 x 1 r 4 w 2 x 1

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Setting Extended Attributes with Numeric Options

chmod numeric options are actually 4 digits (not three). Missing digits are assumed to be leading zeroes. The leftmost place is for extended attributes: Attribute Value 4 SUID 2 SGID 1 Stickybit

Example: $ chmod 3775 MySharedDir

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Setting Extended Attributes with Symbolic Values:

chmod +t {filename} Sets the sticky bit chmod u+s {filename} Sets suid chmod g+s {filename} Sets sgid

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Extended Attributes in Directory Listings

-rwxrwxrwx Normal Permissions, All permissions granted -rwSrwxrwx Indicates SUID set -rwsrwxrwx Indicates SUID and execute permission set -rwxrwSrwx Indicates SGID set -rwxrwsrwx Indicates SGID and execute permission set -rwxrwxrwT Indicates Stickybit set -rwxrwxrwt Indicates Stickybit and execute permission set

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Umask
The umask value determines the permissions that will be applied to newly created files and directories. As a "mask" it is subtractive -- representing the value of the permissions you DO NOT want to grant. Execute rights are automatically withheld (w/o regard for the umask) for files but not for directories. Extended attributes are not addressed -- even though a umask is four characters. The default umask value is set in /etc/bashrc and can be modified (non-persistently!) with the bash built-in command umask.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Umask Examples
Umask of 0002 yields permissions of 0775 on new directories and 0664 on new files Umask of 0022 yields permissions of 0755 on new directories and 0644 on new files

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SGID and Stickybit Use Case -- Collaborative Directories

Create a Group for Collaboration Add users to the group Create a directory for collaboration Set its group ownership to the intended group Set its group permissions appropriately Recursively set the SGID and sticky bits on the directory This ensures that: 1. All files created in this directory will be owned by the intended group (SGID effect) 2. All files created in this directory can only be deleted by the user who owns the file or the user who owns the directory (stickybit effect)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

File Access Control Lists

Provide more granular control of permissions. Filesystem must be mounted with the 'acl' option or be compiled with that option by default getfacl setfacl

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

getfacl
Example of "getfacl acldir" # file: acldir # owner: frank # group: frank user::rwx user:bob:-wx user:mary:rwgroup::rwx mask::rwx other::r-x Example of ls -l acldir: drwxrwxr-x+ 2 frank frank 4096 2009-05-27 14:15 acldir

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Working with CIFS network file systems

Will be covered in more detail later. Mount and unmount CIFS network file systems

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Working with NFS file systems

Mount and unmount NFS file systems

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

iSCSI Devices
Package: iscsi-initiator-utils Allows a system to access remote storage devices with SCSI commands as though it were a local hard disk. Terms: iSCSI initiator: A client requesting access to storage iSCSI target: Remote storage device presented from an iSCSI server or "target portal" iSCSI target portal: A server providing targets to the initiator IQN: "iSCSI Qualified Name" -- a unique name. Both the initiator and target need such a name to be assigned

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Accessing iSCSI Devices

Install the iscsi-initiator-utils package Start the iscsi and iscsid services (and configure them persistently on) Set the initiator IQN in /etc/iscsi/initiatorname.iscsi Discover targets with: iscsiadm -m discovery -t st -p <portal IP address> Log in to the target using the name displayed in discovery: iscsiadm -m node -T <IQN> -p <portal IP address> -l Identify the SCSI device name with dmesg, tail /var/log/messages or ls -l /dev/disk/by-path/*iscsi* Use the disk as though it were a local hard disk

Important
Be certain to use UUIDs or labels for persistent mounts in /etc/fstab. Also, provide _netdev as a mount option so that this device will not be mounted until the network is already up. Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Disconnecting from iSCSI Devices

Ensure the device is not in use Unmount the device Remove its /etc/fstab entry Logout from the target: iscsiadm -m node -T <IQN> -p <portal IP> -u Delete the local record: iscsiadm -m node -T <IQN> -p <portal IP> -o delete

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Additional References

4 of the Storage Administration Guide for dhat.com/docs/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/6/html/Storage_Administration_Guid e of parted. Man pages for fdisk(8), fstab(5), mkfs(8), blkid(8), partprobe(8), mount(8), parted(8), cryptsetup(8), and crypttab(5)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Reading
Topics from this class: Jang, Chapters 4,6,8 Topics for next class: Jang Ch 7,9,12,17

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Labs
Add Storage Add a disk to the virtual machine Add Swap Add a partition Add space to a VG Add a LUKS-encrypted filesystem Enlarge an LV Add an iSCSI device Create a partition for collaboration Create File ACLs

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 3 Managing software, processes, kernel attributes, and users and groups

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

The Red Hat Network (RHN)

The primary delivery mechanism for installable software, updates, errata and bug fixes and systems management functions for an installation of RHEL 6 is the Red Hat Network or RHN. The "cost" of RHEL 6 is really a subscription to this support network. These commands are using in managing an RHN subscription:
# man -k rhn rhn-profile-sync (8) - Update system information on Red Hat Network rhn_check (8) - Check for and execute queued actions on RHN rhn_register (8) - Connect to Red Hat Network rhnplugin (8) - Red Hat Network support for yum(8) rhnplugin.conf [rhnplugin] (5) - Configuration file for the rhnplugin(8) yum(8) plugin rhnreg_ks (8) - A program for non interactively registering systems to Red Hat Network rhnsd (8) - A program for querying the Red Hat Network for updates and information

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHN Subscription Activation

A new user of RHEL6 should receive information similar to this: Red Hat subscription login: Account Number : ******* Contract Number : ******* Item Description : Red Hat Enterprise Linux <Edition> RHEL Subscription Number : ******************* Quantity : # Service Dates : 12-JUN-10 through 11-JUN-11 Customer Name : ********************************* Account Number: ************ Log into the new portal here: access.redhat.com Login: ************* Password: ************** Email address: **************************** That information can then be used with rhn_register to activate a new subscription

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

3rd Party Yum Repositories

These are other repositories of installable software, updates, or bugfixes. The yum command can be configured to use them in addition to or instead of the RHN. Configuration of repositories other than the RHN is accomplished through text configuration files located in the directory: /etc/yum.repos.d/ A configuration file for each repository (or group of related repos) should be created in /etc/yum.repos.d/ The name of each repo config file should end in ".repo". This allows repos to be easily temporarily disabled simply by renaming the file to something like: myrepo.repo.disabled

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Yum Repository Mandatory Configuration Items

Repository ID Short name for identifying this repository in reports [MyRepo] Name Longer description of this repository name=My Custom Repository Baseurl Description of protocol and location needed to locate the repo files. baseurl=ftp://192.168.5.200/pub/rhel6

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Yum Repository Common Optional Configuration Items

gpgcheck Defines whether yum should attempt to validate package signatures. "0" = "off", "1" = "on". gpgcheck=1 gpgkey Defines (via URL) where the keys for signature validation are located (typically file:///etc/pki/rpm-gpg/<key name>) gpgkey=file:///etc/pki/rpm-gpg/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-release enabled (Optional) Defines whether this repository should be currently active. "0" = "off", "1" = "on". enabled=1

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Managing Software: Using yum

Common commands: yum help Displays usage information. yum list Lists all available packages and indicates which are installed. yum search KEYWORD Searches for packages with a keyword in the package metadata. yum info PACKAGENAME Displays information about a package taken from the package metadata. yum install PACKAGENAME Installs a package (obtained from the repository) and any required dependencies. yum localinstall RPMFILENAME Installs a local .rpm file, but uses the repository to satisfy dependencies. yum remove PACKAGENAME Uninstalls a package and any other packages dependent upon it. yum update PACKAGENAME Installs a newer version of the package, if available. Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

yum update Updates an installed package for which a newer version is available.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Yum-related man pages

# man -k yum qreposync (1) - synchronize yum repositories to a local directory rhnplugin (8) - Red Hat Network support for yum(8) rhnplugin.conf [rhnplugin] (5) - Configuration file for the rhnplugin(8) yum(8) plugin yum (8) - Yellowdog Updater Modified yum [yum-shell] (8) - Yellowdog Updater Modified shell yum-groups-manager (1) - create and edit yum's group metadata yum-utils (1) - tools for manipulating repositories and extended package management yum.conf [yum] (5) - Configuration file for yum(8)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RPM Architecture
rpm executable RPM packages -- Files to install + SPEC file (metadata) Local RPM database -- retains metadata from all installed packages Database is kept in /var/lib/rpm

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RPM Package Naming

name-version-release.architecture*.rpm Version is the version of the "upstream" open source code Release refers to Red Hat internal patches to the source code Architecture is one of: i386,i686 -- 32 bit x86 compatible x86_64 -- Intel/AMD 64 bit ppc64 -- Power PC 64 bit ia64 -- Intel Itanium 64 bit noarch -- Arch-independent code (scripts, docs, images, etc) src -- Source code

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Package Naming Example

bash-3.2-24.el5.x86_64.rpm Name bash 3.2 Project Version RH Release 24.el5 Arch x86_64

This package starts with version 3.2 of bash (from ftp.gnu.org/gnu/bash), applies a RH patch identified as 24.el5 to it, and is then built to run on an Intel/AMD 64 bit processor.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Installing and Upgrading Packages

# rpm -i[v,h] name-ver-rel.arch.rpm Installs a package # rpm -U[v,h] name-ver-rel.arch.rpm Upgrades a package if an older version was previously installed. Otherwise, simply installs the new version. # rpm -F[v,h] name-ver-rel.arch.rpm Upgrades a package if an older version is installed. Otherwise, does nothing -- does not install new packages if no older version was installed.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Upgrading a Kernel
Always use #rpm -i ... This leaves the previously installed kernel on the system and in the GRUB menu as a fall-back in case the new version has problems.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RPM and Modified Config Files

Scenario: niftyapp-1.0-1.el5.rpm uses a config file, /etc/nifty.conf. You tweaked /etc/nifty.conf to fit your system. Now niftyapp-2.0-1.el5.rpm is available with new features that require changes in the .conf file and provides a new default config file. What to do? If the previous version provided a default config file, the changes are detected. Your modified version of the .conf file is saved as /etc/nifty.conf.rpmsave and the new default config is installed. You can compare the files and modify as needed. If the previous version did NOT provide a default config file, your version of the .conf file is saved as /etc/nifty.conf.rpmorig and the new default config is installed. You can compare the files and modify as needed.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Uninstalling
# rpm -e name[-ver][-rel] Package removal is never verbose, never shows progress ( -v, -h have not effect) Package removal only needs the name (or when multiple versions of the same package are installed, sometimes the version or release) but not the architecture or the .rpm extension.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RPM over a Network

# rpm -ivh ftp://{Host}/path/to/packagename-ver-rel.arch.rpm # rpm -ivh http://{Host}/path/to/packagename-ver-rel.arch.rpm And wildcard "globbing" is allowed: # rpm -ivh http://{Host}/path/to/packagename*

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Common RPM Queries

Query rpm -qa rpm -q pkg rpm -qf /path/file rpm -qc pkg rpm -qd pkg rpm -qi pkg rpm -ql pkg rpm -qR pkg rpm -q --scripts Result lists all installed packages. Reports the version of the package. Reports which package provided the file. Lists all configuration files of the package. Lists all documentation of the package. Reports a description of the package. Lists all files contained in the package. Lists all dependencies. Lists the scripts that run when installing/removing.

rpm -q{c|d|i|l|R}p /path/to/packagename-ver-rel-arch.rpm Reports the same info as above, but pulls info from the .rpm file instead of the rpm database.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RPM Verification
The RPM system satisfies two types of security concerns: 1. Is this package authentic? How do I know it came from Red Hat? 2. Has this package retained integrity? How do I know they haven't been modified? Authenticity and integrity of packages can be confirmed prior to installation with GPG signing and MD5 checksums of the RPM packages. Integrity of files can be confirmed after installation with verification of installed files against the recorded metadata in the package.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Validate Package Signatures

1. Import the Red Hat GPG public key (It can be found on the installation CD or in the /etc/pki/rpm-gpg/ directory): # rpm --import /media/disk/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-release or: # rpm --import /etc/pki/rpm-gpg/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-release 2. Check the signature of the package in question: # rpm --checksig /path/to/package-ver-rel.arch.rpm

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RPM Checksig Sample Output

$ rpm --checksig ftp://linuxlib.us.dell.com/pub/Distros/RedHat/RHEL5/5.3/Server/x86_64/ install-x86_64/Server/ImageMagick-6.2.8.0-4.el5_1.1.i386.rpm ftp://linuxlib.us.dell.com/pub/Distros/RedHat/RHEL5/5.3/Server/x86_64/install-x86_64/Server /ImageMagick-6.2.8.0-4.el5_1.1.i386.rpm: (sha1) dsa sha1 md5 gpg OK

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Verify Installed Files

rpm -V (or --verify) will compare existing files on the system to their pristine state in the packages they came from. There are 8 points of comparison as shown in the following table, in the Michael Jang book and in the rpm man page:

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Change Codes from rpm --verify

Change Code 5 S L T D U G M MD5 checksum File size Symbolic Link Modification time Device User Group Mode Meaning

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RPM Verify Sample Output

#rpm -Va ... S.5....T ..?..... S.5....T .......T .......T .......T ... c /etc/ntp.conf c /etc/ntp/keys /usr/bin/aspell /usr/share/ImageMagick-6.2.8/config/magic.xml d /usr/share/doc/ImageMagick-6.2.8/images/arc.png d /usr/share/doc/ImageMagick-6.2.8/images/background.jpg

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Identifying Installed Packages

View a list of the packages originally installed on the system: # less /root/install.log View a list of the packages installed through yum: # less /var/log/yum.log Query the RPM database for the packages installed right now: # rpm -qa

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Managing Software: Building RPMs

As of this writing, Red Hat is pointing users to the following RPM Guide from the Fedora project for more information on RPM creation: http://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora_Draft_Documentation/0.1/html/RPM

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Inside an RPM package

files scripts metadata

The package is defined by a "build specification file" or spec file. A good example of a spec file can be obtained from the source rpm for redhat-release. ftp://ftp.redhat.com/pub/redhat/linux/enterprise/6Server/en/os/SRPMS/redhat

Tip
Open .spec files in vim for color highlighting

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Main contents of a .spec file

Introduction or preamble: Contains metadata about the package Build instructions on how to compile the source code or otherwise prepare the package payload. Scriptlets that perform the installation, uninstallation, or upgrade. Manifest of files to be installed, along with their permissions. Changelog recording the changes made to the package with each revision.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Preamble directives
Name Name of the package Version Version identifier Release Indicates incremental changes within a version. Group The package group that should include this package. This can come from the list at /usr/share/doc/rpm-*/GROUPS or can be unique to you. Not related to yum package groups. License Short License Identifier as described at http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Packaging/LicensingGuidelines Summary Short (<=50 chars) one-line description. Source The file to be used as the source code. Add'l sources can be specified as Source0, Source1, etc.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

BuildArch Arch to use when building. Defaults to the existing system arch. May also be "noarch" for arch-independent packages. Requires Requirements that this package needs to run. Can be in the form of files or other packages BuildRequires Requirements needed to build this package.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Required Spec file sections

%description %prep %build %install %clean %files %changelog

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Package Building Tools

These packages will provide tools for setting up a build environment and the ability to create your own packages. rpm-build rpmdevtools rpmlint

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Setting up a Build Environment

As a non-privileged user, run: $ rpmdev-setuptree This should create the following directory structure in your home directory: ~/rpmbuild |-- BUILD |-- RPMS |-- SOURCES |-- SPECS \-- SRPMS In that structure, your source files (in a tarball) should be placed ~/rpmbuild/SOURCES/ and your .spec file in ~/rpmbuild/SPECS/. The ~/rpmbuild/BUILD/ directory will be a temporary working directory for the build process. And, after the rpmbuild process is complete, the finished binary and source RPMs will be placed in ~/rpmbuild/RPMS/ and ~/rpmbuild/SRPMS/, respectively.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Viewing the Build Environment

When diagnosing build problems, it is sometimes useful to see what files are actually being created in the build environment in order to identify deviations of actual behavior from expected behavior. The tree utility is useful for that. Install tree with # yum install tree. Invoke tree with $ tree ~/rpmbuild to show the contents of the build environment.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Building the RPM

With the source files in place and a properly configured .spec file written, the rpmbuild command can be used to build the rpm either at once, or (for troubleshooting) in stages $ rpmbuild -bp <spec file> Builds through the %prep section -- unpacks sources and applies patches. $ rpmbuild -bc <spec file> Builds through compile -- processes the %prep and %build sections. $ rpmbuild -bi <spec file> Builds through %install -- processes %prep, %build, and %install. $ rpmbuild -bb <spec file> Builds only the binary rpm file. $ rpmbuild -bs <spec file> Builds only the source rpm file. $ rpmbuild -ba <spec file> Builds both the binary and source rpm files. Use rpmbuild --help or man rpmbuild for other options.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RPM Building Exercise

As root, install rpm-build, rpmlint, rpmdevtools: # yum -y install rpmbuild rpmdevtools rpmlint As a non-privileged user, create a project directory, named according to the convention: <projname>-<majorver>.<minorver>: $ mkdir ~/hello-1.0 Create bash script: ~/hello-1.0/hello.sh #!/bin/bash # hello.sh echo 'hello' exit 0 Create a tarball of the project directory: $ tar cvzf hello-1.0.tar.gz ~/hello-1.0/ Create an rpm development environment:

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

$ rpmdev-setuptree Move the tarball to the SOURCES directory Create a .spec file in the SPECS directory: $ vim pkgname.spec or: $ rpmdev-newspec -o pkgname.spec Insert a name (Match the pkgname on the tarball and direcotory) Insert a version (Match the version) Leave the release alone Insert a summary (one line) Insert a group (package group) Insert a license Insert a URL or delete the line Insert on the Source0 line, the name of your tarball Leave the BuildRoot line alone Unless your package has prerequisites needed before it can be compiled, delete the BuildRequires line Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Unless your package has prerequisites needed before it can work, delete the Requires line On a blank line below %description, insert a brief description of your package Leave the %prep and %setup lines alone If your package does not need to be "built" (compiled), delete the %build, %configure, and make lines. Leave the %install section header alone. Under the %install section, leave the rm line alone. If your package does not need to be built, modify the make install line to something like this: install -D myfile $RPM_BUILD_ROOT/path/to/install/dest/myfile Leave the %clean and the rm -rf lines alone. Under %files, use the following syntax to list each of the files your package will place on the target system: %attr(770,owner,group)/path/to/file Use the following syntax to list each of the directories you package will place on the target system:

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

%dir /root/bin The changelog section can be deleted or left alone.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Signing Your RPMs

Your RPMs can be digitally signed to protect users from the possibility of forged packages (any RPM package can execute scripts w/ root privileges when installed!). To implement this, first generate and identify a gpg key:
$ gpg --gen-key gpg (GnuPG) 2.0.14; Copyright (C) 2009 Free Software Foundation, Inc. This is free software: you are free to change and redistribute it. There is NO WARRANTY, to the extent permitted by law. Please select what kind of key you want: (1) RSA and RSA (default) (2) DSA and Elgamal (3) DSA (sign only) (4) RSA (sign only) Your selection? RSA keys may be between 1024 and 4096 bits long. What keysize do you want? (2048) Requested keysize is 2048 bits Please specify how long the key should be valid. 0 = key does not expire <n> = key expires in n days <n>w = key expires in n weeks <n>m = key expires in n months <n>y = key expires in n years

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Key is valid for? (0) Key does not expire at all Is this correct? (y/N) y GnuPG needs to construct a user ID to identify your key. Real name: Scott Purcell Email address: [email protected] Comment: You selected this USER-ID: "Scott Purcell <[email protected]>" Change (N)ame, (C)omment, (E)mail or (O)kay/(Q)uit? O You need a Passphrase to protect your secret key. We need to generate a lot of random bytes. It is a good idea to perform some other action (type on the keyboard, move the mouse, utilize the disks) during the prime generation; this gives the random number generator a better chance to gain enough entropy. gpg: key B9AED1DE marked as ultimately trusted public and secret key created and signed. gpg: checking the trustdb gpg: 3 marginal(s) needed, 1 complete(s) needed, PGP trust model gpg: depth: 0 valid: 1 signed: 0 trust: 0-, 0q, 0n, 0m, 0f, 1u pub 2048R/B9AED1DE 2011-02-22

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

uid sub

Key fingerprint = 9987 B276 A24A 1210 13A7 4D05 9F3F 8934 B9AE D1DE Scott Purcell <[email protected]> 2048R/0DA4CCE9 2011-02-22

[scott@Client1 rhel6]$

The key ID can be seen in the output above, or can be found with gpg --fingerprint Export the key to a file:
$ gpg --armor --output ~/RPM-GPG-KEY-ScottPurcell --export B9AED1DE

[scott@Client1 ~]$ cat RPM-GPG-KEY-ScottPurcell -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- Version: GnuPG v2.0.14 (GNU/Linux) mQENBE1jVagBCADVDTOvRl3Z5xPZb6AAl2D3bM/H4kEhyJ+yk1pbVPmu8yu0Cbsl . . . R+J9rjvN8rNpQwm40Gx6RpM7qtP/LodzD46dNfbr87lJ4F+4A3U= =f4Gq -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----Configure rpm-related tools to use your signature: $ echo '%_gpg_name Scott Purcell'>> ~/.rpmmacros or: $ echo '%_gpg_name B9AED1DE'>> ~/.rpmmacros Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Now packages can be created and signed at the same time with rpmbuild using the --sign option. Or existing packages can be retroactively signed with rpm using the --addsign or --resign options. With a signed package in place, the user intending to install it now needs to import the key: # rpm --import /home/scott/RPM-GPG-KEY-ScottPurcell And with the key imported, the package can be verified:
$ rpm -K rpmbuild/RPMS/x86_64/rhel6rhce-0.5-1.el6.x86_64.rpm rpmbuild/RPMS/x86_64/rhel6rhce-0.5-1.el6.x86_64.rpm: rsa sha1 (md5) pgp md5 OK

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Create a Repo with your files

(Assumes httpd already installed) # yum -y install createrepo # mkdir -p /var/www/html/repo/Packages # cp MyPackage.rpm /var/www/html/repo/Packages # createrepo -v /var/www/html/repo # cp /home/me/RPM-GPG-KEY-me /var/www/html/repo

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RPM Packaging, Other Documentation:

Red Hat Enterprise Linux Deployment Guide, section on "Querying RPM" Man Pages: rpm (8) rpm2cpio (8) cpio (1)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Manage Processes and Services

Start a service: service <servicename> start /etc/init.d/<servicescript> start Stop a service: service <servicename> stop /etc/init.d/<servicescript> stop Check status of a service: service <servicename> status /etc/init.d/<servicescript> status Reload a service's config: service <servicename> reload /etc/init.d/<servicescript> reload

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Persistent Configuration of Services

Configure a service to start at boot: chkconfig <servicename> on system-config-services ntsysv

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Manage Processes and Services: Configure systems to boot into a specific runlevel automatically
/etc/inittab

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Monitoring Processes
ps Highly configurable command to list running processes top Command to provide realtime reports of the most active running processes

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Killing Processes
kill kills a process by PID. Optionally sends "signals" other than "kill". kill-all Kills a process by name. Use care not to match names you don't intend to kill. pkill Also kills processes by name. Use care not to match names you don't intend to kill. pgrep Searches processes by name. Useful for verifying which processes would be killed by pkill.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Prioritizing Processes
The kernel calculates the priority of each process through a variety of factors. One input into that calculation is a user-modifiable value called "niceness". A process with higher niceness has lower priority and is thus more willing to share resources with other processes. niceness can range from -20 (highest priority) to 19 (lowest priority).

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

nice and renice commands

nice Launches commands with a specified "niceness" value affecting process priority. Default niceness is "0". Root can set any value. Non-privileged users can only use positive values. renice Modifies the niceness of an already-running process. Root can modify the niceness of any process in either direction. Non-privileged users can only modify their own processes and by increasing niceness (lowering priority)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Manage system performance

Use /proc/sys and sysctl to modify and set kernel run-time parameters Produce and deliver reports on system utilization (processor, memory, disk, and network) Use iostat and vmstat to report on system performance Use shell scripting to automate system maintenance tasks

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 4 Networking and Routing

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Network Configuration and Troubleshooting

Class discussion -- Populate a table explaining for each of the following aspects of network configuration: 1) How to view or verify the existing configuration, and 2) How to change the configuration. IP Address and Subnet Mask Routing and Default Gateway Hostname Name Resolution

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

IP Address and Subnet Mask

Verifying configuration ip a, ifconfig Changing configuration nm_applet, system-config-network, manual editing of interface config files

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Routing and Default Gateway

Verifying configuration route, ip r Changing configuration route, ip r, manual editing of route config files,

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Hostname
Verifying configuration Changing configuration

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Name Resolution
Verifying configuration Changing configuration

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Two Controlling Services

NetworkManager RHEL6 default Ideal for client systems and systems with dynamic network conditions No support for bonding/bridging/aliases, etc. network RHEL5 and earlier default Ideal for systems with static network conditions Bonding/bridging/aliases supported.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Switching between Controlling Services

To disable NetworkManager and enable network: # service NetworkManager stop; chkconfig NetworkManager off # service network start; chkconfig network on To disable network and enable NetworkManager: # service network stop; chkconfig network off # service NetworkManager start; chkconfig NetworkManager on To exempt a particular interface from control by NetworkManager, but leave it in control of other interfaces: In the interface configuration file of the interface to be exempted, insert the line: NM_CONTROLLED=no Ensure both services are configured on and running. Configured interfaces can be brought up with ifup eth<x> or down with ifdown eth<x> regardless of whether they are managed by NetworkManager or not. Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Network Configuration Files

/etc/hosts Static hostname-to-IP resolution. /etc/resolv.conf Client configuration for DNS. /etc/sysconfig/network Main system networking config file. Enables/disables networking in general, sets the hostname, and configures routing. /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-<ifname> Config file for each configured interface. /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/route-<name> Config file for static routes (where needed)

Note
/etc/sysconfig/networking/ is used by system-config-network and should not be manually edited.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Reference
/usr/share/doc/initscripts-9.03.17/sysconfig.txt

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Future (Near!) Network Device Naming Scheme

http://linux.dell.com/files/whitepapers/consistent_network_device_naming_in_l

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 5 Firewalls and SELinux

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Firewalling in RHEL6
RHEL6 implements a packet filtering firewall called iptables. You should know several key terms: rule A one-line rule defining a packet type and how it should be handled. chain A list of rules. table A list of rules aggregating all of the chains and rules taking a particular path through the network stack. policy A default rule that applies in the absence of other rules.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

iptables Built-in Chains

INPUT Applies to traffic with your server as the destination. OUTPUT Applies to traffic origination on your server as the source. FORWARD Applies to traffic being routed by your system from one network to another

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

iptables Targets
ACCEPT Allows the packet to proceed to its destination. DROP Silently drop the packet. REJECT Drop the packet with a rejection message LOG Log the packet and move to next rule in the chain (which may then accept, drop, or reject)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Connection Tracking States

Iptables can filter packets based on their relationship with previous traffic. NEW The packet has started a new connection. ESTABLISHED Applies to packets that are part of an established TCP connection (packets have already been delivered in both directions). RELATED The packet is starting a new connection, but associated with an existing connection. INVALID The packet is associated with no known connection.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Iptables Command Options

-vnl --line-numbers List all rules with line numbering -A <chain> <rule> -j <target> Adds a rule to the end of the chain -D <chain> <rule#> Deletes a rule by number -F <chain> Flushes all rules from the chain

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Matching packets
A source IP or network: -s 192.0.2.0/24 A destination IP or network: -d 10.0.0.1 UDP/TCP and ports: -p udp --sport 68 --dport 67 ICMP and types: -p icmp --icmp-type echo-reply Inbound network interface: -i ETH0 Outbound network interface: Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

-o ETH0 State tracking: -m state --state ESTABLISHED,RELATED

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Iptables Tips
Use system-config-firewall to enable and select FTP and SSH to generate a sample set of rules and load the connection tracking module. Show connections being accepted or rejected in realtime: # watch -d -n 2 `iptables -nvL`

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux
SELinux is a set of security rules that determine which processes can access which files, directories, ports, and other system resources. Purposes: Provide another method of securing a system. Implement Mandatory Access Control policies (required in some institutional contexts). Protect the system and its data from system services that have been compromised.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux in Action
httpd allows remote anonymous access. This allows the possibility of attempts to compromise the httpd daemon with security exploits. httpd runs with the identity of the user "apache" and the group "apache" -- a successful exploit gains system access with the permissions granted to that user and group. In addition to the filesystem areas needed to run a webserver, the apache user and group also have access to other "world-readable" and "world-writeable" location such as /tmp. SELinux ensures that a compromised service cannot gain access to these filesystem location where it should not need access in the normal course of events.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux Enforcement Modes

Disabled No rules are enforced and the SELinux filesystem contexts are stripped away. Moving to or from this mode to one of the others requires a reboot -- during which the entire filesystem will be processed to add or remove the SELinux filesystem context labels. Permissive Rules are in place, violations are logged, but access is permitted (rules not enforced). Useful for troubleshooting. Enforcing Rules are in place and enforced. Attempted violations are logged and access is denied.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Important SELinux Filesystem locations

/etc/sysconfig/selinux Used to set enforcement mode and policy set. /var/log/audit/audit.log Extensive log of SELinux messages /var/log/messages Contains short summaries of SELinux setroubleshoot-server is installed and active

messages

when

Watch for "AVC" (Access Vector Cache) in log messages.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Related Packages
coreutils Always installed. Provides some default elements of SELinux. policycoreutils Provides restorecon, secon, setfiles, et al. libselinux-utils Provides getenforce, setenforce, getsebool, setsebool, et al. policycoreutils-gui Provides system-config-selinux and sepolgen, et al. policycoreutils-python Provides semanage, audit2allow, audit2why, et al. setroubleshoot Provides seapplet setroubleshoot-server Provides sealert, sedispatch, setroubleshootd, et al.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Useful Commands
sestatus Displays information about the current SELinux parameters. chcon Changes context labels on files (but non-persistently! Use with semanage for persistent changes. semanage Modifies SELinux contexts persistently.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Additional Documentation

http://docs.redhat.com/docs/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/6/html/Security-

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Setting the SELinux Enforcement Mode

View the current setting: # getenforce Enforcing Change the current setting: # setenforce <mode> To make persistent changes, edit /etc/sysconfig/selinux

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux Policy Types

Targeted (default) Default policy set that aims to protect the most high-risk system services. Strict (Deprecated? Unable to find RHEL6 information about this policy type. Replaced by MLS?) MLS Implements Multi-Level Security policies -- a much stricter policy set than the default Minimum A less intrusive implementation of minimal aspects of SELinux The RHCE exam will likely only be concerned with the default "Targeted" policy set.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux Contexts
When SELinux is not disabled, every file, directory, and process has an SELinux context label. These labels are used to determine which protected service(s) can operate in this location. View SELinux contexts of processes: ps -eZ, ps -axZ, ps -Zc <process name>, etc. View SELinux contexts of files and directories: ls -Zd /path/to/dir/, ls -Z /path/to/file, etc. View SELinux contexts of users: id -Z

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Setting SELinux file contexts

The initial contexts are created based on a set of rules, which are also used by restorecon to restore contexts to the default. When using the default "targeted" policy, these rules are stored in /etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts. New customized rules are stored in /etc/selinux/targeted/contexts/files/file_contexts.local. View these rules with: # semanage fcontext -l Or search for a specific service or path:
# semanage fcontext -l | grep "/var/ftp" /var/ftp(/.*)? /var/ftp/bin(/.*)? /var/ftp/etc(/.*)? /var/ftp/lib(64)?(/.*)? /var/ftp/lib(64)?/ld[^/]*\.so(\.[^/]*)* all files all files all files all files regular file system_u:object_r:public_content_t:s0 system_u:object_r:bin_t:s0 system_u:object_r:etc_t:s0 system_u:object_r:lib_t:s0 system_u:object_r:ld_so_t:s0

In these rules the regular expression (/.*)? is a match for the preceding directory and everything within it, recursively. Add/delete/modify rules with: #semanage fcontext -[a|d|m] -f <ftype> -t <context> '<regex>'

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux Booleans
SELinux uses a collection of boolean variables to allow users to change SELinux policy in pre-defined ways without the need to reload or recompile SELinux policies. Show all booleans and their current values: # getsebool -a Show all booleans with current values and meanings: # semanage boolean -l Show a specific boolean value: # getsebool <boolean-name>

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Modifying SELinux Booleans

Modify a boolean non-persistently (for testing, or temporary use): # setsebool <variablename> <value> Modify a boolean persistently: # setsebool -P <variablename> <value> Use the graphical tool: system-config-selinux

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Help for SELinux with regard to specific services

Many targeted services have specialised man pages dealing with SELinux configuration. Display these pages with:
# man -k '_selinux' ftpd_selinux httpd_selinux kerberos_selinux named_selinux nfs_selinux pam_selinux rsync_selinux samba_selinux ypbind_selinux (8) (8) (8) (8) (8) (8) (8) (8) (8) Security-Enhanced Security Enhanced Security Enhanced Security Enhanced Security Enhanced PAM module to set Security Enhanced Security Enhanced Security Enhanced Linux policy for ftp daemons Linux Policy for the httpd daemon Linux Policy for Kerberos Linux Policy for the Internet Name server (named) daemon Linux Policy for NFS the default security context Linux Policy for the rsync daemon Linux Policy for Samba Linux Policy for NIS

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Monitor SELinux Violations

Installing setroubleshoot-server sends SELinux error messages to /var/log/messages. These can be further parsed with sealert. audit2why and audit2allow can be used to parse the messages in /var/log/audit/audit.log and explain why access was denied, and how to modify your configuration to allow it.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 6 Virtualization

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Virtualization Terms
Physical Machine The actual physical machine with RAM, disk space, etc. Virtual Machine A logical construct provided by hardware and/or software capabilities that can run an independent OS and perform work as though it were a physical machine. Hypervisor A specialized OS that provides virtual machines. Xen A hypervisor previously available on Red Hat operating systems that was implemented as a modified version of the Linux kernel. KVM Kernel Virtual Machine, the hypervisor Red Hat currently supports on RHEL6. It is implemented within (as a set of kernel modules) the mainstream Linux kernel. Guest The operating system that runs on a virtual machine. Host The operating system that runs on a physical machine hosting virtual machines (i.e. the hypervisor). Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHEL6 KVM requirements

64-bit Intel or AMD processor To confirm, search /proc/cpuinfo for the string lm on the flags line. CPU Hardware assisted virtualization extensions (enabled in BIOS) To confirm, search /proc/cpuinfo for the string vmx (for Intel) or svm (for AMD) 64-bit version of RHEL6 To confirm, look for x86_64 in the output of uname -m.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

KVM Virtualization Components

KVM kernel modules libvirt virsh virtualization shell virt-manager

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Installing Virtualization Capabilities

At OS Installation: Select the Virtual Host server role --or-- customize packages and select the Virtualization package group. In a kickstart file, these packages can be installed as a group with the @kvm group name. After Installation: With entitlement to the Virtualization packages, or access to them through a 3rd party repository,: yum install kvm Other recommended packages: python-virtinst libvirt libvirt-python virt-manager libvirt-client

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Virsh Commands
Power on a virtual machine: virsh start <vm name> Gracefully shut down a virtual machine: virsh shutdown <vm name or id> Power off a virtual machine: virsh destroy <vm name or id> Connect to a virtual machine console (requires guest configuration): virsh console <vm name or id> Disconnect from a console of a virtual machine: ^] ( "ctrl + ]" )

Set a VM to start at boot: Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

virsh autostart <vm name or id>

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Creating Virtual Machines with Virt-Manager

Demonstrated and practiced in the classroom.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Creating Virtual Machines with virt-install

virt-install is a command-line tool used to create virtual machines. See the syntax with man virt-install or virt-install --help. Sample command: # virt-install --name StXVM3 --ram 768 \ --disk path=/var/lib/libvirt/images/StXVM3disk1.img,size=8\ --network network=default --cdrom /dev/cdrom

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux considerations
SELinux expects file-based guest images to be stored in /var/lib/libvirt/images/. Use of other locations with SELinux enforcing will require adding the location to the SELinux policies. 1. Find the context applied to the expected location: # ll -Z /var/lib/libvirt/ drwx--x--x. root root system_u:object_r:virt_image_t:s0 images 2. Add a new context policy: # semanage fcontext -a -t virt_image_t "/virtstorage(/.*)?" 3. Set the context to match the newly created policy: # restorecon -R -v /virtstorage/ restorecon reset /virtstorage context unconfined_u:object_r: default_t:s0->system_u:object_r:virt_image_t:s0

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 7 Logging and remote access

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

RHEL 6 Logging with Rsyslog

Red Hat uses rsyslog for its logging facility. rsyslog can be configured to for local logging only, to send log messages to a remote destination as well, and to recieve log messages from other systems as well. Terms facility A name that indicates what the message concerns or from what service it originates. priority A name that indicates the importance of the messages in that category. The man pages for logger(1) and syslog(3) have more information. rsyslog is configured in /etc/rsyslog.conf and defaults to using port 514 (TCP or UDP) to send and receive messages.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Accepting Remote Logs

By default, rsyslog is configured for only local logging. To enable it to receive log messages from other systems, uncomment one of the following groups of lines in the config file (depending on which transport protocol, tcp or udp, you prefer to use): For UDP (more widely supported but less reliable): # Provides UDP syslog reception #$ModLoad imudp.so #$UDPServerRun 514 For TCP (less widely supported but more reliable): # Provides TCP syslog reception #$ModLoad imtcp.so #$InputTCPServerRun 514 After changing the appropriate lines, restart the service.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Rsyslog Configuration: Message Selection

In /etc/rsyslog.conf in the "RULES" section, ensure that a rule exists (or write one) for the kind of messages you want to send. The format is: <facility>.<priority> <action>

facility One of: auth, authpriv, cron, daemon, kern, lpr, mail, news, syslog, user, uucp, local0-7, or "*" priority One of (in ascending priority): debug, info, notice, warning (warn), err (error), crit, alert, emerg (panic), none, or "*" Multiple facilities can be specified with the same priority with the use of a comma. uucp,news.crit /var/log/spooler

Multiple selectors (facility/priority pairs) can be specified for the same action with the use of a semicolon.
*.info;mail.none;authpriv.none;cron.none /var/log/messages

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Rsyslog Configuration: Actions

action One of the following: A file, specified with a full path name. A named pipe (fifo) A terminal (tty) or console A remote machine's IP or hostname, prefaced with "@" (for UDP), "@@" (for TCP), or ":omrelp:" for the RELP protocol. A list of users (comma-delimited). This notifies them via console message if they are logged in. An asterisk (*) includes all logged-in users A tilde, to indicate that these messages should be discarded. See the documentation for others.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Practice
Configure one system to receive remote log messages. Configure the other to log only a particular facility or priority to the remote syslog server. Use logger to generate test messages. Remember to investigate firewall and SELinux considerations.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Remote Access via SSH

RedHat installs by default both the OpenSSH client package (openssh) and the server package (openssh-server) Client behavior is configured in /etc/ssh/ssh_config Server behavior is configured in /etc/ssh/sshd_config Start the service: # service sshd start Configure it persistently on: # chkconfig sshd on

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Investigate SELinux implications for SSH

Find SELinux Filesystem contexts that might affect ssh: semanage fcontext -l | grep "ssh" Find SELinux port contexts that might affect ssh: semanage port -l | grep "ssh" Find SELinux booleans that might affect ssh: getsebool -a | grep ssh

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SSH key-based authentication

Generate a key with ssh-keygen Transmit a key to a remote system with ssh-copy-id The key you want is usually named ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub. Be certain to use the .pub version of the key instead of the private key!

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SSH Security Considerations

Allow root logins? Disallow with PermitRootLogin no in /etc/ssh/sshd_config Listen on specific interfaces? Specify with ListenAddress x.x.x.x in /etc/ssh/sshd_config Allow legacy versions? Specify allowed versions of the protocol in /etc/ssh/sshd_config (read comments). Allow X11 forwarding? Configure with X11Forwarding yes|no in /etc/ssh/sshd_config Specify alternate port? Configure with Port xx in /etc/ssh/sshd_config. Multiple ports on multiple lines accepted. Don't forget firewall and SELinux implications though!

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Remote Access via VNC

For remote management when a GUI is desired or required, Red Hat provides VNC services through tigervnc. Install the package with yum -y install tigervnc-server. Configure the service at /etc/sysconfig/vncservers Start the service: # service vncserver start Configure it persistently on: # chkconfig vncserver on

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configuring a VNC remote display

In /etc/sysconfig/vncservers uncomment and modify the lines below: # VNCSERVERS="2:myusername" # VNCSERVERARGS[2]="-geometry 800x600 -nolisten tcp -localhost" As the user who will connect, set a VNC password with vncpasswd. Start or restart the service. Connect to the remote system using a vnc client with the -via option: vncviewer localhost:<x> -via y.y.y.y Where X is the display number and y.y.y.y is the IP address of the remote machine.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Investigate SELinux implications for VNC

Find SELinux Filesystem contexts that might affect vnc: # semanage fcontext -l | grep "vnc" Find SELinux port contexts that might affect vnc: # semanage port -l | grep "vnc" Find SELinux booleans that might affect vnc: # getsebool -a | grep vnc

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 8 Network Time Protocol and System Performance Reports

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

NTP Overview
NTP (Network Time Protocol) provides a standardized way for systems to provide and obtain correct time over the network. This service is increasingly critical for today's networking environments. Synchronized time information is required for accurate handling of email, for clustering, for cloud computing, and for virtualization (just to name a few).

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

NTP Packages
ntp Provides the daemon and utilities system-config-date Provides a graphical interface for changing the time and configuring an NTP client. ntpdate Provides a command line utility for setting the date and time with NTP

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

NTP Documentation
Many man pages: ntp.conf (5) ntp_misc (5) ntp_acc (5) ntp_auth (5) ntp_clock (5) ntp_mon (5) ntpd (8)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Installing, Starting, and Configuring Persistence

Install the service (likely already installed): # yum -y install ntp Starting the service: # service ntpd start Configuring it to be on persistently: # chkconfig ntpd on

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Defining NTP Terms

Stratum0 A clock device such as an atomic, radio, or GPS clock device. Not usually attached to the network but connected to a server. Stratum1 A server attached to a high accuracy time device that also allows queries for its time information. Stratum{2..16} Servers that acquire time information from servers above them in the hierarchy and share that information with peers or clients. Server (in ntp.conf) A time server that is a more authoritative time-source (higher stratum) than the system being configured, and from which this system obtains time information. Peer (in ntp.conf) A time server that is considered equally authoritative (same stratum) with the system being configured, and with which this system shares time information.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configuration of NTP
Configured in /etc/ntp.conf restrict lines Define the access to be allowed or restricted for other hosts that communicate with this service. Each server or peer configured must be included in a restrict line. server lines Define a host to be queried as a more authoritative time source. peer lines Define a host to be queried as an equally authoritative time source. broadcast or multicast lines Define ways to obtain or provide time information apart from unicast queries.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

NTP "restrict" options

restrict <address> [mask <subnet mask> ] [flag] [flag] ... address and optional mask The address, in dotted-quad notation, of the host or network to be restricted. Alternatively, the address can be a valid DNS name. ignore (flag) Disallows all packets kod (flag) Sends a "kiss of death" packet to misbehaving (usually fire-walled) clients. nomodify (flag) Allows queries for information, but denies attempts to modify the time. noquery (flag) Deny ntpq and ntpdc queries. The time service is unaffected. nopeer (flag) Deny packets related to peering notrap (flag) Deny "trap" messages (used in logging). Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configure as a Client
1. Include at least one server (three are preferred) in /etc/ntp.conf: server <server1 IP> iburst server <server2 IP> iburst 2. With the ntp service stopped, synchronize time with ntpdate: # ntpdate -v <IP of ntp server> 3. Start the ntp service. 4. Verify that the service sees the configured servers (this may take a few minutes): # ntpq -p

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configure as a Server
1. Follow the steps for Client Configuration. 2. Add one or more restrict lines to allow appropriate access from those systems that will be clients (or peers): restrict 10.37.112.0 mask 255.255.240.0 nomodify notrap restrict 10.37.112.13 3. Restart the service after making changes.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configure as a Peer
1. Follow the steps for Client Configuration 2. Add one or more restrict lines to allow appropriate access from those systems that will be clients (or peers): restrict 10.37.112.0 mask 255.255.240.0 nomodify notrap restrict 10.37.112.13 3. Add one or more peer lines: peer <peer IP or hostname> [options] 4. Restart the service after making changes. 5. Verify that the service sees the configured peers and servers (this may take a few minutes): # ntpq -p

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Investigate SELinux implications for NTP

Find SELinux Filesystem contexts that might affect NTP: # semanage fcontext -l | grep "ntp" Find SELinux port contexts that might affect NTP: # semanage port -l | grep "ntp" Find SELinux booleans that might affect NTP: # semanage boolean -l | grep ntp

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Investigate Firewall Implications for NTP

Find ports that may need to be opened for NTP: # grep ntp /etc/services Rules to open up the required ports:
-A INPUT -m state --state NEW -m tcp -p tcp --dport 123 -j ACCEPT -A INPUT -m state --state NEW -m udp -p udp --dport 123 -j ACCEPT

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Reporting on System Performance

One of the more vague of the RHCE Objectives says: "Produce and deliver reports on system utilization (processor, memory, disk, and network)." This loosely defined objective can be very wide-ranging -- this section will cover some of the tools that might be useful in meeting it.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Tools for System Utilization Reporting

df "diskfree", reports on disk space utilization for all mounted filesystems. Part of the coreutils package. iostat Provided by the sysstat package. vmstat Provided by the procps package. top Provided by the procps package. Explore the man pages for these utilities and be prepared to use them with scripting to write reports to a file.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 9 HTTP and FTP

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Apache Web Server

Service name: httpd Package name: httpd-{ver}.{arch}.rpm Main config: /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf Module config: /etc/httpd/conf.d Default DocRoot: /var/www/html

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Installation and Basic Configuration

1. Install the web-server package group: # yum groupinstall web-server Note that this install several packages including the Apache Manual which is then locally accessible at http://localhost/manual 2. Install the mod_ssl package: # yum install mod_ssl 3. Start and configure persistence: # service httpd start; chkconfig httpd on In this default configuration, you can create an index.html page in /var/www/html/ and it will be served out as your home page. Additionally, you can use https:// to connect securely to your webserver, but you will have to manually accept a self-signed certificate.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Installing a Signed SSL Certificate

1. Place the certificate and private key in the appropriate locations in /etc/pki/tls/. 2. Ensure that both files have the cert_t SELinux file context and that the private key is readable only by root. 3. Modify /etc/httpd/conf.d/ssl.conf: SSLCertificateFile points to your newly installed certificate. SSLCertificateKeyFile points to the corresponding private key. 4. Restart the service. Now your website will present a certificate signed by an accepted CA.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Virtual Host Configuration

"Virtual Hosts" come in two forms: Standard Virtual Hosts Exist on hosts that have been assigned multiple IP addresses. Queries for each separate IP address are served pages from a particular virtual host. Name Virtual Hosts Exist on hosts with multiple names aliased to one IP address (usually through DNS aliases, but can also be accomplished with /etc/hosts). Queries for each separate name (regardless of IP address) are served as different virtual hosts.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Name Virtual Host Configuration

Near the end of httpd.conf, uncomment the line: #NameVirtualHost *:80 Create a section for each vhost: #<VirtualHost *:80> # ServerAdmin [email protected] # DocumentRoot /www/docs/dummy-host.example.com # ServerName dummy-host.example.com # ErrorLog logs/dummy-host.example.com-error_log # CustomLog logs/dummy-host.example.com-access_log common #</VirtualHost> Uncomment the first and last lines in that block. Uncomment and modify the lines for ServerName, DocumentRoot, and others that you want to customize. Include a Vhost stanza for your default server instance and for each alternate name.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Example Virtual Host Configuration

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configuring for CGI-BIN scripts

Refer to the Apache Manual (package: httpd-manual) for full details and a tutorial on CGI: Dynamic Content. The ScriptAlias line in httpd.conf designates the directory in which Apache expects to find CGI scripts. CGI scripts can be implemented in directories outside of the DocumentRoot path -- but this will require modification of the ScriptAlias line and the fcontext rules for SELinux.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Apache Access Control

Per-directory options (example): <Directory /var/www/> Order Deny,Allow Deny from all Allow from dev.example.com </Directory> Three-pass access control: 1. Parse all statements of type specified first. 2. Parse all statements of type specified second. Matches overrides matches of previous type. 3. Process requests which matched nothing. In Order statements, whichever directive comes last is the default in case of no match.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Host Based Security directive formats

Deny from example.com Allow from 192.168.0.15 Deny from 192.168.0.0/255.255.255.0 Deny from 192.168.1.0/24

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Access Control with .htaccess files

If permitted by httpd.conf, access may be controlled on a per-directory basis with .htaccess files in the directories where the content needs to be protected: <Files ~ "^\.ht"> Order allow,deny Allow from 192.168.5.200 Deny from all </Files>

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User Based Security with htpasswd flat file

<Directory "/var/www/html/site"> AuthType Basic AuthName "Password Protected" AuthUserFile /etc/httpd/.htpasswd Require valid-user </Directory>

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configuring Passwords
htpasswd -cm /etc/httpd/.htpasswd good_user htpasswd -m /etc/httpd/.htpasswd another_user

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User Based Security with LDAP authentication

1. Obtain the LDAP certificate. 2. Add a line to your http.conf (usually in your Vhost definition): LDAPTrustedGlobalCert CA_BASE64 /path/to/cert 3. Configure a Directory Block: <Directory /var/www/html/private> AuthName "Private with LDAP access" AuthType basic AuthBasicProvider ldap AuthLDAPUrl "ldap://fqdn/prefix" TLS Require valid-user </Directory> Modify the cert path, and the FQDN and prefix of the LDAP Server to match your infrastructure.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux Implications for HTTP

Find SELinux Filesystem contexts that might affect HTTP: # semanage fcontext -l | grep "http" Find SELinux port contexts that might affect HTTP: # semanage port -l | grep "http" Find SELinux booleans that might affect HTTP: # semanage boolean -l | grep http Read the man page httpd_selinux (8) Make SELinux more verbose: # semanage dontaudit off This disables setroubleshoot-server, sealert, and the issuing of SELinux messages into /var/log/messages -- so you'll need to view the messages in /var/log/audit/audit.log.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Important SELinux Contexts

httpd_sys_content_t For general files and directories to be served by httpd. httpd_sys_script_exec_t For scripts (CGI) to be executed by the web server. public_content_t For files that are to be shared with other SELinux protected services

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Firewall and SELinux for httpd

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Very Secure File Transfer Protocol Daemon

vsftpd is Red Hat's preferred FTP daemon. The "Very Secure" descriptor refers to the daemon and not to the protocol! The only mention of FTP in the RHCSA objectives is concerned with enabling a default configuration The only mention of FTP in the RHCE objectives is concerned with securely configuring anonymous access.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Installation and Basic Configuration

Package: vsftpd Install: # yum -y install vsftpd Start and Configure Persistence: # service vsftpd start; chkconfig vsftpd on In this default configuration, anonymous downloads are allowed from /pub (as shown to the client) and are placed in /var/ftp/pub/ (as viewed on the server). Additionally, system users are able to login by username and password and access their home directories with read/write permissions. No anonymous uploads are permitted by default.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

FTP Documentation
Man Pages: vsftpd.conf (5) ftpd_selinux (8)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Investigate SELinux implications for FTP

Find SELinux Filesystem contexts that might affect FTP: # semanage fcontext -l | grep "ftp" Find SELinux port contexts that might affect FTP: # semanage port -l | grep "ftp" Find SELinux booleans that might affect FTP: # semanage boolean -l | grep ftp

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Investigate Firewall Implications for FTP

Find ports that may need to be opened for FTP: # grep ftp /etc/services

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configuring a Secure "Drop-box" for Anon Upload

1. Create an upload directory owned by root.ftp permissions: cd /var/ftp mkdir incoming chgrp ftp incoming chmod 730 incoming 2. Modify SELinux Set context of public_content_rw_t on the upload directory:
semanage fcontext -a -t public_content_rw_t '/var/ftp/incoming(/.*)?' restorecon -rvv /var/ftp/

and with 730

Enable the allow_ftp_anon_write boolean: setsebool -P allow_ftpd_anon_write on 3. Modify /etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf as follows:

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

anonymous_enable=YES local_enable=NO write_enable=YES anon_upload_enable=YES chown_uploads=YES chown_username=daemon anon_umask = 077 4. Modify iptables for inbound ftp in /etc/sysconfig/iptables-config: IPTABLES_MODULES="nf_conntrack_ftp nf_nat_ftp" Set rules:
# iptables -A INPUT -p tcp --dport 21 -j ALLOW # iptables -A INPUT -m state --state ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ALLOW

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 10 NFS and Samba

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Network File System (NFS)

Three available versions: NFS v2 -- Original public NFS. NFS v3 -- Extensions and enhancements to v2. NFS v4 -- Complete redesign, Red Hat default, preferred except where backward compatibility is required.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Packages
Group: nfs-file-server Packages: nfs-utils nfs4-acl-tools

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configuration
/etc/sysconfig/nfs /etc/exports

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configuring an NFS server (Network File System)

service nfs start chkconfig nfs on

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

/etc/exports
/home 192.168.0.0/24(rw,root_squash) server1.example.com(rw,no_root_squash) /pub *(ro,root_squash)

Note: There is no space between the host or subnet and the options defined between the parentheses (). If you put a space between them, then you will get a global export.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Commands
exportfs -a exportfs -r exportfs -u showmount -e server

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Mounting
mount nfsserv:/home /mnt/homes

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Automounter
Automatically mounts a directory when it is accessed. Unmounts the directory after a specified idle time. Autofs service controls this behavior. A master configuration file called. /etc/auto.master Sub configuration files Usually called /etc/auto.*

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Auto.master
Specifies directories to mount under when accessed. Specifies the auto.* file to use for the directories. Example: /etc/auto.master /etc/auto.misc /misc /etc/auto.data /data When a directory under /misc is accessed, the /etc/auto.misc file indicates how to mount it. When a directory under /data is accessed, the /etc/auto.data file indicates how to mount it.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Auto.*
Specifies directory name. Specifies options to use when mounting. Specifies what to mount. Example: /etc/auto.data pictures -rw,soft,intr nfs.example.com:/export/pics mp3s -ro /dev/sdd1 When the /data/pictures directory is accessed, the system will mount the nfs export /export/pics on nfs.example.com. When the /data/mp3s directory is accessed, the system will mount the local partition /dev/sdd1.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Understanding Automount
You must access the destination directory in order for it to automount. If nothing is automounted and you run "ls /data" then you will get no files listed. If you run "ls /data/mpp3", you will get a listing. You can now run "ls /data" and you will see the mp3s directory listed. At least until the idle timeout is reached. Some commands will cause the directory to be mounted when ran but they do not produce any results. In this case, you may need to run the command a second time.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Samba
Samba is a project providing software capable of utilizing the SMB (Server Message Block) and CIFS (Common Internet File System) protocols to interoperate with systems using MS-Windows-style file and printer sharing. Linux systems can use Samba to: Act as a client to SMB/CIFS servers Provide file and printer sharing services to clients Provide domain controller functionality in a limited subset of possible configurations.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Accessing SMB/CIFS Shares

Graphically, using Nautilus: Use Places | Connect to Server, choose Windows share as the Service Type and provide the required credentials. Occasional, FTP-like access from the command line: # smbclient //server/share/ -U username \ -W [domain or workgroup] Through filesystem mounts: # mount -t cifs //server1/tmp /mnt/share \ -o credentials=/root/credentials`` /etc/fstab entry: # //server/share /mnt/point cifs \ credentials=/root/credentials 0 0`` Credentials File contents: user=<username> pass=<password> Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

domain=<domainname>

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Samba Packages:
samba samba-client samba-common samba-windbind samba-domainjoin-gui (Optional Repository)

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux
SELinux notes are at the top of the config file (/etc/samba/smb.conf) and the man page samba_selinux (8). SELinux Port Settings for Samba: # semanage port -l smbd_port_t |grep smb tcp 137-139, 445

SELinux Booleans for Samba: # semanage boolean -l |grep "smb\|samba"

SELinux fcontexts for Samba: # semanage fcontext -l |grep "smb\|samba"

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Services
service smb start chkconfig smb on

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

/etc/samba/smb.conf (Global)
workgroup Specifies a shared Windows Workgroup or Domain name. server string Provides a description of the server. netbios name Specifies a name for the server for in implementations where NetBIOS is still used. Interfaces Used to bind the service only to particular network adapters or IP addresses. Hosts Allow Used for host-based access control.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

/etc/samba/smb.conf Security Types

The security line establishes the security model for the server. This would be one of the following: user Indicates that user credentials are held on the local server. share Indicates that credentials are not kept globally on an individual basis. All who report membership in the same workgroup are permitted access to the server and user authentication in configured in the share settings. domain Used when the Samba Server has been added to a Windows NT Domain. User access is authenticated through a primary or secondary domain controller. server User access is authenticated through a peer server that is not a domain controller. ads User access is authenticated through an Active Directory controller. Kerberos must be installed and configured to authenticate this machine's membership in the Domain.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Samba Users and Passwords

When the security model set to user, local Samba users and passwords must be created. Typically, these accounts use the same user names as those configured on the local system. smbpasswd is the command used: # smbpasswd -a winuser

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

/etc/samba/smb.conf (Shares)
[public] comment = Public Share path = /var/ftp/public browsable = yes writable = yes Path must have appropriate filesystem permissions.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Testing Configuration
Syntax of the smb.conf file can be tested before restarting the service: # testparm

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Samba Firewalling Considerations

Samba, in its latest version, uses TCP port 445. For backwards compatibility, UDP ports 137 and 138 and TCP port 139 may also need to be opened in some instances.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

HowTo: Enable Home Directory sharing via Samba

1. Install the appropriate packages. 2. Start and enable the service. 3. Configure the workgroup name in smb.conf. 4. Create the required Samba users and passwords. 5. Enable the SELinux boolean permitting home directory access. 6. Configure the firewall. 7. Restart the service. 8. Test from another system.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

HowTo: Configure a Group Share

1. Create the appropriate group if required. 2. Create a collaborative directory. 3. Set the SELinux contexts on the shared directory. 4. Define the share in smb.conf. Set the following values: valid users = @groupname writeable = yes (Ensure that the directory permissions are 2770.) or, to allow broader read-only permission: writeable = no write list = @groupname (And relax the directory permissions to 2775.) 5. Restart the service. 6. Test from another system. Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Session 11 DNS and SMTP

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Types of DNS servers

Authoritative Master (primary) Slave (secondary) Non-authoritative Caching-only Current RHCE Objectives only require ability to configure a few behaviors of a caching-only name server. The default configuration is now a caching-only nameserver listening only to localhost.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Included DNS Servers

BIND Berkely Internet Name Daemon Dnsmasq Lightweight Caching DNS server designed for small networks behind NAT routing. We'll focus on BIND, but if you have existing familiarity with dnsmasq, you may be able to satisfy the RHCE requirements using it instead.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

BIND Packages
bind The Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) DNS (Domain Name System) bind-utils Utilities for querying DNS name servers bind-chroot A chroot runtime environment for the ISC BIND DNS server, bind-devel Header files and libraries needed for BIND DNS development bind-libs Libraries used by the BIND DNS packages bind-sdb BIND server with database backends and DLZ support

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Installing and enabling Bind

# yum -y install bind # service named start # chkconfig named on

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Useful Commands
rndc Interface to BIND. host Queries for DNS resolution. Uses /etc/nsswitch and /etc/resolv.conf. dig Queries a DNS server directly. By-passing local config files if you want. dig www.dell.com Gets dns server from resolv.conf dig @dns_server www.dell.com Queries DNS server directly.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Configuration Files

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Enabling caching-only for localhost

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Allowing queries from other systems

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Enabling Forwarding

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Firewall Considerations

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

SELinux Considerations

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Email TLAs: MTA, MUA, MDA

MTA - Mail Transfer Agent Conveys mail from Server to Server (ex: sendmail, postfix) MUA - Mail User Agent Conveys mail between Client and Server (ex: Evolution, Thunderbird, mutt, mail, elm) MDA - Mail Delivery Agent Conveys mail from Server to local mail spools

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Red Hat's New Default MTA: Postfix

Packages postfix /etc/postfix/main.cf myhostname = server.dell.com mydomain = dell.com myorigin = $mydomain inet_interfaces = all mynetworks = 192.168.0.0/16, 10.0.0.0/8

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Postfix configuration tool

postconf Applies configuration changes on the fly (not persistent). Can also display available directives and default directives.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Reading Mail
mail mutt

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Session 12 Finish uncompleted topics, Review, or Practice Exam

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Supplemental Topics

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Manage Processes and Services: Schedule tasks using cron

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Cron
Scheduler man 5 crontab anacron crond /etc/cron.* /var/spool/cron

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Format of a crontab file

variable=value variable2=value minute hour dayofmonth month dayofweek command example: */5 * * * * cleanup Runs cleanup every 5 minutes 1 23 * * 0 cleanup Runs cleanup 11:01 pm every Sunday 1 23 5 * 0 cleanup Runs cleanup at 11:01 on the 5th of each month, but only if it falls on a Sunday.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Controlling Cron
cron cron cron cron -u username -l -r -e

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

at Jobs
Runs job once at specified time. Understands now, midnight, noon, teatime, minutes, hours, day, week Examples: echo "/sbin/init 6" | at now + 10 minutes or at now + 10 minutes at> /sbin/init 6 at> <CTRL-D> atq atrm

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Securing cron and at

/etc/cron.allow /etc/cron.deny /etc/at.allow /etc/at.deny

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User Admin with Config Files

/etc/passwd World-readable file of user information /etc/shadow Restricted-access file with password and expiry info. /etc/group World-readable file of group information /etc/gshadow Restricted-access group password, admin, membership info If editing directly, vipw and vigr should be used.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Structure of /etc/passwd
Name:Password:UID:GID:Comments:Homedir:Shell Sample Contents ________________________________________________$ cat /etc/passwd root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash sshd:x:74:74:Privilege-separated SSH:/var/empty/sshd:/sbin/nologin ntp:x:38:38::/etc/ntp:/sbin/nologin gdm:x:42:42::/var/gdm:/sbin/nologin scott:x:500:500:Scott Purcell:/home/scott:/bin/bash

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Structure of /etc/shadow
Name:Password:Lstchg:May:Must:Warn:Disable:Expire

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Sample Contents
# cat /etc/shadow root:$1$IyApEyOS$dZ5SMuC7Yw9/PDMyWi1H11:14373:0:99999:7::: sshd:!!:14373:0:99999:7::: ntp:!!:14373:0:99999:7::: gdm:!!:14373:0:99999:7::: scott:$1${...}:14374:0:99999:7::: bob:$1${...}:14398:7:30:7:7:14457:

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Structure of /etc/group
Name:Password:GID:Users

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Sample Contents
# cat /etc/group root:x:0:root scott:x:500: bob:x:501: mary:x:502: sales:x:503:bob,mary training:x:504:scott

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Structure of /etc/gshadow
Name:Password:Admins:Members

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Sample Contents
# cat /etc/gshadow root:::root scott:!!:: bob:!:: mary:!:: sales:!::bob,mary training:!::scott

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User Admin with CLI tools

useradd, usermod, userdel Create, delete, and modify user accounts groupadd, groupmod, groupdel Create, delete, and modify group accounts chage Modify password aging and expiration

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User Admin with GUI tools

The GUI tool for managing users and groups is the Red Hat User Manager. It can be launched from the menu at System | Administration | Users and Groups or from the CLI as system-config-users.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User environment
Home directories /home/{user}/ or /root/ /etc/skel Contents copied to home directory of each new user.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Common Contents:
.bashrc .bash_logout .bash_profile

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

System-wide Shell Config Files

/etc/profile Executed with each user login. Sets paths, variables, etc. Runs scripts in /etc/profile.d. /etc/profile.d Scripts that extend /etc/profile, usually added by applications. /etc/bashrc System-wide functions and aliases

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

User-configurable Environment Files

~/.bashrc User aliases and functions ~/.bash_profile User paths, variables, and environment settings

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

CUPS Printing System

uses IPP Do not firewall port 631 udp/tcp from localhost or you will not print even to local printers. system-config-printer Use it. Requires X.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Controlling Jobs from the Command Line

lpr send a job to a printer lpq See what is in the print queue. lprm Remove a job from the print queue. lpc Check the status of the queues. "lpc status"

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

CUPS Web-Based Interface

http://localhost:631

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Troubleshooting
Read the entire error or message and read it carefully. Pay attention to what it says. Look at the logs. /var/log/messages /var/log/secure Look for typos in the command line or configuration file. A simple missing semicolon (;) or a dot (.) instead of a dash (-) could be the issue. Break the problem down into smaller parts and troubleshoot them.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting
Think about the boot process and at which point you are failing. MBR (GRUB Stage 1) GRUB Stage 1.5 (Driver to read filesystem) GRUB Stage 2 (Menu) Kernel initrd (initial ramdisk) init process inittab rc.sysinit services

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting - (MBR)
The MBR boots the system and loads the next GRUB Stage. If MBR is on a partition, is it marked bootable according to fdisk ?

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting - GRUB Stage 1.5 (Driver to read filesystem)

If this does not exist or is corrupt, then Stage 2 may not be able to be loaded.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting - GRUB Stage 2 (Menu)

This stage reads the grub.conf and displays the grub menu. Tells GRUB where and which kernel and initial ramdisk to load. Passes extra boot optons to the kernel. root (hd0,0) indicates the files from /boot are located on the first partition of the first drive. The kernel and initial ramdisk are loaded from this partition. The paths should begin / and not /boot.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting - Kernel
Be careful to not create a typo when specifying the kernel. A common typo is a dash instead of a period. Make sure the "root=" specifies the correct locatation of the device containing root (/).

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting - initrd (initial ramdisk)

Be careful to not create a typo when specifying the kernel. A common typo is a dash instead of a period. The initial ramdisk NEEDS ALL DRIVERS needed for loading the filesystem. That means storage drivers must be in it. That means network drivers must be in it for booting across the network.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting - init process

/sbin/init needs to exist and be executable. Its the parent of all processes.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting - inittab
This is inits configuration file. It calls rc.sysinit. It runs services for the appropriate run levels. This is a very important and very easy file to corrupt. If you get "Process spawning too rapidly" during boot, check this file or check to see if the commands it calls are there.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting - rc.sysinit
Sets hostname Runs filesystem checks if needed Mounts file systems in fstab remounts / as read/write

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Booting - services
Maybe the boot issue is caused by a service. Boot into run level 1 and see if it boots. Run level 1 runs rc.sysinit and a couple of services. Boot into runlevel S. Run level S does not start any services and does not run rc.sysinit.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Networking
/etc/resolv.conf dns resolution /etc/nsswitch /etc/sysconfig/network /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth*

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

X
system-config-display --reconfig --noui

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

TCP_Wrappers
tcp_wrappers is an easy-to-configure security mechanism that protects some (but not all!) services using the hosts access files, /etc/hosts.allow and /etc/hosts.deny. hosts.allow is processed first, then hosts.deny. Each file is read from top down and the first matching rule is applied -all subsequent rules are ignored. If no matching rule is found, access is granted! Changes take immediate effect -- no services need restarting.

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Which Services are Protected?

ALL services managed by xinetd telnetd tftpd Other services compiled against the libwrap.a library sshd sendmail vsftpd Notably NOT included: httpd

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Identifying Protected Services

Identify the binary used by the service in question: # which sendmail /usr/sbin/sendmail Run ldd and strings against the binary and examine the output for "libwrap": # strings `which sendmail` |grep libwrap # ldd `which sendmail` |grep libwrap libwrap.so.0 => /lib64/libwrap.so.0 ... Nul output confirms the service does NOT use tcp_wrappers: # ldd `which httpd` |grep libwrap #

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Hosts Access Files Syntax

Basic format: <daemon list>: <client list> [: <option>: <option>: ...] Lists are comma-separated. The daemon list uses process names -- not always the same as the name of the service or daemon. Wild cards and operators are available. The client list is hostnames, IP addresses, patterns or wildcards More details in man hosts_options

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0

Source Repository
Info: Author: Date: See <https://github.com/texastwister/OpenRHCE> for the latest version of this doc. Scott Purcell <[email protected]> December 12, 2011

Copyright 2011, Scott Purcell, CC BY-NC-SA 3.0