EXAM 3 Study Guide

The following is a list of key terms and concepts that I expect you to know for exam 3. For each term you should know how it is defined, why is it important, and example(s) used in class.

Earthquakes
Elastic Rebound Theory

The 1906 Earthquake (fig. 11.4) led to the development of the Elastic Rebound Theory (fig. 11.5)

Focus vs. Epicenter of an earthquake Seismograph vs. Seismogram

focus is the point on the fault plane where the slip (movement) was initiated. (fig. 11.2) epicenter is the point on the ground directly above the point where the slip (movement) first occurred. (fig. 11.2)

Ground shaking caused by earthquakes is measured by seismograph, instruments which can record both vertical and horizontal ground motion

The record of the shaking is a seismogram. These can record the arrival time, duration, amplitude and period of both body and surface waves (fig. 11.10). Body Waves can travel through the body of the earth. The two types:
Types of Seismic Waves generated in an earthquake, including definitions and characteristics (e.g. relative speed, amplitude, and medium through which they may be transmitted).

P-waves are compressional waves. They exert a push-pull motion on the rocks parallel to the direction of wave propagation. They are also referred to as "Primary-waves". S-waves are shear waves.They exert an up and down motion on the rocks perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. They are also referred to as "Secondary-waves". Surface Waves form when the energy of body waves intersects the surface of the earth. That energy P-Waves Spee d Ampli tude Perio d S-Waves Surface Waves

fastest

intermediate

slowest

lowest

intermediate

highest

shortest

intermediate

longest

Mediu m

Solid Liquid Gas

Solid

Solid Liquid

then is trapped at the surface, where it then travels as waves along the ground.

Time Lag Between S and P waves increases with Distance from Epicenter
What is a Time-Distance graph and how can it be used to locate the epicenter of an earthquake?

The time-Distance graph: plots the predicted arrival time of S- and P-waves as a function of distance. By determining the distance from the epicenter using time lag data, the intersection of circles from the various seismograph locations will indicate the source (epicenter) of the quake.

What is the S-P time lag and why is it important?

it can be used to determine distance from the epicenter using only data obtained for a seismogram record
What type and depth earthquakes are usually associated with different types of plate boundaries?

Name shallow intermediate

Depth < 70km 70km - 300km

Boundary oceanic ridge

deep

> 300km

convergent plate and subduction

Where do earthquakes occur?

95% occur in relatively narrow zones that wind around the globe. The greatest energy is released along a path around the outer edge of the Pacific Ocean call the circum-Pacific ridge.
Earthquake Intensity vs. Magnitude (including what they measure and how they differ)

Intensity measures the damage caused by an earthquake - which in turn depends on: 1. Energy of the earthquake 2. Distance from the earthquake 3. Local ground conditions 4. Type of building Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale I II III-IV V-VI VII Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable circumstances Felt only by persons at rest Felt by persons indoors only Felt by all; some damage to plaster, chimneys People run outdoors, damage to poorly built structures Well-built structures slightly damaged; poorly built structures suffer major damage Damage considerable in specially designed structures. Buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously.

VIII

IX

Some well-built structures destroyed. Most masonry and frame structures destroyed. Ground badly cracked Few masonry structures remain standing; bridges destroyed Damage total; waves seen on ground; objects thrown into air

XI XII Magnitude

measures the energy released during an Earthquake Mr =log10(Amplitude [measured on bedrock 100 km from epicenter]) This can be determined from a seismogram as amplitude and distance can be determined from a single seismogram. In theory, it is an open ended scale, however the largest quake ever recorded had a M = 8.9. Why should there be an upper limit in nature?
How does amplitude of shaking and energy vary with magnitude?

This is a Logarithmic Scale, i.e. 5. Increase 1 unit = 10 times greater shaking Increase 1 unit ~ 32 times greater energy
What are the hazards associated with earthquakes? Examples?

6. 1. Building failure caused by 0 1 2 3 Fault Rupture Ground shaking Liquefaction of sediment Landslides

7. 2.Tsunamis 8. 3. Dam Failure 9. 4. Fires

Know the significance of the following historical earthquakes: 1811-1812 New Madrid Earthquakes

10. Hit by three huge earthquakes. 11. Changed the course of the Mississipi 12. X-XI on Mercalli scale 13. The most widely felt earthquake in US history Not felt west of the Mississipi because no one was there to record it. 1906 San Francisco Earthquake 14. M ~ 8.1-8.2 15. Lives Lost: 700 16. Damage: ~$400 million (most due to fire). Greatest damage on "made-land". 17. Transform Plate Boundary Some effects: 1964 Good Friday Alaska Earthquake 18. M = 8.3-8.4 19. Lives Lost: 131 20. Damage: ~$310 million 21. Notable for large tsunami and pattern of re-building 22. Some effects (fig. 11.17) 0 Landslide at Turnagin Heights (fig. 11.22) Prince William Sound, 1964

1971 San Fernando Earthquake 23. M = 6.5 24. Lives Lost: 65 25. Damage: ~ $ 550Million 26. Lesson learned: 0 1 existing building codes for highways not adequate; dam almost failed

27. Transform Plate Boundary Some effects 1985 Mexico City Earthquake

28. M = 8.1 29. Lives Lost: 9500 30. Damage: ~$4 billion 31. Notable for damage occurring >350 km from epicenter due to differential ground amplification and building characteristics (fig. 11.18) 32. Convergent Plate Boundary Some effects 1988 Armenian Earthquake 33. M = 6.9 34. Lives Lost: ~25,000 (100,000?) 35. Damage: $14.2 billion 36. Lessons: poor construction techniques resulted in high losses for moderate earthquake. Transform (?) Plate Boundary 1989 Loma Prieta (World Series) earthquake 37. M = 7.1 38. Lives Lost: 62 39. Damage: $6 Billion 40. Lessons: Bridges and overpasses still not safe. Role of local geology. 41. Transform Plate Boundary 42. Some effects (fig. 11.14) 0 1 2 Collapsed Oakland Freeway Role of Geology in Freeway Collapse (fig. 11C) California Speed Bump

3 House collapse due to landslide FAULT! 1994 Northridge Earthquake 43. M = 6.7 44. Lives Lost: 61 45. Damage: $15-25 Billion 46. Notable for the amount of damage in a moderate EQ and the implication of a "blind thrust" 47. Transform Plate Boundary

48. Mercalli Intensity Map of the 1994 Northridge Earthquake Some effects: Highway Failure in 1994 Earthquake 2004 Boxing Day Earthquake 2005 Pakistan Earthquake 2010 Haiti Earthquake 2011 Japan Earthquake

The Interior of the Earth

Know the Compositional and Mechanical layers of the earth, e.g.: crust, mantle, inner core, outer core, lithosphere, asthenosphere (where are they and what are their properties?) Compositional Layers 49. 1. Crust 0 1 Oceanic (~ 5 km) Continental (~ 40 km)

50. 2. Mantle (~2900 km) 51. 3. Core (~3500 km) Mechanical layers 1. 1. Lithosphere 2. 2. Asthenosphere 3. 3. Mesosphere 4. 4. Outer Core 5. Inner Core Refraction: what is it, why does it occur, and what does it tell you?

Seismic Refraction the bending of wave rays caused by a change in velocity

S- and P-Wave Shadow Zones (what are they, how are they formed, and what doe they tell us?)

Q. What is the S-wave shadow zone and where does it occur? A. Something opaque to shear waves, which prevents S-waves from reaching from the north pole to an area 15% south of the equator. Q. What is forming the S-wave Shadow Zone?

A. Liquid outer core. The S-wave shadow zone Q. We know where the core/mantle boundary is and that it is at least the outer part of the core is liquid. What else do we know about the core? A. There is a higher-density inner core. Q. What is the P-wave Shadow Zone? (fig. 12.8) A. A donut-shaped zone on the opposite side of the earth from an earthquake where no P-waves show up. The absence is caused by the P-waves being refracted through the earth's core.

What does a typical seismograph looks like: 0-105o from the epicenter P- and S-waves 105o 140 o from the epicenter flat line 140o 180 o from the epicenter P-waves only

How does the velocity of P- and S-waves vary with depth?

What is the Moho and how was it detected?

The moho is a discontiuity between the continental and oceanic crust and the upper mantle. The moho was discovered because P-waves arrived earlier down range than predicted. The P-wave hits the moho, speed up, and exit down range faster than if there was no moho

Isostacy: Why do mountains have roots

The less dense crust "floats" on the less buoyant, denser mantle.
Why is it so hard to erode a mountain range flat?

After eroding, the root floats up.

What are the sources of geothermal heat?

52. 1.Original heat (impact and gravity) 2.Subsequent radioactive decay

What are the mechanisms of heat transfer in the solid earth?

53. 1.Conduction 54. 2. Convection 3.(Radiation?)

Surface Water
Relative size of global H2O reservoirs

55. Ocean 95.96% 56. Ice 2.97% 57. Ground Water 1.05% 58. Lakes 0.01% 59. Soil Moisture 0.008% 60. Atmosphere 0.001% 61. Rivers 0.0001% Biosphere 0.00004%
Processes by which H2O move from one reservoir to another.

Hydrologic Cycle
How do different variables affect infiltration & runoff (examples)?

Runoff = rainfall - infiltration How does runoff vary with:

62. Surface Slope (gentle vs steep) 63. Soil Type (sandy vs clayey) 64. Rainfall Intensity (gentle vs high) 65. Soil Saturation (low vs high) 66. Vegetation (high % vs low %) Land Use (natural vs build up, e.g. paved)
What determines the volume of floodwaters at a specific location? 67. 1.Amount of Rainfall (inches or cm.) 68. 2.Amount of Infiltration (inches or cm.)

3.Area of Drainage Basin (mi2 or km2)

Drainage Basin (watershed) & Drainage Divide

Drainage Basin the area drained by a river at a particular point. Also referred to as the "Watershed". Drainage Divide separates adjacent drainage basins
What is discharge and how is it measured?

Discharge (Q) is measured using a simplified form of the Continuity Equation: 69. Q = VA
70. Q = discharge (L3/s)

71. V = average flow velocity (L/s) A = cross sectional area of water (L2)
What is stage and how is it measured?

the elevation of the floodwaters.

Its measured by a hydrograph What is a Hydrograph?

plots discharge (or stage) at a gaging station over time.

Floodplain Zonation Map

Maps floodplains at different stages.

How is flood frequency measured?

Flood Frequency is measured by: 72. 1.Recurrence Interval 2. Exceedence Probability

What is Annual Recurrence Interval and Exceedence Probability? How are they calculated?

The RI of an event of a particular magnitude can be determined using the following equation: RI = (N + 1) m Where N = number of years of record and m = rank of the event Exceedence Probability is the probability (P) of an event a particular magnitude being equaled or exceeded in any given year. It is the reciprocal of RI. P = 1 RI Therefore, a 100 year flood has a 1 in 100 (i.e. 1%) chance of being equaled or exceeded in any given year. A better term for a 100-year flood is: 1% flood.
What are the 50 and 100 year floods and how are they determined?

The Hundred Year Floodplain is the area flooded by the hundred year flood. The Hundred Year Flood is a flood with an annual recurrence interval of 100 years.
What are the 2% and 1% floods and how are they determined?

How and why do hydrographs differ before and after urbanization?

When an area changes from rural to urban, the lag time between rainfall and flood peak is shortened and the flood peak is higher.
How can you increase velocity in a channel? Why would you want to do that? 73. 1.Decrease Resistance to Flow 74. 2.Increase Channel Efficiency 75. 3.Increase Slope

This is "improving the channel" or "channelizing"

What are the variables in Mannings Equation and how do they relate to flood control?

V = ( 1.5 R2/3S1/2 ) n 76. V = Average Water Velocity 77. R = Hydraulic Radius ( a measure of the efficiency of the channel cross section) 78. S = Slope of the Energy Gradient (approximated by the slope of the channel) 79. n = Manning's Roughness Coefficient (a measure of the resistance to flow) Examples of different roughness coefficients: Increase roughness, slow velocity down. Decrease roughness, increse velocity.

What is Sinuosity?

Sinuosity of a stream is a measure of how much it is meandering. It is defined as the channel distance / linear (or valley) distance, i.e. distance as the fish swims / distance as the crow flies
How and why has sinuosity changed in Brays Bayou between 1946 and the present?

It was greatly straightened to make water flow go faster and reduce flooding.
What is the effect of channelization on downstream flooding? Alternatives?

Increases downstream flooding and erosion.

Lateral migration, point bars, cut banks, and meander scrolls

LATERAL MIGRATION: The process in which a meandering river moves by eroding its cutbanks, and building up its point bars. point bar inside of a curve in a river, that grows with sediments. cutbank the outside of a curve in a river, that erodes in a flood. meander scrolls the layered deposits on point bars that grow while a river migrates laterally.

Meander cutoffs and oxbow lakes

Ultimately, a migrating river's bends will curve so drastically that its cutbanks will merge, leaving behind an abadonded stretch of river called an oxbow lake.

Avulsion

The process in which a river break through the base of a loop, cutting off the meander, and leaves the curve behind as an oxbow lake.
Natural levees

During a flood, the river slows down and deposits heavier sediments on the shoulders of the banks of the river, creating higher shoulders and creating a natural levee.

What is significant/lessons learned about the following case studies: -Red River of Texas/Oklahoma -1994 Pipeline Rupture along the San Jacinto River east of Houston -Oyster Creek east of the Brazos River -The Atchafalaya River north and west of Baton Rouge, LA -The town of Simonton on the Brazos River west of Houston

The Coastal Zone

What happened on Sept 8, 1900? And in 1915?

Sept 9, 1900: Galveston Hurricane, the greatest loss of life in a natural disaster.

What is the Sediment Budget and why is it important?

The rate at which sediment (mainly sand) is removed (wave energy) verses the rate at which it is being re-supplied to the beach (sediment supply). The ratio of wave energy to sediment supply. Its important because it determines whether a beach is eroding or stable
What is the difference between a deep-water and shallow-water wave?

80. Deep Water Wave (D > L/2) Shallow Water Wave (D < L/2)
What is wave base and why is it important?

The wave base is 1/2 the wave length, beneath which wave motion cannot be detected.
What happens in the zone of wave buildup?

Because the water depth decreases, the wave length decreases, height increases, and wave refraction can occur.

How does the surf zone differ from the zone of wave buildup?

In the surf zone breakers form.

How does wave refraction occur in the near shore zone and why is it important? How does it affect headlands and bays?

The bending of waves as they change velocity. So as waves change velocity as they approach shore, they change direction. Only shallow water waves can change their velocity.
What is longshore drift? How and why does it occur? Why is it important?

Longshore Drift

The transport of sediment (e.g. sand) parallel to the shoreline, mainly in the surf and swash zone. It is driven by longshore currents set up by waves coming into the shoreline at an angle less than 90 degrees.
What are the main sources of sediment to the beach?

81. 1.Rivers 82. 2.Erosion 83. 3.Longshore Drift 4. Others?

What happened near Freeport when the course of the Brazos River was changed?

A huge delta formed, and Freeport was deprived of river sediments resulting in beach erosion.
For each of the following, know what they are their purpose, and the consequences of using them:

Groins Impermeable structures perpendicular to the shoreline. Purpose: to trap sediment, thereby preventing or reducing beach erosion Problems? Beaches downbeach from the groin erodes faster. Jetties Impermeable structures perpendicular to the shoreline, on either side of an inlet. Purpose: to reduce sedimentation in the inlet, thereby improving navigation. Problems? Causes pile-up and increased downdrift erosion. seawalls and revetments Impermeable structures parallel to the shoreline, usually on the landward side of the beach. Purpose: to prevent erosion of the land adjacent to the beach. Breakwater Impermeable structures parallel to and offshore from the shoreline. Purpose: to protect a beach or boat anchorage from incoming waves
Important Case Studies: - Freeport, TX

- Ocean City, NJ - Galveston, TX Are Texas beaches eroding, and if not, what is happening? Are there any exceptions to this generalization?

84. 1. Our Beaches are moving 2. Our Beachfront Land is Eroding (to create beach)
What defines the public easement for beaches in Texas. What is beach nourishment and what are its consequences?

The artificial addition of sand to the beach to reduce the rate of beach erosion. The beach will erode anyway, and will have to be nourished again.

What will be the effect of the large Geo- tubes placed behind the beach just down-drift of the Galveston seawall?

The Geo-tubes saves the land, but does not stop erosion, so beach nourishment will have to happen (expensive).
Compare the impacts of Hurricane Ike on Bolivar Peninsula and Galveston Island. Why was there such a big difference?

Groundwater
Main use of groundwater in the U.S. and in Texas is:

for irrigation. 85. 80% - Agricultural (mainly irrigation)(projected to be 59% by 2050) 15% - Municipal 5% - Industrial
How and why is the amount of groundwater expected to change in Texas over the next 40 years?

Water Table is:

The top of the saturated zone of groundwater The level to which water will rise in a hole The level to which water will rise in an unconfined aquifer
Saturated Zone

that area where the grains are saturated with water. All the pore spaces are filled with water.
Unsaturated zone

the area above the saturated zone whre the grains are not saturated with water.
Cone of Depression Know how and why the water table (and pressure surface) can change with time. Darcys Law

is used to determine the velocity of ground water Vg = ( KS ) p;

86. Vg = velocity of groundwater

87. K ~ permiability 88. S = Slope (hydraulic gradient) p = porosity

Porosity

The percent void space in a rock or sediment. It is a measure of the potential volume of water that can be stored in a rock. The greater the porosity, the more fluid that can be stored in a rock.
Permeability

The ability of a material to transmit a fluid. It is a measure of how fast the fluid can travel through the rock or sediment.

Unconfined and Confined Aquifer Aquitard

Relative porosity and permeability values for different types of sediments and sedimentary rocks (c.f. table 12.2)

Rock Type Gravel Well-sorted sand Poorly sorted sand Well-sorted sandstone Fractured shale Limestone

Porosity V. High V. High Mod - Low

Permeability V. high High Mod to Low

Mod - Low

Low

Low Low - High

Very Low Low - High

Recharge Zone Pressure Surface

the level to which water will rise in wells in confined aquifers.

Flowing and non-flowing artesian wells Know the geologic origin and significance of the following aquifers in Texas:

-- Gulf Coast Aquifer -- Edwards Aquifer -- Ogallalla Aquifer Which is more likely to be contaminated by surface pollution, an unconfined or confined aquifer? Why?

unconfined, because it is exposed to the surface

How can your neighbor pumping his well cause your well to be contaminated?

Resources
Reserves verses Resources

Resource a naturally occurring material that is of potential economic use. Reserve a resource that can be economically and legally used today.

Can the size of reserves and resources change, and if so, how? What are the sources (and relative magnitudes) of energy on the earth?

89. Solar (99.97%) Radiation : 120,000 units/yr 90. Geothermal Energy : 30 units/yr Gravitational Energy : 3 units/yr
What are Fossil Fuels and how do they form?

Those energy resources that have formed as the result of the burial and subsequent transformation of organic material.
Photosynthesis verses oxidation The U.S. produces more __coal than any other energy source.

The U.S. consumes more

petroleum___ than any other energy source.

How has the amount of energy produced and consumed in the U.S. changes over the past 50 years, and so what? What are the sources (and relative amounts) of energy used to produce electricity in the US today?

What does it take to produce coal?

91. 1.Production of large amounts of biomass 92. 2.Preservation in an oxygen-poor environment 3.Burial and compaction
What does it take to produce oil and gas? 93. 1. Production of large amounts of biomass 94. 2. Preservation in an oxygen-poor environment 95. 3. Burial, causing maturation (the breakdown of organic matter into a liquid or gas) in a source rock. 0 1 2 1. Relatively narrow temperature range, ~50 - 150 degrees C (also depends on time) 2. Temperature and duration determine type of hydrocarbon 3. Duration could last millions of years permeable sandstone or limestone). 5. Trapping of fluids by an impermeable seal. (e.g. impermeable shale, limestone, or evaporite).

96. 4. Migration out of the source area into a permeable reservoir rock (e.g. porous and

Why are oil and gas deposits often found in the crest of anticlines? (see fig 22.4)

As oil and gas are lighter than water, they float to the top of the crest of the anticline.
How has the amount of oil produced and consumed in the U.S. changes over the past 50 years, and so what?

97. U.S. production of oil has been decreasing since 1970. 98. U.S, consumption has been largely increasing since at least1949.

We presently import over 50% of all we use in the U.S., more than at any other time in our history.
Approximately how long would the oil reserves last in the U.S. if we had no access to foreign oil? What are the assumptions in your answer?
Consumption US World 5.9 bbl/yr 26 bbl/yr Reserves 22.5 bbl 1000 bbl Resources ~105 bbl 1550 bbl "lifetime" ~16 yrs 60 yrs

bbl = billion barrels

Approximately how long will the oil reserves last in the world? What are the assumptions in your answer? See above. How good are these assumptions and why?

Pretty good - as the Hubbert Curve predicts.

What is the Hubbert Curve and why is it important? How can it change? It tells us Approximately how long will the oil reserves last in the world How can we increase the size of our oil and gas reserves?
99. 100. 101. 0 1 102. 1. Increase the price 2. Lower the cost of production 3. Find new conventional deposits 1. How much oil does the government estimate can be recovered from ANWR? 10.3 bbl 2. At present rates of US consumption, how long would that oil last? ~20 months. 4. Get more out of old deposits (enhanced recovery) 5. Develop unconventional sources

Approximately how long would the oil from ANWR last at present rates of consumption in the US (think also about the assumptions)?

~20 months - assuming no increase in consumption or cost by 2025

Can increased energy conservation increase the size of our reserves?

No, but it can increase the lifetime of that resource.

Approximately how much energy is lost between the well and the wheel of a car?

88%
What do all fossil fuels have in common?
Emissions of: 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. Carbon Dioxide (plus) Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides Sulfur Dioxide Volatile organics Etc

What is the greenhouse effect? What is the main greenhouse gas (excluding water)?

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

What is the main source for that gas being added to the atmosphere today?

108. Burning of Fossil Fuels: 75% 109. Land clearing: 15% 110. Manufacturing: 7% 111. Fuel wood: 3%
How can we estimate global temperatures in the past, prior to instrumental readings? 112. 1.Coral Cores 113. 2.Tree Rings 114. 3.Ice Cores 4.Pollen What do we know and not know about global warming?
What we know

115. Atmospheric CO2 is increasing due to human activity. 116. CO2 is only one of several greenhouse gases increasing due to human activities.

117.

Global temperature is rising What we dont know

5. To what extent is increased CO2 (and other greenhouse gases) causing global warming?
6. 7. How might global warming affect global climate (including sea level)? What can we do about it? Is it worth it?

Why is it inevitable we will shift from fossil fuels in the next 30 years?

The rollover of global oil production will happen around 2030.

What are some of our choices?
118. 119. 0 1 2 3 Nuclear Renewables, e.g. Geothermal Direct Solar Wind Tides Hydrogen fuel cells?