Cisco CCNA Semester 1

Module 5

Development of Ethernet
Grew out of Alohanet developed at University of Hawaii in 70s. Multiple access to shared radio frequency
Formed basis for Ethernet MAC method CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detect

Original Ethernet was first LAN

First Standard published as consortium of Digital Equipment Company, Intel, Xerox (DIX) in 1980

IEEE Standards
IEEE standardized original Ethernet standards
IEEE official Ethernet standards are 802.3
802.3 standard has been supplemented as improvements in physical media have occurred. Still remains 802.3
Reason Ethernet is scalable

IEEE Ethernet Naming Rules

Ethernet refers to family: Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet (Gig-E), and 10-Gb Ethernet As Ethernet is expanded, IEEE issues new supplement. New supplements are given 1 or 2 letter designation and an abbreviated description (Identifier)
802.3u = Fast Ethernet 10BASE2 (IEEE 802.3a) 1000BASE-TX (IEEE 802.3X)

IEEE Ethernet Naming Rules (Contd)

Description consists of three parts
Number indicating bps Tx Word BASE indicating Baseband TX Numbers referring to Coax Cable segment length One or more letters indicating type of medium used F = Fiber optic cable T = Copper unshielded twisted pair Baseband signaling whole bandwidth used for signal. Used in Ethernet Broadband signaling Analog carrier signal is modulated by data signal

IEEE
Standards making organization Goals
Supply information to build devices to comply with Ethernet standard Not stifle innovation

Equipment Mfgs not required to meet standards

802.3/Ethernet and OSI Model

Standards specify
Physical media and connectors Communication via Data Link Layer Encapsulation of protocol-specific traffic

Data link layer broken into 2-sublayers

Media Access Control (MAC) [802.3] How to Tx frames on physical medium, physical addressing, line discipline, network topology Logical Link Control (LLC) [802.2] Logically ID different protocols for encapsulation.

Layer 2 comparisons
Layer 1 Limitation Layer 2 Solution

Cannot communicate with the Communicates with upperupper-level layers level layers via the LLC sub layer Can only describe stream of bits Cannot identify computers Cannot decide which computer will Tx data from group of computers trying to TX at same time Uses framing to organize or group bits. (makes bits have meaning Identifies computer using MAC Addressing Uses MAC sublayer to accomplish decisions

LLC and MAC

MAC is concerned with physical media LLC is independent of physical media
Allows multiple Layer 3 protocols (IP, IPX, AppleTalk) to be supported along with multiple frame types

MAC Addressing
All computers on a network must be able to be uniquely identified in order for frame delivery Media Access Control (MAC) address is located on NIC
Hardware address NIC address Layer 2 address Ethernet address

MAC addressing (Contd)

MAC address is 48 bits
Expressed at 12 hexadecimal digits
First 6 digits are assigned to Mfg by IEEE
Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI)

Last 6 digits are assigned by vendor

OUI 00 60 2F Cisco

Vendor Assigned 3A 07 BC Particular Device

MAC addressing (Contd)

Data link layer adds Header and Trailer to upper level data
Header and Trailer contain control information for corresponding Layer 2 at destination Upper-layer data is encapsulated between Layer 2 Header and Trailer

Broadcast LANs
Ethernet and 802.3 are Broadcast Networks
All stations see all frames
Each station checks every frame to determine if frame is destined for that station

Part of data contained in frame is destination MAC address

On finding matching address, destination passes data in frame to upper-level protocols

Framing
Framing allows essential information to encoded into the bit stream
Which computer is talking to which computer Where data starts, stops, what protocol to use

Generic Frames
Different types of frames described by different standards Generic Frame Fields
Frame Start Address Length / Type / Control Data Frame Check Sequence (FCS)

Frame Fields
Frame Start Address
Tells NIC where frame starts Source and Destination MAC Addresses If required describes length of the frame and protocol type Contains data being Tx

Length and Type Data Field

Frame Check Sequence Field

Number based on data in frame. Sending computer calculates the value and places it in FCS. Rx computer calculates number and checks it against FCS value

Ethernet Frame Structure

Ethernet II Frame Structure
Octets in Each Frame Field 8 6 6 2 46 to 1500 4 Frame Field Preamble Destinatin MAC Address Source MAC Address Type Field Data and Pad Frame Check Sequence (CRC Checksum)

Ethernet Frame Fields

Preamble Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) Destination Address Source Address Length/Type
Marks end of Start Frame Destination MAC Address Source MAC Address If value <1536 (0x0600) indicates length >1536 indicates Type
LLC provides protocol identification Decoded per protocol indicated

Alternating 1s and 0s used in timing for 10 Mbps and slower

Data and Pad

Frame Check Sequence

Any length > 64 octets and < 1518 octets that does not exceed Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU)

Ethernet Operation
Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Domain (CSMA/CD)
Provides media access control strategies

Media Access Control protocols that determine which computer on a shared domain (collision domain) is allowed to Tx.

Media Access Control

MAC and LLC comprise Layer 2 2 categories of MAC
Deterministic
Token Ring, FDDI

Nondeterministic (probalistic)
Ethernet / 802.3

Deterministic MAC Protocols

Token Ring
Hosts in ring
Token circulates around ring
Grabs Token Tx data for limited time Releases Token

Nondeterministic MAC Protocols

First come / First served (FCFS)
CSMA/CD
Listen for quiet
Begin Tx More than 1 Tx at same time collision Frame is lost All other hosts hear collision Wait random time (backoff) Retransmit

Topologies
Ethernet
Logical bus, physical star, extended star

Token Ring
Logical ring, physical star

FDDI
Logical ring, physical dual-ring

Ethernet Broadcast
Broadcast every host on net receives every packet
Only device that has matching MAC address will pay attention to packet. Remaining devices drop the packet Ethernet not concerned with Layer 3 Checks packet for errors Detects error packet is dropped Destination does not notify Source of dropped packet Connectionless architecture Best-effort delivery system

Simplex, Half-, Full-Duplex

Simplex Unidirectional: data only travels in one direction Half-duplex Data travels in both directions but only one direction at a time. Full-duplex Data travels both directions at the same time
With switching, no collisions occur Can achieve full bandwidth

Ethernet Timing

Types of collisions
Single collisions
A collision detected while trying to transmit a frame

Multiple collisions
Same frame collided repeatedly before being successfully Tx

Deferred Tx
No collision frame was delayed in being Tx because of busy medium

Result of Collisions
As a result of collisions, corrupted or partial frames can occur
<64 octets and invalid FCS called collision fragments (runts)

Local, Remote, Late collisions

Local collision
On coax, signals colliding in each direction overlap and cancel/emphasize waveform causing overvoltage (collision) On UTP, detects signal on RX at same time sending on Tx (Half-duplex only)
Excessive crosstalk and be perceived as collision

Remote collision
Typically a frame that is a runt and FCS is invalid
Results from collisions on far side of a repeated connection

Late Collision
Occurs after the first 64 octets of Tx have been sent.
Theoretical limits of network propagation have been exceeded by that point 802.3 allows automatic retransmission of late collided frames, but not required Explicitly denies automatic retransmission in Gigabit Ethernet Occurs after slot time has elapsed and on far side of a repeater

Ethernet Errors
Late collisions are considered to be errors
Collision or runt Late collision

Frequency of errors will indicate urgency of problem Simultaneous Tx before slot time Simultaneous Tx after slot time Excessively or Illegally Tx Illegally short Tx Corrupted Tx
FCS error Jabber, long frame, range errors Short Frame, Collision fragment, runt

Insufficient or Excessive Number of Bits Tx Mismatch of actual or reported number of Octets in frame Unusually long preamble or jam event
Ghost or jabber Range error Alignment error

Jabber
Tx of at least 20,000 to 50,000 bittimes in duration
More properly called Long frame May or may not have valid FCS

Long Frame
Greater than maximum legal size
Takes into account if frame is tagged
Does not count as an error if frame is 802.1Q tagged

Short Frame
< minimum 64 octets and good FCS Sometimes called runts

FCS Errors
FCS Error occurs when Checksum values differ by 1 or more bits from what was Tx.
High number from single station indicates faulty NIC, bad drivers, bad cabling at station Errors associated with many hosts usually indicates: bad cabling, bad drivers, faulty hub port, induced noise

Alignment Error
Data does not end at octet boundary has extra bits left over
Extra bits truncated and if FCS fails then error reported
Usually caused by:
Bad drivers or collision Read/Write error in software Can overload router CPU leading to crash

Range Error
Legal value in field length but doesnt match actual number of octets in data field

Ghost
Noise on the cable that appears to be a frame, but isnt
>= 72 octets long
Ghosting network is slow for no apparent reason

Autonegotiation
Allows interfaces to match Tx and Rx speeds with other interfaces
10BASE-T required a link pulse every 16 ms. Turned into Normal Link Pulse (NLP) Series of NLP Tx called Fast Link Pulse (FLP) FLP consists of 33 NLP bursts = 16 bit data code Pages can be added representing additional more sophisticated negotiation and link parameters
After decoding an FLP an acknowledgement is sent. Communicating partners can keep moving up pages to establish best link parameters

Full, Half-duplex link establishment

Autonegotiation optional for most implementations
Required for Gigabit networks

Two ways of establishing Full duplex

Completed autonegotiation cycle Administratively set
If setting one, must set the other
Gigabit does not support half-duplex

Collision and Broadcast Domains

3 types of media environments
Shared-media
Multiple hosts have access to same media

Extended shared-media
Networking devices have extended networking to longer cable lengths or more hosts

Point-to-Point
One device only connected to one device

Indirectly connected networks

Circuit-switched
Point-to-Point communication on an electrical circuit that exists for duration of the connection. Not shared environment no collisions Telephone system Packets sent with sufficient address info to reach destination. Packets may travel through different circuits Logical point-to-point connection Not shared environment no collisions Cell phones and Internet

Packet-switched

Collisions and Collision Domains

Collision occurs when 2 hosts Tx at same time on shared medium Collision domain connected physical segments where collisions can occur
Layer 1 devices do not break up collision domains Layer 2 & 3 break up collision domains
Segmentation

Layer 1 Devices and collision domains

Layer 1 devices simply extend Ethernet cable segments
More potential users
All traffic is passed on through layer 1 devices Greater number of potential collisions Four repeater rule in place so timing conditions assure all hosts hear collisions
Repeater, NIC, Propagation delay increase latency

Segmentation
Layer 2 and 3 devices segment large collision domains into more, smaller collision domains
Decisions based on MAC addresses
Signals only propagated to correct segment
Less traffic on segment Increased bandwidth for hosts on segment

Layer 2 Broadcasts
When node needs to communicate with all hosts on network, sends broadcast with MAC destination address 0xFFFFFFFFFFFF. Every NIC must recognize this address. Layer 2 devices must forward all broadcast traffic to all segments Accumulation of broadcast and multicast traffic called broadcast radiation.

Layer 2 Broadcasts
3 sources of broadcast traffic
Workstations broadcast ARP requests in order to locate MAC address Routers broadcast routing protocol updates periodically to keep routing tables corrects RIP broadcasts updates every 30 seconds IP multicasts send streaming multimedia data. Unless Layer 3 is used, is sent to all segments

Broadcast domains
Grouping of collision domains connected by Layer 2 devices.
Must be controlled at Layer 3
Layer 3 devices do not forward broadcasts to other segments Layer 3 forwarding based on IP address, not MAC address

Data Flow
Layer 1 devices always forward a frame Layer 2 devices forward frame unless prevented Layer 3 devices block frames unless told to forward

Network Segment
Segment can have different meanings when referring to networking
Layer 4 context means breaking up data stream from Layer 5 Network context means a section of a network bounded by bridges, switches, and routers LAN topology means continuous circuit often connected to other segments by repeaters