Nursery Guide

ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF OIL PALM NURSERIES
JANUARY 2010

at

A nursery with compact varieties at BioVale, Para, Brasil

The Amazon (OxG) hybrid at Oleaginosas Salamanca, Tumaco, Colombia

ASD Costa Rica Telfono: (506) 2257 2666 Fax: (506) 2257 2667
[email protected] http://www.asd-cr.com

ESTABLECIMIENTO Y MANEJO DE VIVEROS DE PALMA ACEITERA
Enero 2010 Pgina 2 de 38

CONTENT
GENERAL ASPECTS .......................................................................................................... 3

rea and seed requeriments.
Error! Bookmark not defined.
Site selecction .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Planning ............................................................................................................................... 4
THE PRENURSERY .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
General aspects .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Shade ................................................................................................................................... 9
Planting ............................................................................................................................. 11
Care after planting ............................................................................................................. 13
Weed control and phytosanitary management .................................................................. 13
Fertilization ....................................................................................................................... 13
Irrigation ............................................................................................................................ 14
Culling .............................................................................................................................. 14
Trasplanting to the main nursery ....................................................................................... 16
Multiple plantlets ............................................................................................................... 16
Inert substratum ................................................................................................................. 17
MAIN NURSERY ............................................................................................................... 20
Land preparation and soil selection ................................................................................... 20
Infraestructure ................................................................................................................... 21
Bags .................................................................................................................................. 21
Filling and distribution of bags ......................................................................................... 22
Preparation and transporting of prenursery plants ............................................................ 24
Trasplanting at the main nursery ....................................................................................... 24
Irrigation ............................................................................................................................ 26
Fertilization ....................................................................................................................... 27
Weed control ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Phytosanitary management ............................................................................................... 30
Culling ............................................................................................................................... 33
Plant preparation before field planting .............................................................................. 35
ANEX 1: General information on sprinkling irrigation. ................................................... 36
ANEX 2. Expected efficiencies of some activities .38


GENERAL ASPECTS
An oil palm plantation must begin with the selection of the best planting material available on
the market and an excellent seedling management in the nursery. The planter must obtain its
seeds from a well-known reliable source; that will guarantee the quality and genetic purity of its
varieties through an ample germplasm base, a well established and recognized breeding program,
and by independent official certificates of both genetic purity and high phytosanitary standards.
Only the very best plants from the nursery should be taken to the field. Any false saving at the
prenursery or nursery phases may have serious negative economical consequences that may ex-
tend throughout the productive life of the plantation (20 or more years). Choosing the best nur-
sery plants will allow:
Shortening the period between transplanting in the field and the first harvests (increased pre-
cocity)
Increasing the initial accumulated yield, which is very important to improve cash flow during
the first years
Reducing initial maintenance costs in the field, particularly weed and pest control

Seed requirements and nursery area

The number of seeds required depends on project size and the percentage of expected losses,
which depends on the percentage of emergence and the culling or discarding of abnormal plants.
Normally, it is expected to discard around 15-20 % of the plants at the end of the nursery phase;
however, this proportion may be larger if agronomical management has been deficient, possibly
leading to loss rates of up to 25% or more (Table 1).
To estimate the area required for the nursery to house the number of seedlings to be planted in a
defined field, two aspects are taken into account: the age of the seedlings when they would be
ready to be planted in the field, and the spacing between seedlings for each age and variety in
particular. Besides this, some extra space will be necessary to accommodate the infrastructure,
such as storage buildings, roads, drains and the irrigation system (approximately 15% of the total
area).
Usually the seedlings are expected to stays in the prenursery for 2.5-3 months, and in the main
nursery, an additional of nine more months; however, due to unexpected situations in the initia-
tion of the project, it may be necessary to plant younger seedlings less than 12 months old or
seedlings older than 12 months. Under these circumstances, the spacing between seedlings varies
along with the size of the nursery (Table 1).
Nevertheless, it must be kept in mind that planting too young nursery seedlings (particularly un-
der seven months of age) is not advisable, since some of them could develop into abnormal
plants, but at such young age they are still undistinguishable from their normal sisters. Besides
this, when nursery plants are still underdeveloped to be planted in the field, they are more ex-
posed to suffer severe damage by some pests like rats, cutting ants and Strategus aloeus. Rats
may cause severe losses in plants with a thin basal bulb. Finally, weed control have to be initially
more intensive and expensive, since small plants can suffer more from competition, particularly
from tall grasses. On the other hand, taking to the field very large nursery plants (17 or more
months) may cause severe transplanting shock if no special precautions are taken during plant-
ing. In an attempt to facilitate transportation and planting, the grower may severely prune these
plants which is not desirable either.


Site selection

The area for both the prenursery and main nursery must meet certain requirements:
Nearly flat topography
Soil with a top layer rich in organic matter, well structured, preferably sandy loam, loam or
clayed loam
Enough space for the number of seedlings needed and the accompanying infrastructure
Availability of water year-around
Easy access year-around
Strategic location with respect to the defined planting areas, particularly for the main nursery

Planning

Some key aspects are:
Timely land preparation (at least three months before the seeds arrive)
Reception of the seeds in the appropriate season, so field planting can be done at the begin-
ning of the rainy season
Proper estimates of the needs for infrastructure, materials, equipment, transport and other
miscellaneous aspects
In general, the net nursery area can be estimated as follows:
A=N/0.886xS
2

Where: A= net area (ha), N=number of plants and S= spacing between bags
I.e.: 1.2 m between bags, will result in 8,000 plants/ha. Placed at 90 cm triangular will be 12,000
plants/ha.


An additional area of around 15% is required for lodging roads, drains and the irrigation system.

Table 1. Estimates of seed quantities and area required (ha) for the main nur-
sery according to spacing between seedlings and the project area
(15% culling and 2% replanting)
Project size Seeds
Area required according to
plant age (months)
(ha) Palms/ha required 12
2
14
3

50 143 8,500 0.7 1.0
100 17,200 1.4 2.1
500 85,800 6.9 10.3
1,000 171,600 13.8 20.7
50 160 9,600 0.8 1.2
100 19,200 1.5 2.3
500 96,000 7.7 11.6
1,000 192,000 15.5 23.1
50 170 10,200 0.8 1.2
100 20,400 1.6 2.5
500 102,000 8.2 12.3
1,000 204,000 16.5 24.6
2
= 0.9m triangular spacing
3
= 1.1m triangular spacing

A percentage of plants (2% or less) may fail after field transplanting due to poor planting tech-
niques, diseases, pests, or any other cause. These losses must be anticipated by planting extra
nursery plants that can be eventually used to fill the vacants. These extra plants will stay in the
nursery for at least an extra year, so it is advisable to use more spacing between bags.
The development of large plantations is generally carried out in several phases (years); therefore,
nurseries could be established in the same site during several years. On the other hand, the possi-
bility of delays in field planting makes it necessary to keep seedlings in the nursery longer than
initially planned. This means that seedlings to be used in the next phase and those ready for
transplanting in the field may overlap. If this overlapping exceeds the normal prenursery period
of three months it is recommended that sufficient additional area and irrigation capacity be avail-
able to accommodate both groups simultaneously. However, it must be kept in mind that main-
taining plants of different ages in the same area and using the same site for a nursery during
many years may aggravate some phytosanitary problems. This is the situation observed in sites
were antracnose blight is prevalent, where even prenursery plants could be affected by inoculum
(spores) generated in the older seedlings.


THE PRENURERY
General aspects

ASD only recommends two stage nurseries, where the germinated seeds are first planted in small
polybags in a prenursery and then transplanted into larger bags at the main nursery after two and
a half or three months (3-4 leaves). Planting and selecting the best seedlings at the prenursery
assures that only the best plants are eventually taken to the field at the end of the nursery stage.
The prenursery offers several advantages:
- Less land needs to be prepared initially (bags are smaller and are accommodated togeth-
er)
- The initial costs of supervision and maintenance are substantially reduced
- Watering is more efficient and less expensive
- There is a substantial saving in large nursery bags and filling with soil of those bags
1

- Only the best seedlings will be taken to the main nursery
However, if seedling from the prenursery are not transplanted to the main nursery in a timely
fashion, they will suffer etiolation (abnormal growth due to light competition). This problem
could be even worse when Jiffy pellets or similar small pellets or pots are used to establish the
prenursery, since they are very close together. Etiolation is an important factor that reduces ini-
tial yields at the field.
Figures 1 and 2 show a general layout of a structure (module) for a prenursery that accommo-
dates about 7,200 bags. The structure measures 16x8 meters and holds four beds for placing the
bags. Each bed is 15 meter long and holds near 1,800 23x15 cm-bags (12 bags wide). The V in-
verted roof has a maximum height of approximately 3.5 m and a minimum of two meters (see
also figure 16).

1
At the end of the prenursery stage, 7-8% of the plants could be discarded, which would be the percentage of large
bags which will not be filled with soil and eventually distributed at the main nursery.


Fig. 1. Distribution of planting beds within a module for a prenursery. The structure holds about
7,200 plants. Separation of one meter between beds on both sides allows for transiting with a
wheelbarrow and placing the bags along the beds (see also figures 2 and 16)
Fig 2. Front view and roof of a module for a prenursery. Clear plastic is used between two layers of
saran (fiber giving 50% shade). The external layer of saran covers the whole structure down to the
ground, which also helps to protect the plants from damage caused by intruding animals (see also
figure 1).
Building these modules individually facilitates personnel distribution, labor assignment, supervi-
sion of different activities etc. Besides, groups of plants differing in age, variety or any other
characteristic can be managed separately. For example, for palms of the same age, shade can be
removed at once.
Clear
plastic in
between
Saran
(shade):
below
Layer of
saran:
external


Larger modules can also be built (Fig. 3), but supervision is more difficult, and care has to be
taken when doing some tasks, like shade removal, when plants of different ages share the same
structure.

Fig. 3. General layout for a large prenursery. Fencing is done when there is risk of domes-
tic or wild animals causing damage. Smaller structures like those pictured in figures 1 and 2
are preferred.
Polybags
Black polybags (25 x 20 x 0.01 cm, 20 x 16 x 0.01 cm and 23 x 15 x 0.01 cm) are used at the
prenursery. These bags need drainage holes on the sides and at the bottom (about 32 holes from
the upper third down, plus 8 at the bottom). Smaller bags than those mentioned are not recom-
mendable since planting is more difficult, the small volume of soil restrict root development and
plants may etiolate if transplanting to the main nursery is delayed
Polybag filling (with soil) and distribution on the beds
Bags are filled with soil a few days before planting (Fig. 4), and should be taken inside the pre-
nursery as soon as possible to protect the soil from the direct impact of rain drops. Soils with
intermediate textures are preferred (sandy loam, loam, clay loam), free of hard clods, stones,
roots and other large pieces of organic matter or foreign materials. The use of clayish textures is
associated with the presence of a larger number of abnormal plantlets. On the other hand, soils
with a large sand content may favor water deficit if the irrigation system fails even for a few
days. After filling the bags, it is advisable to irrigate for a couple of days to settle the soil. A
Fence Beds with
bags
Entrance


worker may fill between 80 and 100 bags per hour, and near 600 prenursery bags can be filled
with a cubic meter of soil.
If there is some risk of a soil pathogen being present (particularly if organic matter content is
high), a fungicide like Banrot (1 g/l: 20 ml of the solution/bag) can be used a week before plant-
ing.
Bags are normally arranged in blocks (Fig. 5) and placed on a bed made with fine gravel or sand
(10 cm height). This facilitate drainage within the bags and prevents the formation of sediments
between them which favor the present of some pests like crickets and make difficult to take out
the bags at the end of the prenursery stage. A worker can accommodate approximately 800 bags
in one hour.
Beds should not be wider than 1.2m to facilitate planting and other activities. Length can vary,
but 10-15 meter is normally used (Fig. 10). Enough spacing should be left between blocks, so
workers can move freely along them. In module in figure one, spacing between beds is one me-
ter, which permits transit with a wheelbarrow carrying the bags already filled with soil. Gravel or
other kind of material can be put along these alleys to prevent the formation of puddles and
growth of weeds.
When soils in the bags settle, it is necessary to refill them to reach the desired level before plant-
ing (Fig.6)
Fig. 4. Fillig prenursery bags with soil. A cover
shade was built with palm leaves for worker com-
fort
Fig. 5. Bags are carefully aligned on the beds. In
this particular case, beds were not raised because
soil was sandy

Seedling shade
The use of shade during the first weeks after planting help to maintain a humid environment and
protects the young seedling from high temperatures and direct sunlight which may cause scorch-
ing. Shade does not necessarily increases emergence (this depends on other factors), but will
improve plant quality, particularly in places where solar radiation is very high.


Normally, the structure that holds the shade has a height superior than two meters and is built out
of wood, bamboo or metal (Figs. 6 and 7). Synthetic black fiber (saran 50%) is used to provide
the shade which is later removed (normally on the sixth week after planting).
Some growers use palm leaves or similar to provide shade, which can be gradually removed by
taken off one leaf at a time every day. However, the use of this type of shade may cause splash-
ing unearthing the seedlings, which has to be covered soon after.
Shade should not be removed prematurely to avoid sun scorching. A calm day (without strong
winds), with mild temperatures and not much sun radiation has to be chosen if the shade is going
to be removed at once.
Many of the above problems can be minimized if the prenursery is built fallowing the concept of
modules (Figs. 1 and 2). The clear plastic used between the two layers of saran, protects the
plants from the direct impact of raindrops, helps to better manage moisture in the soil inside the
bags and prevents the formation of puddles on the floor. The inverted V shape of the roof avoids
the formation of bags filled with water which weight could rip the plastic and cause damage on
the plants below. The external layer of saran, along with the plastic roof is removed one month
after planting. The other layer of saran is removed two weeks later.

Fig. 6. Left. Refilling the bags after soil settled. The bags in this prenursery were not
put on a raised gravel bed which may negatively affect drainage. Right. Prenursery
with saran shade held with a bamboo structure. Note that beds are too wide difficult-
ing planting and other labors

Fig. 7. Detail of the structure (steel wires) holding the shade (saran). On the right the shade
was already removed


Sowing
It is expected than some time passes between the time the bags are filled with soil and actual
planting. During such time, soil in the bags will settle, some weeds may grow and a compacted
superficial layer may form. All these make necessary to prepare the bags before sowing the
seeds:
Folding down one centimeter the superior border (rim) of the bags
Eliminating all weeds and ripping any hard crust on top of the soil. A small metal spatula
(used to scrap off paint from walls) can be used for this purpose
Leveling the soil on the bags, leaving about a centimeter clear from the upper rim. This
space could be used later to add a mulch after plant emergence
Planting is a simple procedure but care is needed so the delicate seedlings are not damage.
Workers have to be instructed about the importance of the labor, and they have to be closely su-
pervised. In most cultures, women normally do a better job, since they handle the seeds delicate-
ly.
The normal procedure is as follows:
All documents accompanying the seeds are carefully checked, particularly those that in-
dicate seed distribution in each box according to the size of the radicle. Seeds with long-
er radicles are planted first. All pertinent information is included in box indentified as
number one for each shipment
Before planting, keep all seeds in the original packing materials, under the shade in a
fresh, covered and well ventilated place. Air conditioning can be used at a temperature of
20 - 22
o
C
Once the planting order is established, open boxes one at a time (Fig. 8). If foam has been
used to protect the seeds in transit, this can be separated by using a fan. This foam is not
toxic, so part of it can remain attached to the roots. Do not open more boxes than neces-
sary to keep pace with the planting work. Never expose the germinated seeds to direct
sunlight for too long (sitting on the soil waiting to be planted).
The seeds can also be received inside individual plastic containers, where they are pro-
tected with bands of a foamy material (Fig. 8). This packing system better protects the
seeds and saves labor (no foam has to be removed) and each individual container can be
taken directly to the planting site
If necessary, place the seeds inside a container, such as a plastic bag, a box etc., cover
them with a wet towel and bring them to the planting site. This is not necessary if the
seeds already came in individual plastic containers as described above.


Fig. 8. Left. Traditional packing system used in shipments of germinated seeds. Seeds are protected
with polyethylene foam. Right. New packing system, where containers can be taken directly to the
planting site. Seeds could be colored to identify varieties

When sowing, the plumule must point upwards and the radicle downwards (Fig. 9). This
is vital, otherwise an inverted seed will not emerge or will generate an abnormal seedling
With your fingers make a hole in the soil in the center of the bag. Depth will depend on
the size of the radicle. Place the seed in the hole but do not released it yet (the plumule
should be between 0.5 and 1.0 cm under the soil surface). A poor plant could be obtained
if the plumule is exposed on the surface or if planted too deep,
Still holding the seed, fill with soil the volume around it. Release the seed, and finish
adding soil and gently compact it around. Do not press too hard since the seed could be
damaged. A worker can sow about 200 seeds per hour
Close supervision during and after planting is necessary, checking for uncovered seeds, seeds not
planted or any other abnormal situation. The most common mistakes made during planting are:
Inverted planting (plumule pointing down)
Deep or shallow planting
Breaking vital structures (plumule or radicle) or separating them from the seed
Planting seedling that were mishandled (ie. leaving them under the sun for too long)
Using an inadequate substratum (i.e. clayish soils)
Batches in the prenursery should be identified by variety, day of planting and any other impor-
tant detail.

Fig. 9. Left. When planting the radicle should point downwards. Center. Seeds being planted from
both sides of the bed. Right. Bags were improperly accommodated on the bed by pressing again each
other, which compacted the soil and will negatively affects the seedlings.


Care after planting
Rainfall or irrigation water may wash away some of the soil and uncover the seeds (Fig. 10).
This problem is common when seeds were planted too shallow and/or palm leaves where used to
provide shade. These seeds so exposed must be covered with soil again immediately.
After plant emerge, some sort of mulch (normally cracked oil palm shells or rice husk: about one
centimeter in depth) can be used to control weeds on the bags, reduce erosion and avoids the
formation of a crust on the soil surface that impedes water infiltration and favors the formation of
algae.

Fig. 10. Prenursery where seeds were planted
too shallow and were uncovered by water
splashing
Fig. 11. Shade will be removed soon from this
prenursery.

Weed and phytosanitary management
Weeds growing on bags should be manually eliminated. As a norm, no herbicides should be used
in the prenursery. A fungicide drench (i.e. Captan or Banrot: 1 g/l: 20-30 ml per bag) can be used
if there is any risk of the presence of a soil-borne pathogen in the substratum. Nevertheless,
ASDs seeds have been already treated with fungicides, which normally will protect them during
the first stages after planting.
Under most conditions, no important phytosanitary problems are expected at the prenursery, but
chances can be even lower by supplying a balanced nutrition to the plants and avoiding water
stress (too little or too much water). A basic knowledge of soil fertility and water holding capaci-
ty of the substrate will guide fertilization and water supply. This is important, since plants are too
close from one another, and a favorable environment may form (i.e. high humidity) that favor
infection and dispersal of some pathogens. Agrochemicals (fungicides or insecticides) should not
be applied indiscriminately, but only after a particular problem has been clearly identified and
the right product chosen to help in its control. Regular scouting of the area permits an early iden-
tification of a potential problem and taking measures for proper managing.
Fungicides like Benomyl (alone or in mixture with Mancozeb usually), every 10-15 days are
used in those places where foliar diseases are expected to occur. It is really important that before
using a product or brand for the first time, the product be applied only on a few plants to test for
toxicity.
Fertilization (Manuring)
Seedlings may live from seed reserves for approximately two months after planting, however
even during this time nutrient deficiencies may develop, particularly after removing the shade.


Such deficiencies are easily avoided by applying a drench of a solution prepared from DAP ferti-
lizer (25 g/l: 20-40 ml per plant according to age) using a knapsack sprayer or a small container
properly calibrated. This treatment can be started about one month after planting and is repeated
weekly. Experience in Costa Rica indicates that DAP can be used directly on the bags (1-2
g/plant) according to age.
A formula, high in phosphorus and potassium can also be used, but any solid fertilizer should be
used with great care to avoid burning the plants if applied too close to the base (granules should
be placed near the border of the bag) or on the leaves. A light irrigation after applying the ferti-
lizer will help to wash away any residues from the leaves. An device can easily be constructed
using the upper part of a plastic bottle and PVC (Fig. 12)

Fig. 12. Left. Device made with PVC and a portion of a plastic bottle used to apply
fertilizer at the prenursery and reducing the risk of causing toxicity. Right. Sun
scorching caused by improper management of shade. This type of burning is similar
to that caused by a poor application of a fertilizer.
Irrigation
A reliable source of water is essential at both the prenursery and nursery. Normally, micro-
sprinkers are used at the prenursery (0.8 l/h) to reduce splashing that may uncover the seeds and
carry soil particles that may bring soil-borne pathogens up to the foliage. Manual irrigation could
be used, but only in extremes circumstances (failure of the irrigation system), since severe ero-
sion can be caused and supply of water will not be uniform to all plants.
Culling
Culling of all abnormal plants (off-types) is fundamental to guarantee the success of the future
oil palm plantation. A poor plant taken to the field will be a mistake whose consequences will be
carried over for 20 or more years. Final culling at the end of the prenursery normally varies be-
tween 7 and 10%, but this depends on the genetic material being used, and above all on agro-
nomic management of the prenursery. In general, the following factors may increase the percen-
tage of abnormal plants:
Not using shade or prematurely removing the shade
Using heavy (high clay content) or compacted soils in the polybags
An inadequate supply of water (too much or too little)
Abuse of agrochemicals (herbicides, insecticides etc.) causing toxicity to the plants
Extending the prenursery period and causing etiolation (due to light competition)
Improper management of pests and diseases


The most common types of abnormal plants at the end of the prenursery are (Figs 13 and 14):
Very narrow leaves (grassy appearance)
Twisted, crinkled, corrugated or rolled leaves
Puckered leaves (collante)
Exagerated upright plants
Chimeras (albines)
Underdeveloped plants (dwarfs)

Fig. 13. Normal prenursery plants are shown on the upper left side. The rest
of pictures show different types of abnormal plants that have to be culled


Fig. 14. Left. Some of these plants grew abnormally which was associated with the use of a
clayish soil. Right. Polybags were pressed against each other causing soil compaction which
affects seedling emergence and may cause that some plants grow abnormally
The diameter of the basal bulb is a good indicator of plant vigor at the end of the prenursery pe-
riod. Normal values for several varieties are:
Table 2. Bulb diameter (mm) in some varieties at the prenursery
Days after
sowing
Deli x
AVROS
Deli x
Ghana
Deli x
Ekona
Deli x
La M
Deli x
Yangambi
37 6.3 5.9 5.7 5.1 6.4
51 6.4 6.0 6.3 5.6 6.6
63 6.8 6.2 6.6 5.9 6.7
77 7.1 7.0 6.7 6.2 7.4
90 8.1 8.4 8.2 8.1 8.8
126 12.2 11.6 11.8 12.2 13.1

Trasplanting to the main nursery

Transplanting to the main nursery is done when the plants reach 2.5-3 months of age (3-4 leaves
already formed) in standard prenurseries. When small pots are used (i.e. Jiffy pots) the prenur-
sery period has to be shortened to avoid plant etiolation, which seriously limit yield potential in
the field.
Multiple plants
Some germinated seeds may bear two or more germination points giving rise to two or more
seedlings (Fig. 15). The best decision in these cases is to keep the best plant and destroy the other
one. This is normally done just before transplanting to the main nursery or soon before. Howev-
er, some growers prefer to make an extra effort and try to save both plants. In this case, it has to


be remembered that the procedure to separate the plants may cause serious stress to both of
thems, which may severely affect growth and even cause death. To avoid this, special care must
be taken when separating the plants to reduce stress and speed plant recovery.
The following procedure has been done with some success when separating doubletons:
Let the soil in the bag to lose some water (down to near field capacity). This will make
soil more friable and reduce root damage when separating the plants
Loosen the soil in the bag by gently pressing with your fingers
Firmly hold the seed with one hand, and with the other hold the plant that is going to be
separated (the best plant is always left in the original bag)
With a quick forward (or backward) movement release the plant from the seed and slowly
take it out the bag trying to cause minimum damage to the roots
The plant is then planted in another bag, and kept under shade and well irrigated until it
recovers from the shock
To reduce shock, apply a sugar solution (20 g/liter of water). Other products that reduce
stress (i.e. Ergostim) can also be used.
Fig. 15. Germinated seeds with two seedlings. Right. Plants were separated at the end of the
prenursery phase (the most vigorous plant is left in the original bag). The other plant with
some roots is planted in another bag and kept well irrigated and under the shade

Use of inert substrata at the prenursery
Traditional prenurseries are done using polybags filled with soil. An alternative to this method is
to use small plastic pots or Jiffy pellets carrying an inert substratum. This system has several
advantages, but transplanting time to the main nursery is critical (see below). The plastic pots or
Jiffy pellets (after being soaked in water) are placed on trays on raised beds (made with metal,
wood, bamboo etc., approximately 90 cm height). These beds facilitate planting and other activi-
ties, and help to maintain the floor of the nursery free of puddles (Figs. 16 and 17).


Fig. 16. General view of a module for a prenursery that can accommodate about 7,200 bags (23 x
15 cm) in four gravel beds, 15 m long and 1.20 cm wide (12 bags). Raised beds can also be built
(bamboo was used in this case) to place trays with Jiffy pellets or pots with an inert substratum
like peat mosses (see other details on section on shade and figures 1 and 2)
The use of an inert substratum, like Jiffy pellets may have several advantages:
Saves space and infrastructure costs: a module such as in figure 1 can hold up to 16, 128
Jiffy pellets compared with 7, 200 prenursery bags filled with soil
Increase plant emergence
Better quality plants (less phytosanitary problems)
Weed control is easier and less intensive
Efficiency of maintenance and supervision activities improves
Planting efficiency at the nursery increases with less transplanting shock
Culling is facilitated

The volume of the substratum where roots can grow is rather small and also the diameter of the
pots and pellets is small. This means that if transplanting to the main nursery is delayed, severe
etiolation (light competition) can occur and the roots will grow out the containers, affecting
growth and originating plants of inferior quality in the nursery. To avoid these problems it is
necessary a careful planning of activities, particularly with respect to transplanting to the main
nursery, that should be done about seven weeks after planting.


Fig. 17. Prenursery on raised beds where germinated seeds were sown in small plastic pots filled
with peat moss and placed on plastic trays
Sowing the germinated seeds in the Jiffy pellets is facilitated by using a device as illustrated in
figure 18. This PVC spoon is used to bore a hole in the substratum down near the bottom to
avoid the radicle pushing the seed up and exposing it. Depth of planting is the same as in soil.
In general, most labors in these prenurseries are similar as in standard prenurseries, but foliar
fertilization is normally done weekly starting one month after planting. Slow release fertilizers
are also very efficient to avoid the appearance of nutrient deficiencies.
When a roof of clear plastic is used on top (and between two layers of saran), this is removed
along with one saran layer one month after planting. The other saran layer is removed one week
later (Figs. 2 and 16)
Fig. 18. A PVC spoon used to bore a hole in a Jiffy pellet (already soaked in water) where the ger-
minated seed is planted. On the right, a plant ready to be transplanted to the main nursery.


MAIN NURSERY
At the main nursery, the plants from the prenursery are transplanted in larger polybags distributed
on the corners of equilateral triangles. The idea is that every plant receives as much sunlight as poss-
ible during this phase. At the end of the nursery, the best plants are chosen to be taken to the field
and make the final plantation. No false saving should be permitted here, and the decision of taken
poor plants to the field will have a negative effect on early yields and even accumulated yields dur-
ing the whole life of the plantation.
Land preparation and soil selection
The nursery site is prepared 2-3 months in advance before placing the bags. If grasses predomi-
nate, these have to be eliminated along with their propagules. Polybags should be filled with
good quality soil, normally taken from the surface on site (first 15-20 cm). Soil structure must be
strong (good internal drainage), texture intermediate (sandy loam, loam, clay loam), rich in or-
ganic matter and fertile. This soil is scraped from the surface and piled up on strategic places to
be used to fill the bags. Care has to be taken to disturb the soil as little as possible to preserve its
physical properties. If the soil on site does not meet these criteria, it is advisable to bring it from
someplace else and there should be no compromise on this.
Soil piles must be covered with plastic or other material to prevent loses due to erosion. Besides,
if the soil is too wet, this will make difficult to fill the bags properly. Stones, roots, debris and
other strange materials can be eliminated by sieving the soil before filling the bags (Fig. 19)

Fig. 19. Sieving the soil to be used in the polybags. Stones, roots and any debris should be elimi-
nated. On the right, the soil was covered with plastic to protect it from rain (that causes erosion
and excessive moisture that will make bags filing and planting difficult).
A compound fertilizer (N-P-K) can be added to a low fertility soil: 2 g per bag. Organic fertilizer
can also be added to the soil, but in a proportion lower than 10% v/v, and by mixing homoge-
neously. A poor soil (heavy: high clay content) can be mixed with sand to improve physical
properties. Such a substratum sometimes takes equal parts of soil and sand and then compost
(less than 10% v/v), but, as pointed before, it is advisable to choose an excellent soil from the
beginning to avoid these inconveniences. The ideal situation is to use the top soil from the site


chosen, but if the same site is used for more than one year, it might be necessary to bring top soil
from someplace else.
Infrastructure
Large nurseries require roads, where the main one runs laterally long the area or it is placed at
the center. Secondary roads (spaced 40-80 meters) are built parallel to this, so bags and plants
will not be carried more than 40 meters (Fig. 20).
Main drains are normally built laterally along the nursery. Secondary drains are built parallel to
secondary roads and between them. Small tertiary drains can be done every 15-30 m, depending
on topography and the presence of standing water. Detailed maps indicating infrastructure built,
varieties and planting dates and other details are used as a guide for planning activities and tak-
ing and processing relevant information.
.

Fig. 20. General diagram for the main nursery showing roads and drains
Polybags
High density black polybags, with no recycled materials, and ultra violet radiation protection (tinu-
vin 622, 2%) are recommended for the main nursery, since these bags must withstand outdoor con-
ditions for at least nine months. Bags should have a gusset at the bottom to help sit then on the floor.
A normal size is about 40 x 53 x 0.015 cm, with approximately 120 holes for drainage (lateral and
on the bottom). These holes are circular (0.5 cm in diameter). A bag this size will hold 18-20 kg
of soil with the right moisture (field capacity) (Fig. 21)
Secondary
drainage
Main
road
Main drainage
Secondary road
Superficial
drainage


Fig. 21. Nursery polybag showing holes for drainage, mulch on top
(cracked nut shell) and manual weeding
A premature deterioration of the bags (Fig. 22) may cause serious problem to plant development
and increases costs unnecessarily. It would be possible to acquire some additional larger (45 x 55
x 0.015 cm) bags (2%) to replace those that may eventually fail, but this is not recommendable,
and best quality bags should be bought since the beginning.
Fig 22. Left. The bags used in this nursery were of poor quality and deteriorated. Be-
sides this, not enough soil was added to the bags. Right. Bags had no drainage holes
which caused standing water and the formation of a superficial crust where algae grow.
Filling of polybags and aligning
It is recommended to add an inert material (such as cracked nut shells: about 3 cm in depth) be-
fore adding the soil to the bags in order to improve internal drainage by separating the bag from
the floor of the nursery (Fig. 23). Soil is then added up to about 4 cm from the rim: 2 cm will be
used to fold it down (to improve resistance during handling) and the other two will hold a mulch.
It is normal that soil will settle (due to rain or irrigation) after filling the bags, so more soil has to
be added to complete the desired volume. A worker may fill 40-60 bags per hour.


Fig. 23. An inert material such as cracked nut shells is put on the bottom of the bags
before adding the soil to improve drainage. Right. A custom made PVC tube can be
used to facilitate filling of bags by a single worker
If only bags without gusset are available, the tips at the bottom are folded inwards before adding
the soil, which allows broadening the base and reducing the risk of tipping over.
Bags are aligned on the corners of an equilateral triangle, which permits an optimum use of
space and maximize sunlight exposure to every palm. Bags are line up using wires or metal
chains with marks indicating bag spacing (Fig. 24). Normally, rows are set up in a North to
South direction. Bag spacing depends on the variety (vigorous varieties may easily etiolate) and
expected time of permanence in the nursery (Table 3).
Fig. 24. Line up of polybags at the main nursery. A wire with marks according to bag spacing is
used to get proper aligning

Table 3. Distance between bags (corner of an equilateral triangle) accord-
ing to time of permanence at the nursery

Months
Spacing
(m)
9 a 11 1.00-1.20
12 a 14 1.20-1.35


Preparation and transportation of the prenursery plants
This is a delicate labor, since it is very important to preserve the quality of the seedlings. If the
distance between the prenursery site and the main nursery is long, transportation should be done
early in the morning or in the evening. A light irrigation is given to the plants as a preparation
and then they are carefully placed inside an appropriate box, such a those used to transport some
vegetables (Fig. 25)
Fig. 25. General view of a prenursery ready to be transplanted to the main nursery. Right.
Seedlings were put in plastic boxes to protect them while transporting
Planting at the main nursery
A cylindrical hole is made in the soil at the center of the bag. This operation is better
done with a auger that would make a hole of a diameter and depth slightly larger than the
seedlings bole of earth. A worker can make about 250 of such holes per hour. If Jiffy
pellets were used at the prenursery, the holes would be necessary smaller (need an appro-
priate auger) and planting efficiency increases (Fig. 26). The planting sequence is as fol-
lows:

Fig. 26. Left. Making holes with an auger in the polybags in preparation for planting at the main nursery.
Center. Auger. Right. Polybag filled with soil with a hole already prepared to receive the prenursery
seedling


The prenursery polybag is carefully removed trying not to disturb the bole of soil around
the roots
The seedling is placed in the hole keeping the integrity of the bole of earth
Free spaces around the bole are filled with soil and gently compacted with the fingers
(Fig. 27)
The plants collar should maintain the same level as in the prenursery bag (either deep or
shallow planting negatively affects plant development)

Fig. 27. Sequence illustrating the transplanting procedure (from prenursery to the main nur-
sery). On the lelft, the prenursery polybag is removed by using a sickle-shape knife that facili-
tates the operation. The plants collar maintain the same level as in the prenursery bag.
Transplanting work has to be closely supervised, to avoid damage to the plant (foliage and
roots). Besides this, depth of planting must retain that of the prenursery plant: not too shallow
and not to deep, since this affect the quality of the nursery plant (Figs. 27 and 28).
Fig. 28. Deep planting of the prenursery plant. Right. Shallow planting. Both situations
have to be avoided since they negativelly affect plant quality.


Irrigation
Nursery plants require a reliable water supply during the whole period, particularly during the
early stages, and when the planting substrate has a low water holding capacity. This makes ne-
cessary to take all precautions to make sure the irrigation system is installed and properly work-
ing before the plants arrive. In is not wise to rely on rainfall, even during the rainy season, since
even short dry spells may cause severe damage to the young seedlings
Sprinkling irrigation (Fig. 29) is normally preferred in oil palm nurseries, since it is efficient, easy to
control, allows for a uniform supply of water and requires fewer work forces. There are many op-
tions available on the market; but the system normally has a pump, pipes for distribution and for
the sprinklers, coupling elements, valves (pressure and flow), towers and sprinklers. The final
design including pumping capacity, size, pipe resistance and other aspects may vary under dif-
ferent circumstances, and all these aspects should be considered when buying the system from a
vendor, who normally includes the pertinent technical assistance as part of the sell (Annex 1).
Fig. 29. Left. Traditional irrigation system with sprinklers. Right. Central pivot appropriate for
very large nurseries (Brazil)
Dripping irrigation (Fig. 30) has also been used in some nurseries. The main advantages are wa-
ter economy and the possibility of adding the fertilizer when irrigating. However, it may also
present some problems with clogged drippers, and it is a physical obstacle during weed control
and other activities.
Fig. 30. Dripping irrigation at the main nursery


Depending on plant age, soil and weather, water needs at the nursery phase may vary between 4
and 10 millimeters per day.
During the early stages of grow, plants explore the volume of soil within the bags, but eventually
(7-8 months old) the roots grow through the bottom of the bags and explore the soil beneath. A
standard nursery bag (40 x 50 cm) holds about 18.5 liters of soil with a water holding capacity
(available for the plant) of about 2.5-4 liters. A tensiometer in the soil of the bag will help to de-
termine water depletion rate and irrigation periods to avoid water stress. All necessary precau-
tions should be taken to make sure the irrigation system is on site and properly working by the
time the seedlings arrive. Necessary parts must be available to keep it running, since a failure,
even for a short period of time may have highly negative consequences (Fig. 31).
Fig. 31. Left. Uneven water distribution caused serious damage (water deficit) to some palms.
Right. Poor nursery: plants were taken late from the prenursery (severely etiolated), suffered water
stress due to inefficient water supply and low water holding capacity of this sandy soil. An additional
problem of this nursery is that bag spacing is too short and plants may suffer severe etiolation if field
planting is delayed.
Fertilization
Commonly, only nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and boron are applied during the
nursery phase. Only on particular sites, other elements like copper, zinc and sulphur are also ap-
plied.
Total amount of fertilizer applied during the entire nursery phase is usually less than half a kilo-
gram. The response depends then, not much on the amount applied, but the frequency of the ap-
plications, which should be every 8-10 days. The fertilizer is placed carefully around the stem of
the plant but without touching it (close to the rim of the bag). Direct contact with the foliage
must be avoided, particularly when wet
Special containers (scoops) can be made from PVC that hold the right amount of fertilizer to be
applied per palm. A scale ( 0.5-grams) is needed to previously calibrate the containers (Figs. 32
and 33).


Fig. 32. Applying the right amount of fertilizer per plant by using a calibrated cup
made out of PVC. Right. A device is used to apply the fertilizer and reduce the risk of
touching the foliage and causing toxicity.

Fig. 33. Manual manuring: this is not recommended since there is no control on doses applied
and there is more risk of causing toxicity. Right. The plant on the left was severely damage by a
improper application of fertilizer.

A popular program used in nurseries in Malaysia is as follows:


Table 4. Fertilization program used in some nurseries in Malaysia
Plant age
(Months)
No. of applica-
tions per month
Grams of formula
per plant
14:13:9:2.5 12:12:17:2
4 2 14 -
5 2 - 28
6 2 28 -
7 2 - 42
8 2 42 -
9 2 - 56
10 3 56 -
11 1 - 70
12 1 70 -
13 1 - 84
14 1 84 -
294 280
In Costa Rica, alluvial soils predominate, with medium textures, slight acidity, but with high
contents of calcium. For this type of soil the fertilization program is similar to that in Table 5.
Table 5. Fertilization program commonly used in nurseries in
Costa Rica

Plant age
(Month)
Grams of formula 14:12:20:6
/plant/month
3 12
4 20
5 24
6 30
7 33
8 36
9 40
10 45
11 50
12 60
13 60
14 60
* Weekly applications.
The program is normally supplemented with K-Mag (Sulphomag)
applied on weeks 16, 24, 32, 40 and 48 (5, 8, 10, 15 and 20
g/plant).This extra application of K is associated with a better as-
pect of plants and reduced incidence of foliar diseases, and even
less attack by the whorl worm


Weed control
Bags should be maintained free of weeds all the time (on top and on the sides; since some weeds
tend to grow out the lateral drainage holes). This labor is done manually. Weed control on the
nursery floor should be selective, since some plants are not necessarily harmful. The use of pre-
emergence herbicides after land preparation will help to reduce the weed problem later.
Growth of weeds on the nursery floor should be controlled to a point where they do not shade the
palms and do not interfere with normal activities. In general, grasses should be completely elimi-
nated inside and around nursery site.
Manual weeding is preferred on the nursery floor, but some herbicides can also be used taken the
necessary precautions to avoid toxicity. Applications should be stopped under windy conditions
and it is always necessary to use a bell or shield around anti-drift nozzles (Fig. 34). Some herbi-
cides used in nurseries are Paraquat, Diuron, Oxyfluorfen and Pendimethalin. Selective herbi-
cides, such as Fluasifop-buthyl, Haloxyfop methyl and Oxyflourfen are highly effective to con-
trol grasses.
Fig. 34. Spraying herbicides on the nursery floor. Note the use of a shield (bell) to reduce drift-
ing and the safe equipment used by the worker. On the right, an excessive weed control on the
nursery floor which is not necessarily desirable.
Weed growth on the nursery floor can also be reduced by using an inert material, such as cracked
nut shells or gravel.
Phytosanitary management
2

Most sanitary problems at the nursery phase are caused by fungi attacking roots and leaves main-
ly. These problems are normally controlled by applying fungicides, or most commonly following
a preventive program of applications (Fig. 35).

2
Products and doses mentioned are only used for illustration purposes. Always read the label. When a product,
formulation or vendor is going to be used for the first time, the product should be tested on a reduced group of plants
to check for toxicity


Fig. 35. Spraying equipment and proper indumentary for the worker

The most common phytosanitary problems at the nursery and some suggestion for management
are:
i. Anthracnose (mainly Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
Correct any nutritional unbalance (in particular high N with low K)
Avoid water stress: excess or deficit (particularly if the substrate used has a low water
holding capacity)
When possible, cut off infected tissue and take it away from the nursery area
Weekly sprays of a fungicide such as Mancozeb (2.5-4 g/l c.p.
3
) or Maneb F (3.5 cc/l
c.p.) alone or mixed with Mertect (Thiabendazole), 0.1% a.i.
4
or Benomyl (1-1.5 g/l
c.p.), plus coayuvants. Other fungicides like Busamart 30 AC (TCMTB), 1-2 ml/l c.p.,
Cuproxat 35.2% FW (copper sulphate), 3 ml/l c.p., and Phyton 27 (copper sulphate), 1
ml/l c.p., may also be used, but may be toxic if not properly used
ii. Curvularia sp., Helminthosporium sp. and related fungi
Correct nutritional unbalances (particularly high N in presence of low K)
Avoid water deficit
Eliminate all grasses in and around the nursery area
If possible, cut off and take away from the nursery the infected tissue
Weekly sprays of Maneb F (3.5 cc/l c.p.) or Thiram (0.2% i.a.) with Benomyl (1-1.5 g/l
c.p.)
iii. Rhizoctonia sp. (normally during the prenursery)
Use of mulch on the bags reduces rain splashinf that carries inoculum from the soil to
the foliage
Evoid excessive shade and irrigation
Eliminate severely infected palms
Sprays with Thiabendazole (0.1% a.i.) or Benomyl (1 g/l c.p.) mixed with Mancozeb
or Maneb
Early transplanting to the main nursery

3
Commercial product
4
Active ingredient


iv. Phytophtora spot (blight)
Avoid excessive humidity and shade
Eliminate infected tissue
Weekly sprays with Metalaxyl (3-5 g/l c.p.) or Fosetyl -Al (6-8 g/l c.p.)
Fig. 36. Anthracnose. Right. Foliar blight caused by Rhizoctonia sp.
v. Chlorotic ring spot (viral)
Nursery should be set up away from low areas (away from rivers, ponds etc., where
tall grasses may grow)
The nursery area and surroundings have to be kept free of weeds, particularly grasses
Eradicate all infected palms with the very first symptoms and burn
Fast knocking action insecticides may be applied in the nursery and on weeds around
the area
Use a repellent mulch such as rice husk and yellow colored traps with a sticking agent
to trap visiting insects
Other fungi attacking roots and the basal bulb may be controlled with fungicides like Captan and
Banrot (1 g/10 l).
Fig. 37. Chlorotic ring spot. On the right a detail of symptoms giving the name to the disease


There are also many pests that can attack the young palms. Some of the most common are:
i. Grasshoppers and other defoliators: Deltamethrin (1 g a.i./10 l), Fenitrothion (15 g a.i./10
l) or Diazinon (6 g i.a./10 l)
ii. Cutting worms and similar: Carbaryl (12 g a.i./10 l), Methomyl (10 g a.i./10 l) or Cyper-
methrin (2 g a.i./10 l). Granular formulations of Carbofuran and Aldicarb (2-4 g/plant) are
also effective
iii. Mites: micronized sulphur (5-8 g/10 l), Binapacryl (5-6 g a.i./10 l), Monocrotophos (4 g
a.i./10 l) or Cyhexatin (Plictran). Applications of boron and sprinkling irrigation also help to
reduce mite attack
Some products may cause toxicity when used at inappropriate doses (too high) or under some
environmental conditions (high temperatures). Any new product, formulation, or source should
be tested first on a reduced number of plants.
Applications should be done when the foliage is dry, trying to get a good coverage of leaves
(sometimes, it would be necessary to direct the application toward the lower part of the leaves).
By using a 18-20 liter-knapsack sprayer it would be possible to spray 800-1,000 plants (4-5
leaves present) or 100-150 plants (10-12 leaves present).
iv. Rats: rodents may cause serious damage if not controlled. Some important preventive
measures are:
Keep clean of weeds and debris (piles) an area of at least 25 m around the prenursery
and nursery areas
Keep all drainages clean and properly working
Use poisoned baits wisely
Culling
Off-type (abnormal) nursery plants should never be taken to the field, and there must be no com-
promise on this. Final culling rate partially depends on the genetic material used, but agronomic
management is also crucial to improve plant quality. In general terms, the factors that are asso-
ciated with an increase in the percentage of abnormal plants at the end of the nursery period are
the same as mentioned for prenursery palms, excluding of course the shade effect. Under normal
circumstances, culling rate for the nursery phase is 7-15%, which added to prenursery discarding
gives a final culling rate of 15-25%.
Final culling is done just before the plants abandon the nursery. The following are examples of
plants that should not be taken to the field (Figs. 38, 39 and 40):
Under developed palms (dwarfs), particularly with a thin basal bulb
Abnormal leaves (leaflets): rolled, twisted, too short, long or narrow, etc.
Short young leaves, given the palm a flat appearance
Acute leaf insertion angle, given the plant a rigid and up right appearance
Juvenile character: leaflets do not differentiate


Fig. 38. Left. Plants with good appearance and ready to be taken to the field. Right. Abnormal plants
with up right appearance.

Fig 39. Etiolated plants that were kept for too long at the nursery. Plants were severely pruned
in an attempt to solve the problem but damage was already done and these sort of plants will give
rise to plantation with suboptimum yields.Center. Juvenil leaves. Left. Up right growth, with very
narrow leaflets.

Fig. 40. Corrugated leaves. Center. Off-type plant. Left. A nurserhy plant that was prematurelly
taken to the field.


Preparing the plants for field planting and initial care
Transplanting from the nursery to the field always causes stress to the plants, so every effort
have to be done to reduce it. Pruning half of the root system sticking out from the bottom of the
bags two weeks prior to transplanting is sometimes done in an attempt to reduce transplanting
shock. However, this is not necessarily advisable, since plant may tip over and suffer even more.
Two weeks before transplanting, plants are prepared by given a last fertilization, and just before
taking them out the nursery they receive the last irrigation to wet the soil. All the effort to obtain
the best nursery plants may go down the drain if plants are not carefully handled during transpor-
tation and planting. A poor selection (culling), a careless transport (Fig. 41) and inappropriate
planting techniques and management during the unproductive period may severely reduce yield
potential of a plantation.

Fig. 41. Unproductive palm: should have been culled while at the nursery. Center. Poor trans-
porting for nursery palms: all efforts to get good quality plants at the nursery may end here. Left.
Poor planting technique and post planting care.


ANNEX 1: General information for designing an irrigation system for the nursery

This information is only a guide, and normally the suppliers of the irrigation system will provide
technical assistance to choose the right equipment and ways to obtain the best from it.
The amount of water required by an oil palm nursery varies between four and ten millimeters per
day depending on plant age, soil texture and climate. Precipitation rate (PR) in millimeters per
hour is calculated as follows:
PR =
1uuu x m
3
br
Spocing bctwccn sproycrs
=
S6uu x litcrsscg
Spocing bctwccn sproycrs

Example: for a sprinkler spacing of 9 x 12 m, and a discharge of 1.08 m
3
/hr or 0.3 liters/seg., the
PR is:
PR =
1uuu x 1.u8
9 x 12
= 12.9 mm or
S6uu x u.Su
9 x 12
= 12.9 mm
The maximum rate of precipitation to be used to avoid running off varies according to soil tex-
ture:
Soil texture
Maximum rate
of precipitation
(mm/hr)
Gross 12-18
Medium 6-12
Fine 2.5-6
The reduction in irrigation rate (RIR) according to slope are as follows:
Slope (%) RIR (%)
0-5 0
6-8 20
9-12 40
The irrigation efficiency may vary with weather:
Climate
Irrigation eficiency
(%)
Desert 65
Hot and dry 70
Moderate 75
Humid and fresh 80


Coverage as indicated by the vendors is only achieved under conditions without wind and with
sprayers placed at a certain height to get a discharge superior to certain value.
The maximum separation between sprinklers based on coverage varies according to wind speed:
Mean wind speed
(km/h)
Spacing
<10 40% between sprinklers
65% between laterals
10-15 40% between sprinklers
>15 30% between sprinklers


ANNEX 2. Expected efficiencies of several activities at the prenursery and
nursery
Units
Activity* Prenursery Nursery
Filling of bags with soil 600 350
Refilling of bags after soil settles 8,000 1,700
Bags distribution on the beds 5,000 1,200
Distribution of the prenursery plants** 1,000
Boring of holes on the soil of the nursery bags 1,250
Planting 1,350 1,200
Aplication of mulch 3,000
Manual weeding 4,000 2,500
Spraying of foliar fertilizer 40,000
Granular fertilization 8,000
Rouging of abnormal plants 25,000
Spraying of agrochemicals (fungicides, insecti-
cides)
40,000 10,000-8,000-
5,000***
* Average efficiency during a normal working day of 8 hours in standard prenurse-
ries and nurseries. When Jiffy pellets or similar planting pellets are used, efficiency
of most labor improves

** At the end of the prenursery period, the plants have to be taken to the main nur-
sery and placed on the side of the nursery bag where they will be planted

***When plants have 5, 8 and 11 leaves respectively

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ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF OIL PALM NURSERIES

GENERAL ASPECTS .......................................................................................................... 3

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