Cellular Control Questions F215

1.
(a) (i)
A gene controlling coat colour in cats is sex linked. The two
alleles of this gene are black and orange. When both are present the coat
colour is called tortoiseshell.
Define the following terms:
gene........................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
allele .......................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[2]
(ii)
Explain why there are no male tortoiseshell cats.

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[2]
The Henrietta Barnett School
Two pure breeding strains of snapdragon, a garden plant, were obtained. One
strain had red flowers and the other had white flowers. The two strains were
crossed yielding F1 plants all with pink flowers. The F1 were then interbred to
produce F2 plants with the following colours:
red
62
pink
131
white
67
The following hypothesis was proposed:

Flower colour is controlled by a single gene with two codominant alleles.
(b)
Complete the genetic diagram to explain this cross. Use the following symbols to
represent the alleles:
r
C = red, C = white
Parental phenotypes:
flowers
red flowers
white
Parental genotypes:
....................................
........................................
Gametes: .................................... ........................................
F1 genotypes: ..................................................................................................
F1 phenotypes: ................................................................................................
Gametes: ........................................................................................................
F2 genotypes: ..................................................................................................
F2 phenotypes: ................................................................................................
Expected F2 phenotypic ratio:.........................................................................
[6]
(c)
A chi-squared ( ) test is carried out on the experimental data to determine

whether the hypothesis is supported.
(i)
Complete the table below by calculating the expected numbers.

F2 phenotype
observed numbers
red
62
pink
131
white
67
total
260
expected numbers
260
[3]
The statistic is calculated in the following way:

2 =
(ii)
( observed expected) 2
expected
= sum of ...
Calculate the value of for the above data. Show your working.
value = ................................................................................................
[2]
(iii)
The critical value of for this type of investigation with two degrees of
freedom is 5.991.
Explain whether your answer to (b) (ii) supports the hypothesis.
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[1]
[Total 16 marks]
2.
In guinea pigs, the genes for coat texture and coat colour are found on separate
chromosomes. The allele for rough coat is dominant to the allele for smooth coat. The
allele for black coat is dominant to the allele for white coat.
A black guinea pig with a rough coat was crossed with a white guinea pig with a rough
coat.
The cross was repeated on a number of occasions and the phenotypes of the offspring
were as follows:
28 rough and black coats
31 rough and white coats
11 smooth and black coats
10 smooth and white coats
Complete the genetic diagram to explain this cross.

Use the following symbols to represent the alleles:
R = rough r = smooth
B = black b = white
Parental phenotypes:
coat
rough and black coat
Parental genotypes:
..................................
.................................
Gametes:
..................................
.................................
rough and white
Offspring genotypes: ...............................................................................................

Offspring phenotypes: .............................................................................................
Expected phenotypic ratio: ......................................................................................
[Total 5 marks]
3.
An enzyme, such as amylase, has a specific 3-dimensional shape.

Explain how DNA structure determines the specific shape of enzymes.
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[Total 4 marks]
4.
(a) Repeating nucleotide sequences are common in the genomes of

eukaryotes, for example in the centromeres and in the regions, called introns,
which appear to interrupt the genes. Repeating sequences have been referred to
as junk DNA.
Suggest why the term junk DNA is misleading.
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[2]
(b)
Some species of plant are able to grow on soils that contain very little phosphate,
while other species, for example stinging nettles, can only grow well in soils that
are rich in phosphate. Each nucleotide in a DNA molecule includes a phosphate
group.
If much of the non-coding DNA can be correctly regarded as functionless junk,
there may be a correlation between the percentage of DNA that is non-coding
and the minimum concentration of phosphate ions needed for healthy growth.
Draw a straight line graph, using the axes in the figure below, to show the
correlation that you would predict.
p e r c e n t a g e
o f D N A
t h a t
is
n o n - c o d i n g
m
in i m
u m
c o n c e
p h o s p h a t e
io n s
f o r h e a lt h y
g r o w
n t r a
n e e
in g
t io n
d e d
[1]
(c)
Name a substance other than DNA that is found in cells and has one or more
phosphate groups as part of its chemical structure.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
[Total 4 marks]
5.
Muscle fibres may become torn and damaged.

Damaged muscle fibres have an increased messenger RNA (mRNA) concentration
and a higher rate of oxygen consumption, at rest, than undamaged muscle fibres.
Explain these observations:
increased mRNA concentration;
..................................................................................................................................
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higher rate of oxygen consumption.

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[Total 5 marks]
6.
In this question, one mark is available for the quality of spelling, punctuation and
grammar.
Compare selective breeding with the evolutionary process.
(Allow one lined page)
[8]
Quality of Written Communication [1]
[Total 9 marks]
increased mRNA concentration;

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higher rate of oxygen consumption.

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[Total 5 marks]
7.
(i)
Outline how resistance to an insecticide (pesticide) can arise and spread in
a population of mosquitoes.
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[3]
(ii)
Explain briefly why efforts to control the spread of malaria are hindered by such
insecticide resistance.
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[2]
[Total 5 marks]
8.
(a) The colour of the spines on the stems of raspberry plants are controlled by
two genes, A/a and B/b. The genes are on different pairs of chromosomes.
Allele A produces a pink anthocyanin pigment in the spines. Allele B has no
effect by itself, but increases the colour produced by allele A to give red spines.
Alleles a and b have no effect on spine colour. In the absence of anthocyanin,
the spines are green.
(i)
State the colour of the spines of raspberry plants with the following
genotypes:
Aabb ......................................................................................................
aaBB ......................................................................................................
[2]
(ii)
Suggest how allele B may alter the expression of allele A.

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[3]
(b)
Plants with the genotypes AaBb and aabb were cross-pollinated. The resulting
seeds were sown and the seedlings grown until their stems developed spines.
(i)
Draw a genetic diagram of this cross to show:

the phenotypes of the parents
the gametes
the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring
the ratio of different phenotypes expected in the offspring.
ratio of phenotypes of offspring .............................................................

................................................................................................................
[5]
10
(ii)
Explain what differences in the phenotypic ratio would be expected if genes

A/a and B/b were on the same homologous pair of chromosomes, as
shown in the figure below.
A
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[5]
[Total 15 marks]
9.
Resistance to the poison warfarin is now extremely common in rats. Warfarin inhibits
an enzyme in the liver that is necessary for the recycling of vitamin K. This vitamin is
involved in the production of substances required for blood clotting. There are two
R
alleles of the gene that code for this enzyme. Resistant rats have the allele R ; rats
S S
susceptible to warfarin have the genotype R R .
Rats susceptible to warfarin die of internal bleeding.
Homozygous resistant rats do not suffer from internal bleeding if their diet
provides more than 70 g of vitamin K per kg body mass per day.
Heterozygous rats are resistant to warfarin if their diet provides about 10 g of

vitamin K per kg body mass per day.
11
(a)
A population of rats was studied in an area where warfarin was used. The dietary
intake of the rats was about 15 g of vitamin K per kg body mass per day.
Complete the table below to indicate whether rats of the three genotypes have a
high or a low chance of surviving to maturity in this population. Explain each of
your answers.
genotype
chance of
surviving to
maturity
explanation
R R
R R
R S
R R
S S
R R
[3]
(b)
(i)
State how the allele for warfarin resistance originated.
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[1]
12
(ii)
Explain how the allele spread through the population.

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[5]
(c)
State why this is an example of natural selection.

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[1]
(d)
Explain what is likely to happen to the frequencies of the two alleles (R and R )
within the rat population over a period of time if warfarin use is discontinued.
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[2]
[Total 12 marks]
13
10.
The bacterium Escherichia coli uses glucose as a respiratory substrate. In the absence
of glucose, E. coli can use lactose.
Explain how lactose induces the enzyme system involved in its uptake and metabolism.
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[Total 5 marks]
14
11.
A gene controlling coat colour in cats is sex linked. The two alleles of this gene are
black and orange. When both the black and orange alleles are present, the coat colour
produced is called tortoiseshell.
(i)
Define the following terms.

gene ................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
allele ...............................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(ii)
Explain why there are no male tortoiseshell cats.

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[2]
[Total 5 marks]
15
12.
The leaves of tomato plants are usually dark green. A variety known as Sunny has
yellow-green leaves when grown under the same conditions as dark green varieties.
A Sunny plant was allowed to self-pollinate and many seeds were collected from its
fruit. A class of students germinated some of these seeds in pots, each containing
3
80 g of compost and 50 cm of water. Six seeds were planted in each pot. The pots
were placed in an incubator at 26 C for four days and then on a bench near a window
in bright daylight for a further four days, after which the seedlings were examined and
the colour of their leaves recorded.
Some of the students results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
pot
numbers of seedings developed after 8 days

dark green
yellow-green
yellow
After all the data had been recorded, totals were calculated and are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
numbers of seedings developed after 8 days
totals
dark green
yellow-green
yellow
28
56
33
ratio
(a)
Calculate the ratio of dark green : yellow-green : yellow seedlings to the nearest
whole number and enter this ratio in the spaces provided in Table 2.
[1]
16
(b)
Explain the results shown in Table 2.

You may include a genetic diagram as part of your explanation. Explain any
symbols that you use.
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[5]
(c)
The student who had been responsible for pot B was concerned that there must
have been some error because all six of the seedlings were the same.
Another student said that the totals of the results, shown in Table 2, seemed so
good that they must have been fiddled, i.e. must have been a scientific fraud.
Comment on the views of these two students.
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[3]
17
(d)
The seedlings were left to grow in the pots for a further 14 days. The pots
remained in bright light and were watered regularly.
All the yellow seedlings died.
The dark green seedlings grew larger than the yellow-green seedlings.
Explain these observations.

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[3]
[Total 12 marks]
13.
Celery plants produce chemical signals when attacked by herbivorous insects. The
signals switch on the plants resistance genes that code for insecticides.
(i)
Suggest why celery produces its insecticides only when attacked by insects.
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[2]
18
(ii)
Outline the steps by which resistance to an insecticide may arise and spread in
an insect population.
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[5]
[Total 7 marks]
14.
Research is taking place to see if chemicals can be added to toothpaste that block the
expression of the genes responsible for the synthesis of the sticky gel and therefore
stop plaque forming.
RNA interference is one method used to block the expression of genes.
This uses RNA molecules that are complementary to the messenger RNA of the gene.
(i)
Explain how RNA interference affects the expression of a gene.

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[3]
19
(ii)
Unfortunately, adding complementary RNA to toothpaste has not proved

successful in controlling plaque. Suggest why.
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[2]
[Total 5 marks]
15.
When eaten by insects such as the larvae known as earworms, celery plants produce
the chemical signal jasmonate (J). This stimulates insecticide production. Insecticide
begins to build up in the leaves after 24 hours and reaches maximum concentration
after 4 to 5 days.
However, earworms become resistant to this insecticide by switching on a gene in the
gut lining that codes for an enzyme (E) to break it down.
Newly hatched earworms were divided into four groups:
not exposed to J but fed on celery leaves containing insecticide

not exposed to J but fed on celery leaves with no insecticide
exposed to J and fed on celery leaves containing insecticide

exposed to J and fed on celery leaves with no insecticide.
The earworms continued to feed on these diets until they pupated.
The percentage mortality of the different groups of earworms and the relative
expression of the gene coding for enzyme E are shown below. In the table, a tick ()
indicates the presence of insecticide in the celery leaf diet and a cross ( ) indicates its
absence.
group of earworms
not exposed to J
exposed to J
presence of insecticide
in celery leaf diet
relative expression of gene

coding for enzyme E
mortality / %
1.0
86.7
0.0
15.6
6.5
48.3
5.5
6.7
20
Using the information given, explain the differences in percentage mortality of the
different groups of earworms.
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[Total 4 marks]
21
16.
A number of different crop plants have been genetically engineered to express a gene
for an insecticidal toxin (Bt toxin) from a bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, that kills
many insect species.
In China, Bt cotton has been grown since 1997. A survey at the end of 2001 showed
that it was being grown by over two million farmers on fields totalling more than
2
7000km .
Some further findings of the survey are shown in the table below.
percentage of reported cases
of insecticide poisoning
among cotton farmers
cost of producing 1kg

of cotton / US $
farmers growing non-Bt cotton
22
2.23
farmers growing Bt cotton
1.61
survey finding
22
Comment on the findings of the survey.

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[Total 4 marks]
23
17.
(a) Cats with either black or white fur are common in Britain; brown fur is rarer.
The dominant allele, B, of one gene gives black fur and the recessive allele, b,
brown fur.
Many of the white cats carry a dominant allele, A, of a second gene which inhibits
pigment production no matter which pigment-producing alleles are present in the
genotype. The recessive allele, a, has no effect on fur colour.
Genes A/a and B/b are not linked and neither is on the X chromosome.
(i)
State the fur colour of cats with the following genotypes:

AaBB ...................................................................................................
aaBB ....................................................................................................
Aabb .....................................................................................................
aabb ......................................................................................................
[4]
24
(ii)
State the name given to this type of gene interaction.

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[1]
25
(iii)
Suggest how one gene may inhibit the action of another.

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[3]
26
(b)
Two white cats produced a litter of kittens with three different coat colours: white,
black and brown.
(i)
State one possible genotype for each of the two white parents and explain
the reasons for your choice.
You may use the space below for rough work, if needed.
genotypes of parents ............................................................................
explanation ............................................................................................
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[5]
27
(ii)
State the ratio of phenotypes this pair of cats would be expected to produce
in time, when the fur colour of several litters of kittens could be recorded.
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[2]
[Total 15 marks]
28
18.
Estimates of heritability for various phenotypic traits in Wagyu cattle are shown in the
table below.
phenotypic trait
heritability
A marbling of meat with fat
0.49
B growth rate
0.38
C thickness of subcutaneous fat
0.15
D area of rib eye meat
0.02
State which of the Wagyu phenotypic traits shown in Table 3.1 could most easily be
improved by selective breeding. Explain your answer.
phenotypic trait ........................................................................................................
explanation ..............................................................................................................
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[Total 3 marks]
29
19.
Read the passage below and answer the questions which follow.
DNA vaccines
Mice and monkeys have been successfully immunised against several important
infectious diseases using experimental DNA vaccines, in the form of plasmids.
Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules.
During the 1990s, researchers found that mouse muscle and other mouse tissues were
able to absorb plasmids which had been injected into the animals. Any genes that were
part of this plasmid DNA were transcribed and translated. The resulting proteins were
transferred to the plasma membranes (cell surface membranes) of the mouse muscle
cells. The proteins were exposed on the muscle plasma membranes together with
receptor molecules that allow the immune system to recognise cells as self or non-self.
Proteins that are presented at the cell surface in this way stimulate the lymphocytes of
the immune system very effectively.
This discovery allows plasmid DNA to be used as a vaccine, even though the DNA
does not itself act as an antigen. Most vaccines contain proteins, or fragments of
proteins, that are extracted from the surface of pathogens. It is a complex and costly
procedure to purify these protein antigens.
30
The figure below shows a simplified diagram of a DNA vaccine. This plasmid codes for
two antigens, A and B.
r o
t e
s e
c e
dA i n
f o
t i g
G
s e
s e
c e
c e
c o
c o
dB i n
f o
31
t i g
(a)
State three ways in which the structure of plasmid DNA differs from the structure
of a protein molecule.
1 ......................................................................................................................
2 ......................................................................................................................
3 ......................................................................................................................
[3]
32
(b)
(i)
Define the term antigen, as used in the passage.
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[1]
33
(ii)
Suggest why proteins presented at the cell surface are able to stimulate an
immune response more effectively than proteins dissolved or suspended in
the blood or tissue fluids.
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[1]
34
(c)
(i)
Explain why a promoter sequence is needed as part of the
plasmid if the vaccine is to work.
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[2]
35
(ii)
Suggest why it may be desirable to include nucleotide sequences coding

for more than one antigen in a DNA vaccine.
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[2]
36
(iii)
Sequences of nucleotides, labelled G on the figure, code for groups of

amino acids at the beginning of each polypeptide. These amino acid
sequences direct the newly synthesised polypeptides to the Golgi
apparatus of the muscle cell.
Explain how this makes the vaccine effective.
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[2]
37
(d)
Suggest three reasons why researchers may be more concerned about the
potential risks of DNA vaccines as compared with protein-based vaccines.
1 ......................................................................................................................
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2 ......................................................................................................................
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3 ......................................................................................................................
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[3]
[Total 14 marks]
38
20.
The technique of RNA interference has been used to slow replication of HIV (Human
Immunodeficiency Virus) in vitro. siRNA sequences that match the RNA genome of HIV
can be used to trigger destruction of this RNA, preventing HIV from multiplying.
Another approach is to use RNA interference to silence genes for cell surface
receptors, such as the CD4 and CCR5 molecules on human white blood cells. If these
genes do not produce their protein antigens, HIV cannot bind to and infect the white
blood cells.
The table below summarises some information about the two cell surface receptors
used by HIV to bind to and infect white blood cells.
cell surface receptor
CD4
CCR5
type of cell with this

receptor
T lymphocyte white blood

cells which divide by
mitosis
macrophage cells which

are long-lived and do not
undergo mitosis
function of receptor
important roles in the

immune system
limited, since 1% of people

lack this receptor and show
some resistance to HIV
39
Experiments have been carried out where,
siRNAs matching the CD4 mRNA were introduced into test tube populations of
T lymphocytes;
siRNAs matching the CCR5 mRNA were introduced into test tube populations of
macrophages.
In both cases HIV was present but the presence of the siRNAs reduced its replication.
(i)
Use the table to suggest with reasons which of the two test tube experiments
showed most reduction of HIV replication.
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[2]
40
(ii)
Explain which receptor would be the best target for RNA interference if the
approach was used as a therapy for humans infected with HIV.
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[1]
[Total: 3 marks]
41
21.
The following are different stages in meiosis. Each stage has been given a letter.
anaphase II
metaphase II
anaphase I
prophase I
telophase II
metaphase I
(i)
Using only the letters, arrange these stages in the correct sequence.
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[1]
42
(ii)
State the letter of the stage when each of the following processes occur.
pairing of chromosomes ................................................................
centromeres divide ................................................................
crossing over ................................................................
bivalents align on equator ................................................................
nuclear membrane reforms ................................................................
[5]
43
(iii)
State two processes that occur in a cell during interphase to prepare for a meiotic
division.
1 ......................................................................................................................
2 ......................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 8 marks]
44
22.
(a)
Explain what is meant by heritability.
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[2]
45
(b)
Rice plants may have, in addition to a main stem, a number of side shoots (tillers)
growing from ground level. These tillers may also branch. The ability to grow
tillers is controlled by a single gene with two alleles, T/t. Plants with the genotype
tt have a single grain-bearing stem and no tillers.
Explain why the heritability of rice tiller growth is likely to be high.
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[2]
46
(c)
Allele T codes for a protein which regulates transcription. Expression of allele T

allows stimulation of mitosis in the buds which become tillers.
Allele t has a stop triplet within its DNA sequence as well as at its end.
(i)
State what is meant by a stop triplet.

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[2]
47
(ii)
Describe the effect of the stop triplet within the DNA sequence of allele t.
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[3]
48
(iii)
Suggest how the protein encoded by allele T may regulate transcription.

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[2]
49
(d)
The number of tillers per plant and the number of times each tiller branched were
recorded for wild type TT plants and for tt plants which had been given a copy of
allele T by genetic engineering.
The results are shown below.
k e
3
n u m
b e r
2 0
t i ll e r s
p e r p la n
1
p
m
l a n t
o d i f i e
2
n
y :w i l d T t y T p e
g e n e t ic a lly
t t +T p l a n t s
3
b
r a
c h
t il le
50
(i)
With reference to the figure above, compare the effect of the two rice
genotypes on tiller growth.
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[2]
51
(ii)
Suggest why the expression of allele T may be changed when it is

transferred by genetic engineering into rice plants with the genotype tt.
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[2]
[Total 15 marks]
52
23.
The snail, Cepaea nemoralis, lives on the ground amongst leaf litter and herbaceous
vegetation.
It exists in three different colours: brown, pink and yellow.
In some of these snails, there is a shell banding pattern on this background

colour. Snails can therefore be divided into banded and unbanded forms.
The background colour and banding are controlled by alleles at two separate
gene loci.
A group of students in central England carried out the following investigation.
Samples of snails were collected from populations in two different habitats.
The first habitat was mixed deciduous woodland where the leaf litter was a dark
uniform colour.
The second habitat was grassland, which is more variable in colour but
predominantly pale yellow and green.
The main predator of the snail is the song thrush which has excellent colour vision. It
therefore acts as a major selection pressure on these populations.
53
The table below shows the percentage of yellow-shelled snails and unbanded snails
found in the samples.
habitat
woodland
grassland
(a)
sample
% of sample yellow
% of sample unbanded
12
88
21
77
12
70
79
21
58
14
83
22
Explain the following terms;

allele ................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
locus ................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
(b)
In this question, one mark is available for the quality of use and organisation of
scientific terms.
When the students compared their results with previous investigations in the
same habitats, they found that the percentages were very similar.
Using the data in the table above, describe how selection pressures, such as
predation by the song thrush, can maintain different allele frequencies in the snail
populations in the woodland and grassland habitats.
[8]
[Total 11 marks]
54
24.
Red Junglefowl are the wild ancestors of domesticated chickens.

Homozygous White Leghorns were crossed with homozygous Red Junglefowl and the
F1 offspring, all of which were white, interbred to give an F2 generation. The F2
generation included both white and pigmented birds.
The F2 birds were divided into ten groups, each with slightly different percentages of
white and pigmented birds. Each bird was examined at intervals to assess any damage
to its feathers caused by feather-pecking by other birds in the group.
The results of the investigation are shown in the figure below.
k e y
t o
h
1
t y w p h e i st e p o i gf mb
i er d n s t e:
8
d a m
a g e
f e a t h e r s6
c a u s e d
b
f e a t h e r - p
4
a r b it r a r y
t o
y
e c k i n
u n it s
2
0
1
p
8
e
r c e
i n
2 22 0
t a g e
g r o u p
2 22 0
2
w
i t e
i r d
t e
8
d a m
a g e
f e a t h e r s6
c a u s e d
b
f e a t h e r - p
4
a r b it r a r y
t o
y
e c k i n
u n it s
2
0
1
p
r c e
n
in
t a g e
g r o u
o
p
ig
i r d
55
Describe the effect on feather-pecking of changes in the percentage of each phenotype

in a group.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 3 marks]
25.
Haemophilia A is a sex-linked genetic disease which results in the blood failing to clot
properly. It is caused by a recessive allele on the X chromosome. The figure below
shows the occurrence of haemophilia in one family.
=
a l e
4
1 1
f e
l e
6 5
1
1
56
(i)
Using the following symbols:

H = dominant allele
h = recessive allele
state the genotypes of the following individuals. The first one has been completed
for you.
individual
genotype
H h
X X
[4]
(ii)
State the probability of individual 8 being a carrier of haemophilia.

.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(iii)
Explain why only females can be carriers of haemophilia.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 7 marks]
57
26.
(a)
Part of the DNA base sequence coding for a protein is shown below.
A T G G C C T A A G T G
(i)
State the corresponding base sequence of mRNA.

................................................................................................................
[2]
(ii)
Name the process by which the DNA code is transferred to mRNA.

................................................................................................................
[1]
(b)
The figure below is a diagram that shows the stage in protein synthesis when
amino acids are joined in the correct sequence to make the primary structure of
the protein.
a m
i n
c id
M
L
(i)
Name J to M.
The group of bases at J ........................................................................
K ............................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
L .............................................................................................................
The group of bases at M ........................................................................
[4]
58
(ii)
Using the information in the diagram to help you, explain how amino acids
become arranged into the correct sequence in the primary structure of the
protein.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[4]
(c)
Mistletoe is a parasitic plant that produces lectin 1, a ribosome-inactivating

protein. Lectin 1 inhibits protein synthesis in the cells of the host plant.
Suggest how lectin 1 could inhibit protein synthesis.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 13 marks]
59
27.
The figure below shows several stages in the life cycle of the water flea, Daphnia.
C
m
g
z y g
oE t e
f e
g
m
a m
a
m
m
i t o s is
le
e t e s
A
m
io
s is
io
s is
g r o w
t h
s
m
i t o
s is
ma l ei t o s i s
e t e s
B
f e
f a v o
r a
b le
c o
it io
le
In favourable conditions, all the individuals in a population are females, A.
These females produce eggs, B, by mitosis which develop into further females.
In unfavourable conditions, eggs are produced by meiosis and develop without

fertilisation into either males, C, or females, D.
Gametes are produced by mitosis from C and D.
The resultant zygotes, E, develop a protective case which enables them to

survive unfavourable conditions.
When favourable conditions return, these zygotes develop into young females.
(i)
State which of the stages, A to E, contain individuals with the diploid number of
chromosomes.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
60
(ii)
Explain why the females in stage A show greater variation than the females in
stage D.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
(iii)
Explain why gametes are produced by mitosis from males C and females D.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 5 marks]
28.
The outer surface of a plasma (cell surface) membrane incorporates glycoproteins of

many different types.
In some types of cell, some of these glycoproteins have a carbohydrate component
that is a polysaccharide. This consists of a long unbranched chain of repeating sugar
units, as shown in Fig. 1.
The polysaccharide component extends into the tissue fluid surrounding the cells and
in some tissues links the cells together, forming part of the mechanical support for the
tissue.
61
Fig. 1 also shows the chemical structure of one of the component sugar units of the
polysaccharide.
s u
p
r o
t e
C
S
n
r a
c h
i t s
i n
l o
s u
O
H
i t
3O
2H
O
O
H
O
H H
N
H
H
O
H
C C 3H
O
Fig. 1
(a)
State two ways in which the structure of the polysaccharide shown in Fig. 1
differs from the structure of a molecule of cellulose.
1 ......................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
2 ......................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
62
l y s a
(b)
During endocytosis, vesicles are formed from the plasma (cell surface)
membrane and pass into the cytoplasm.
Any glycoprotein that enters the cell as part of the vesicle is broken down by
enzymes in the lysosomes.
In an inherited disease called Hunters syndrome, one of the enzymes needed to
hydrolyse the polysaccharide chains shown in Fig. 1 is absent. Polysaccharides
remain in the lysosomes until the cells eventually die.
Many body tissues are affected by Hunters syndrome. The different tissues are
not all affected to the same extent. Suggest an explanation for this observation.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(c)
Cells from an individual with Hunters syndrome appear different to normal cells
when viewed with an electron microscope.
Suggest one way in which they would appear different.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
63
Fig. 2 shows part of a family tree where some of the individuals have developed
Hunters syndrome.
f a
i ly
i g r e e
s h
o w
i n
t e
r s
s y n
k e y
= f e m
a l e
w
H u n t e r s
r a
t io
i t h= u n a f f e c t e d
s y nf e d m r o a m l e e
=
H
r a
t io
r a
t io
r a
t io
9
n
I I I
8
g
w
e
I I
3
=
m
a l e
s y n m d ra o l em
r s
I
1
t e
1 12 0
1 1
I V
16
17
18
Fig. 2
(d)
By referring to numbered individuals and the relationships shown in Fig. 2,

explain why
(i)
the allele that determines Hunters syndrome must be recessive;

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[1]
(ii)
the gene concerned may be sex linked.

................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[2]
64
i t h
(e)
Sex linkage is not conclusively shown by the family tree shown in Fig. 2.
Suggest why.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(f)
There are no drugs to treat Hunters syndrome.

Suggest why a drug to treat people with Hunters syndrome would be very difficult
to develop.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 10 marks]
65
29.
A research team was investigating the properties of a newly-discovered enzyme, the

product of which was a valuable drug.
This enzyme had been extracted from cells of a marine worm, found in the North
Atlantic, where the temperature is always close to 5 C. All the proteins of such animals
are adapted to function at low temperatures.
Three water baths were set up at 15, 20 and 25 C. Into each bath was placed a tube
3
3
containing 1 cm of the enzyme solution and a tube containing 10 cm of concentrated
substrate solution. On reaching the required temperature, the enzyme and substrate
were quickly mixed and kept in the water bath.
There was a large excess of the substrate, so that substrate concentration was not a
limiting factor.
Samples were taken from each tube at regular intervals and the concentration of the
drug in these samples was determined. The results are shown in Fig. 1.
6
c o n c e n 5t r a t i o n
o f d r u g
/
a r b i t r a r 4y
u n i t s
3
2
1
0
1
t i m
a t
w p l he is c hr e s m a om v e
2
d
3
/
r s
Fig. 1
(a)
Using Fig. 1,
(i)
describe what happened to the concentration of the drug in the tube at

15 C;
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[2]
66
(ii)
explain why the concentration of the drug changed in the way you have
described.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[2]
(b)
State one factor, not mentioned in the account of the investigation, which
would have been kept constant in all the tubes for the results to be valid.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(c)
Predict and explain the effect of carrying out the same procedure at 5 C.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[3]
67
Fig. 2 represents part of the primary and tertiary structure of the newly-discovered
enzyme, including its active site. The amino acids are represented by circles, which are
numbered to show their position in the primary structure.
3
4
5
3
d
b
i s u l p
o n d
5
3
0
4
7
3
8
3
r o
0
4
6
b
i n
c id
4
h
7
7
9
4
y d
s u b s t r a t e
m
o l e c u l6 e 0
i d e
5 7
5
3
o
6
n
6
6
r o
d
7
y d
7
8
5
Fig. 2
68
(d)
The research team wanted to change the structure of the enzyme so that it would
function at higher temperatures to produce greater yields of the drug. They used
a technique called site directed mutagenesis. In this technique:
single changes to the amino acid sequence of the enzyme are planned
the gene coding for the enzyme produced by the worm is isolated
specific changes to the gene are made, in order to achieve the planned
changes to the amino acid sequence
the modified gene is introduced into a bacterium
the offspring of the bacterium produce the changed enzyme molecules
(i)
Suggest why it would be important that this procedure did not change any
of the amino acids shaded grey in Fig. 2.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[1]
(ii)
The amino acids numbered 44 and 66 have side chains that link by
hydrogen bonding.
Suggest why the research team might plan to replace these two amino
acids with the amino acid cysteine, which forms disulphide bonds.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[2]
69
(e)
Explain why the technique of site directed mutagenesis involves changing

nucleotide sequences.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 13 marks]
30.
(a) An infection by the bacterium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, may be in the

form of separate bacterial cells or of a biofilm. A biofilm is a layer of bacteria
growing on a surface, attached to one another by polymers of glucose. Infections
in the form of biofilms are difficult to control by antibiotics.
Suggest why infections in the form of biofilms are more difficult to control by
antibiotics than those caused by separate bacterial cells.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[4]
70
(b)
The sensitivity of two strains of P. aeruginosa to three commonly used antibiotics

(A, B and C) was measured when the bacteria were grown in suspension and in
biofilms. The results are shown in the table below.
lowest concentration of
antibiotic needed to kill
3
bacteria / g cm
A
40
400
500
50
strain 1
bacteria in
suspension
strain 1
bacteria in
biofilm
strain 2
bacteria in
suspension
40
strain 2
bacteria in
biofilm
25
60
Compare the sensitivity of bacterial strains 1 and 2 to the three antibiotics when
grown in suspension and in biofilms.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[4]
71
(c)
A gene has been identified in P. aeruginosa which is expressed only when cells
grow in biofilms. The gene codes for an enzyme which is needed for the
synthesis of polymers of glucose, called glucans, which are secreted by the
bacteria. Strains 1 and 2 have different alleles of this gene.
Explain how the difference in sensitivity to antibiotics of strains 1 and 2 could
have arisen.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[4]
(d)
Describe briefly how resistance to an antibiotic may be transferred naturally from

P. aeruginosa to a different species of bacterium.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[3]
[Total 15 marks]
72
31.
The human ABO blood groups are A, B, AB and O. They are determined by a single
A
B
gene with multiple alleles. I and I alleles are codominant, but both these alleles are
O
dominant to the I allele.
In a maternity ward, the identities of four babies became accidentally mixed up. The
ABO blood groups of the babies were discovered to be O, A, B and AB. The ABO
blood groups of the four sets of parents were determined and are shown in the table
below.
Complete the table to match each baby to its parents by indicating:
A
the parental genotypes, using the symbols I , I and I ;
the blood group of the baby which belongs to each set of parents.
parental blood groups
parental genotypes
baby blood group
O and O
AB and O
A and O
AB and A
[Total 4 marks]
73
32.
A gene, Q/q, affecting muscle mass and fat deposition in pigs has been identified in
crosses between domesticated pigs and wild boars. Most European domesticated pigs
carry the dominant allele, Q, but wild boar populations are homozygous recessive. The
Q/q gene codes for a protein growth factor, IGF2.
The transcription of the gene in skeletal and cardiac muscle was measured in piglets
with QQ and qq genotypes at three and sixteen weeks after birth. The results are
shown in the figure below.
1
. 2
5
s k e
. 0
. 5
t a
s c le
r y
. 2
o Q t yQ p
o q t qy p
0
r d
ia
s c l e
3
a
y :
i t s
c a
0
k e
t r a n s c r ip t i o n
0 . 7 5
o f I G F 2
g e n e
/ a r b it r a
l e
1 6
g e
3
p
i g
le
1
t
6
/
k s
74
Using the information above, compare the transcription of the IGF2 gene in piglets with
QQ and qq genotypes.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 4 marks]
33.
The diagram below shows the life cycles of two organisms, A and B.
a d u l t
( 2 n )
a d u l t
( 2 n )
y o
n g
o
( 2 n )
organism A
r g a
is m
z y g o t e
( 2 n )
a m
( n )
t e
a m
( n )
t e
organism B
75
(i)
Name the type of reproduction taking place in the life cycle of organism A.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(ii)
Explain why it is important that the gametes in the life cycle of organism B
contain the haploid number of chromosomes.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 3 marks]
34.
(a)
Explain the meaning of the terms linkage and crossing over.
linkage ............................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
crossing over ..................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[3]
76
(b)
In an investigation into the genes on chromosome 2 of the tomato genome,

pollen from a pure-bred plant with green leaves and smooth-surfaced fruit was
transferred to flowers of a plant with mottled green and yellow leaves and hairy
(so-called peach) fruit. All the F1 generation had green leaves and smooth fruit.
Describe briefly how a plant breeder ensures that the offspring produced are only
from the desired cross.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[3]
(c)
Four different test crosses, A to D, were then made between F1 plants and purebred plants with mottled leaves and peach fruit. The phenotypes of 50 offspring
of each of the crosses were recorded and are shown in the table below.
phenotypes of offspring of test crosses
cross
green leaves and

smooth fruit
green leaves and

peach fruit
mottled leaves
and smooth fruit
mottled leaves
and peach fruit
23
20
21
23
16
25
22
18
total
82
17
15
86
(i)
Suggest one reason why, in the table above, the numbers of plants with
green leaves and smooth fruit is not the same in each of the crosses
A to D.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[1]
77
(ii)
The percentage cross over value is calculated as
number of recombinant offspring

100
total number of offspring
Using the information in the table above, calculate the percentage cross
over value between the loci for leaf colour and fruit surface texture. Show
your working.
Answer = ..................................................... %
[2]
(iii)
Use annotated diagrams of tomato chromosome 2 to explain the results of

the test crosses shown in the table.
Use the symbols A/a for the leaf colour alleles and B/b for the fruit surface
texture alleles.
[6]
[Total: 15 marks]
78
35.
The numbers of musk deer have halved in ten years. In parts of China the populations
have reached very low numbers. These populations are also widely separated.
Outline the possible consequences of this separation on the populations of musk deer.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 4 marks]
79
36.
The following figure shows events leading to the formation of homologous pairs in
meiosis.
D N r Ae p l i c da ut e r is n g
i n t e r p h a s e
f o r m
in
s is t e r c h r o m
a t i d s .
t w
c h
a
e
a
e
x ia
l e m
x ia
l e m
l
e
l
e
o
r o
s i s t e r
m
a t i d s
r o
t e
i n s is t e r
c h r o m
a t id s
o f
c h r o m
o s o m
e
B o s t hi s ct e h r r o m
a t id s
a t t a c h
t o
a
p r o t e i n
c a l le d
t h e
a x i a l e le
T haex
h o m
o c no em
f o r m
p a i r
ei a l el m o e f n t s
o l o g o u s
c h r o m
e
t o g e t h e r i n
t
a t io n
o f a
h o m
( b iv a le n t ) .
n o n - s i s t e r
c h r o m
a t id s
(i)
Explain why the DNA in two sister chromatids is identical.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
80
(ii)
Explain why the DNA in two sister chromatids in metaphase may no longer be
identical.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
(iii)
Suggest why axial elements are necessary in meiosis.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 6 marks]
81
37.
In this question, one mark is available for the quality of spelling, punctuation and
grammar.
In 1959, a breeding colony of 100 female and 30 male Siberian foxes was established
in Russia. For the next 45 years, they were selectively bred for one trait only: that of
lack of aggression to humans (tameness).
By the end of 2004, the behaviour and appearance of the selectively bred foxes
differed from wild foxes in the following ways:
their fur had white patches
their muzzles were shorter
some had floppy ears and curly tails
they whimpered to attract human attention, wagged their tails and licked the
humans hand.
Describe how selective breeding of animals is carried out and explain how selectively
breeding for one trait may result in many differences between selectively bred and wild
animals.
[8]
[Total 9 marks]
38.
(i)
Outline the principle of selective breeding.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
82
(ii)
Explain the use of progeny testing in selective breeding.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[4]
[Total 6 marks]
39.
In the wild, rabbits have a high reproductive rate. However the population size remains
fairly stable.
Explain how this stability is maintained and how the gene pool of the rabbit population
may be affected.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 5 marks]
83
40.
Coat colour in rabbits is determined by a single gene which has four separate alleles.
The gene is not sex linked.
A
The allele for agouti colour, C , is dominant to all the other alleles.
The allele for albino, C , is recessive to all the other alleles.
The allele for chinchilla, C , is dominant to the Himalayan allele, C .
Ch
State all the possible genotypes for the following phenotypes:

chinchilla ..................................................................................................................
agouti .......................................................................................................................
[Total 2 marks]
41.
About 10% of the coffee consumed in the world has been processed to remove
caffeine. The decaffeination process also removes some of the flavouring compounds
so, since 1987, researchers at the coffee gene bank in Brazil have been trying to
produce suitable varieties of caffeine-free coffee plants.
The most commonly cultivated species of coffee plant, Coffea arabica, has a narrow
genetic diversity. It is a tetraploid with 44 chromosomes (4n = 44) and almost always
self-pollinates.
All attempts to start a selective breeding programme to transfer the caffeine-free

property of a diploid wild species of coffee from Madagascar (2n = 22) to C. arabica
have failed.
(i)
Explain briefly why selective breeding is carried out.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
84
(ii)
Explain why C. arabica has a narrow genetic diversity.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
(iii)
Suggest why attempts at interbreeding C. arabica with the wild species from
Madagascar have failed.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 6 marks]
42.
Self-incompatibility in P. rhoeas is controlled by a locus, S, coding for proteins in the

pollen and stigmas of the flowers. The locus has a large number of alleles and even
small populations have a large number of different genotypes.
Pollen is rejected when its haploid genotype is the same as either of the two alleles of
the diploid stigma of the recipient plant. Pollen with a different allele is compatible.
(i)
Complete the table to show whether pollen is accepted ( ) or rejected ( ) by

each stigma.
genotype of
haploid pollen
genotype of
diploid stigma
S1
S1S2
S2
S1S2
S1
S2S3
S2
S2S3
pollen
accepted ( ) or
rejected ( )
[4]
85
(ii)
State, with a reason, whether the variation shown is continuous or discontinuous

variation.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 6 marks]
43.
Phenotype is influenced by genetic and environmental factors.

Describe one example of how the environment influences phenotype.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 2 marks]
44.
The following figure represents a pair of homologous chromosomes at the beginning of

the first division of meiosis. The loci of two genes are shown, and both genes have two
alleles.
q
86
Complete the diagram below to show the four possible gametes formed at the end of
meiosis. Use the same letters as in the figure above.
[Total: 2 marks]
45.
Plants from a different species of coffee plant, C. canephora, have been genetically
engineered to have a low caffeine content by suppressing the activity of caffeine
synthase.
Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of producing coffee plants with inactive
caffeine synthase by genetic engineering rather than by selective breeding.
advantage ................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[2]
disadvantage ...........................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 4 marks]
87
46.
The bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) uses glucose as a respiratory substrate. In the
absence of glucose, E. coli can use lactose. The use of a different substrate is
determined by the interaction between genes and the environment.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 5 marks]
88
47.
Explain why G6PD deficiency is more common in areas where malaria occurs
regularly.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total: 3 marks]
48.
Explain why breeders of domesticated chickens consider it important to maintain a

population of Red Junglefowl.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 4 marks]
49.
(a) White Leghorn domesticated chickens carry a dominant allele, I, that

inhibits feather pigmentation. Birds homozygous for the recessive allele, i, have
pigmented plumage, provided that they carry the dominant allele, C, of a gene for
melanin production.
Name the interaction between alleles I and C.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
89
(b)
Allele i codes for a protein that is essential for normal production of melanin. In
comparison with i, allele I has a 9 base pair insertion in its DNA.
Explain how such an insertion could alter the expression of the gene.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[4]
(c)
Red Junglefowl are the wild ancestors of domesticated chickens.

Homozygous White Leghorns were crossed with homozygous Red Junglefowl
and the F1 offspring, all of which were white, interbred to give an F2 generation.
The F2 generation included both white and pigmented birds.
(i)
State the genotypes at the I/i and C/c loci of the parental and F1
generations.
parental phenotypes:
Junglefowl
White Leghorn
parental genotypes:
........................
........................
F1 genotype:
Red
...............................................................
[2]
(ii)
State the ratio of phenotypes expected in the F2 generation.

................................................................................................................
[1]
[Total 8 marks]
90
50.
During interphase preceding meiosis, each chromosome replicates itself and becomes
two chromatids joined at the centromere. These identical chromatids are known as
sister chromatids. During the first division of meiosis, pairing of homologous
chromosomes takes place. The structure formed is called a bivalent. When paired in
this way non-sister chromatids from the two chromosomes exchange segments of
genetic material by breaking and rejoining.
(i)
State the name given to the exchange of segments of chromatids by breaking

and rejoining.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(ii)
Name the stage of the first division of meiosis when this exchange of segments
occurs.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(iii)
Describe the genetic difference between sister and non-sister chromatids.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
[Total 3 marks]
91
51.
A student carried out a genetic investigation with fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster.
Two characteristics were observed, body colour and wing shape. The student had the
following information:
the characteristics were controlled by separate genes carried on separate

chromosomes
grey body colour was dominant to black body colour
normal wing shape was dominant to bent wing shape.
The student carried out a cross between a fly heterozygous for both grey body colour
and normal wing shape and a fly with a black body and bent wing. The numbers and
phenotypes of the offspring were as follows:
grey body and normal wing
83
black body and normal wing
85
grey body and bent wing
78
black body and bent wing
74
92
(i)
Complete the genetic diagram to explain this cross. Use the following symbols to
represent the alleles:
A = grey body colour, a = black body colour
B = normal wing shape, b = bent wing shape
Parental phenotypes: grey body / normal wing x black body / bent wing
Parental genotypes: .....................................
..........................................
Gametes: .....................................................
..........................................
Offspring genotypes: .......................................................................................

Offspring phenotypes: .....................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Phenotypic ratio: .............................................................................................
[5]
The student concluded that the results showed that independent assortment had
taken place.
2
To determine whether this conclusion is justified a chi-squared test ( ) can be

carried out on the experimental data.
(ii)
Complete the table below by calculating the expected numbers.

offspring
grey body / normal wing
black body / normal wing
grey body / bent wing
black body / bent wing
total
observed numbers
83
85
78
74
320
expected numbers
320
[1]
93
(iii)
The value is calculated in the following way:
2 =
( observed expected) 2
expected
where = sum of
Calculate the value for the above data. Show your working.
value = ..........................................................
[2]
(iv)
The critical value of for this type of investigation with three degrees of freedom
is 7.82.
Explain whether your answer to (c) (iii) supports the students conclusion.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
[Total 9 marks]
94
52.
Reproduction in seahorses, Hippocampus, is unusual as it is the male rather than the

female that becomes pregnant. The male has a brood pouch located on its tail. The
larger the male the larger the pouch. The female transfers unfertilised eggs into the
pouch. The larger the female the more eggs are produced that can be transferred to
the brood pouch. The male releases sperm onto the eggs and they are fertilised. The
male carries the developing brood for a period of several weeks until he finally gives
birth.
Research into seahorse populations has revealed the following.
They are monogamous. A male and female remain together for the whole mating
season.
Within a population, mates are selected by size. Large females mate with large
males and small females mate with small males.
Few intermediate sized individuals are produced and they have a low survival
rate.
95
Two different species of seahorse are found in the coastal regions shown in the figure
below. The ranges of these two seahorse species overlap in many areas of these
waters.
U
it e
t a
t e
r i c a
A
O
l f
e x ic o
t la n t i c
c e a n
r ib
e y
H
i p
A
p
c t u
c a
a
s i z e
s
:
e
1
r e H c i t pu p s o
c m A
c t u
c a
s i z e
s
:
z o
2
s t e
c m
The two seahorse silhouettes are not drawn to scale.

A G Jones, Male pregnancy and the formation of seahorse species Institute of Biology, 2004
(a)
(i)
Name the type of speciation that occurs when there is no
geographical barrier to gene flow.
................................................................................................................
[1]
96
r a
(ii)
Explain how the figure above supports the hypothesis that the type of
speciation named in (i) has occurred in seahorses.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[2]
The type of natural selection that can produce the type of speciation that has occurred
in seahorses is known as disruptive selection. This is where the extreme phenotypes
are more likely to survive and reproduce than the intermediate phenotypes.
(b)
Explain how disruptive selection occurs in seahorse populations.

.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[3]
(c)
In terms of reproductive potential, explain why it is beneficial for large females to

mate with large, rather than small, males.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total 8 marks]
97
53.
Cystic fibrosis (CF) in humans is caused by mutations of a gene coding for

transmembrane protein (CFTR) which acts as an ion pump. A large number of different
mutations of the gene have been found. Explain what is meant by a gene mutation.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 2 marks]
54.
CFTR regulates the transport of chloride ions (Cl ) across the plasma (cell surface)
membrane. Tissues that express the normal CFTR allele secrete alkaline fluids,
whereas the secretions of tissues expressing some mutant alleles are acidic.
The transport of Cl by epithelial cells expressing the normal CFTR allele was
compared with that by epithelial cells expressing one of 10 different mutant CFTR
alleles. The results are shown in the table below.
98
In the table, normal digestive functioning of the pancreas associated with a particular
allele is indicated with a tick (
CFTR allele
) and the absence of normal functioning by a cross (
percentage of Cl transported in
comparison with normal allele
normal
).
normal digestive functioning in

pancreas
100
mutation 1
mutation 2
mutation 3
mutation 4
mutation 5
mutation 6
33
mutation 7
41
mutation 8
46
mutation 9
37
mutation 10
44
With reference to the information given in the table, explain why some mutant CFTR
alleles allow normal digestive functioning of the pancreas and others do not.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 3 marks]
99
55.
A product manufactured using microorganisms is single cell protein (SCP).

Describe how a protein would be synthesised in the cell of a single celled fungus.
In your answer, you should make clear the sequence of the steps in the process.
[Total 10 marks]
56.
DNA is found in the nucleus of a cell.
During interphase DNA replicates.
DNA is involved in the transcription stage of protein synthesis.
The following statements, A to H, refer to events that may take place during:
DNA replication only
transcription only
both DNA replication and transcription
neither DNA replication nor transcription.
100
Complete the table by marking the appropriate boxes with a tick ( ) if the event takes
place or a cross ( ) if it does not take place.
DNA replication
A
Nucleotides line up along an exposed

DNA strand.
The whole of the double helix unzips.
Uracil pairs with adenine.
A tRNA triplet pairs with an exposed

codon.
Both DNA polynucleotide chains act

as templates.
Adjacent nucleotides bond, forming a

sugar-phosphate backbone.
The original DNA molecule is

unchanged after the process.
Adenine pairs with thymine.
transcription
[Total 8 marks]
101

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1.

Explain why there are no male tortoiseshell cats.

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The following hypothesis was proposed:

A chi-squared ( ) test is carried out on the experimental data to determine

Complete the table below by calculating the expected numbers.

The statistic is calculated in the following way:

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Complete the genetic diagram to explain this cross.

rough and black coat

rough and white

Offspring genotypes: ...............................................................................................

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An enzyme, such as amylase, has a specific 3-dimensional shape.

(a) Repeating nucleotide sequences are common in the genomes of

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Muscle fibres may become torn and damaged.

higher rate of oxygen consumption.

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increased mRNA concentration;

higher rate of oxygen consumption.

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Suggest how allele B may alter the expression of allele A.

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Draw a genetic diagram of this cross to show:

ratio of phenotypes of offspring .............................................................

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Explain what differences in the phenotypic ratio would be expected if genes

Rats susceptible to warfarin die of internal bleeding.

Heterozygous rats are resistant to warfarin if their diet provides about 10 g of

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State how the allele for warfarin resistance originated.

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Explain how the allele spread through the population.

State why this is an example of natural selection.

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Define the following terms.

Explain why there are no male tortoiseshell cats.

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numbers of seedings developed after 8 days

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Explain the results shown in Table 2.

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All the yellow seedlings died.

Explain these observations.

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Explain how RNA interference affects the expression of a gene.

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Unfortunately, adding complementary RNA to toothpaste has not proved

not exposed to J but fed on celery leaves containing insecticide

exposed to J and fed on celery leaves containing insecticide

The earworms continued to feed on these diets until they pupated.

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relative expression of gene

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cost of producing 1kg

farmers growing non-Bt cotton

farmers growing Bt cotton