MACHINING PROCESSES & METROLOGY

What is Manufacturing / Production?

Latin manu factus, meaning made by hand Converting raw material into useful product Change in shape, size and properties & Assembly

Activities involved
Product design Machinery and tooling Process planning Materials Purchasing Manufacturing Production control Support services Marketing Sales Shipping Customer services

Global competence
COST QUALITY

Manufacturing Costs Direct (Material, Labour, tooling etc.) Indirect (Investment, design, marketing etc.)

Manufacturing Processes Material removal

Turning Shaping Drilling Milling etc.

Casting
Sand Casting Investment Casting die Casting Centrifugal casting

Joining
Welding Soldering etc. etc.

Forming
Rolling Forging Extrusion Drawing etc.

Selection of Manufacturing Process Quality Cost Lot Size Shape Size etc.

MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION

METHODS OF MACHINING

ORTHOGONAL CUTTING
Cutting edge is 90 deg to the direction of movement Tends to curl the chip in the form of a clock spring Disposal of chips is difficult 2D & 2 forces (cutting and feed forces) Less area of contact ; heat developed / unit area is more ; Tool life is less

OBLIQUE CUTTING
Cutting edge is at an angle to the direction of movement No long curly chip 3D & 3 forces (cutting, feed & radial forces) Large area of contact ; heat developed / unit area is small ; Tool life is more

3D FORCE SYSTEM

MERCHANTS CIRCLE

2D FORCE SYSTEM

Px Feed Force Py Thrust Force Pz Cutting or Main Force R Resultant Force

TYPES OF CHIPS

CHIP BREAKERS
Used to break the continuous chips into small pieces

TYPES 1 2 3 Step type Groove type Clamp type

PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF MACHINING 1 Cutting speed

1. CUTTING SPEED
The relative surface speed between tool and job Meters / min Amount of length that will pass the cutting edge of the tool per unit time

Depth of cut

Feed

2. DEPTH OF CUT
- Thickness of the layer of metal removed in one cut - It is always perpendicular to the direction of feed motion - It is expressed in mm SELECTION depends on - Type of cut - Tool life - Power required

SELECTION depends on Work material Cutting tool materials Depth of cut and Feed Desired cutting tool life Rigidity and conditions of machine tool, rigidity of the work

3. FEED
- Relatively small movement per cycle of the cutting tool. - It is expressed in mm/rev or mm/stroke SELECTION depends on Smoothness of the finish required Power available, condition of the machine and its drive Type of cut Tool life

Higher C. Speed : Soft & Ductile W/M, Harder Tool material, Light Finishing cuts, Lower C. Speed : Hard & Strong W/M, Less harder Tool material, Heavy Rough cuts C. Speed increases ; tool life decreases

THERMAL ASPECTS OF MACHINING

The mechanical work done in cutting metal is converted into an equivalent amount of heat The work (W) done depends on Cutting force Fz & the cutting speed v. W = Pz v kgfm / min The amount of heat generated, Q = Pz v / 427 kcal / min The heat generated is distributed between the work piece, chip and tool Only a negligible amount of heat is dissipated to the ambient air

The 3 distinct heat sources are : 1 The shear zone 2 The chip tool interface zone 3 The work tool interface zone

CUTTING FLUIDS Purpose of cutting fluids

1 To cool the tool 4 5 6 7 To improve surface finish To protect the finished surface from corrosion To cause chips break up into small parts To wash the chips away from the tool

- to prevent metallurgical damage

- decrease friction - less power required - tool life increases - good surface finish - high specific heat and high heat conductivity are necessary 2

To cool the work piece

Required Properties of cutting fluids

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) High heat absorption Good lubricating qualities High flash point Stability so as not to oxide in the air Neutral so as not to react chemically odorless Harmless to the skin of the operator Harmless to the bearings Non-corrosive to the work or the machine Transparency Low viscosity Low priced

- to prevent its excessive thermal distortion

3
-

To lubricate and reduce friction

energy or power consumption in

removing metal is reduced. - wear on the cutting tool is reduced - less heat generation - built up edge will be reduced.

Selection of Cutting Fluid depends on

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Type of operation The rate of material removal Material of the work piece Material of the tool Surface finish requirement Cost of cutting fluids

Types of Cutting Fluid

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Water Soluble oils Straight oils Mixed oils Chemical-additive oil Chemical compounds Solid lubricants

Penetration of Cutting fluid

1 WATER - Either plain or containing an alkali, salt or water soluble ; sometimes soaps are used - Water alone is objectionable for its corrosiveness.

2 SOLUBLE OILS - Emulsions composed of around 80% or more water, soap, mineral oil. - soap acts as emulsifying agent - Water increases cooling effect - Oil provides lubrication and freedom from rust - Various proportions will give wide range of cooling and lubrication properties

5 CHEMICAL ADDITIVE OILS 3 STRAIGHT OILS (a) Straight mineral oils, kerosene, low viscosity petroleum fractions or high viscosity mineral oils (b) Straight fixed or fatty oils consisting animal, vegetable, or synthetic equivalent oil - Used in light machining operations 4 MIXED OILS - Combination of straight mineral and straight fatty oil - used in light machining operations, where accuracy and good finish are of prime importance consists mainly of rust inhibitor, such as sodium nitrate, mixed with a high percentage of water used in grinding and where formation of rust to be avoided Straight oil or mixed oil is mixed up with sulphur and chlorine Both are used to increase the lubricating and cooling qualities Sulfurized mineral oils are commonly used for tough, stringy, low carbon steels Chlorinated mineral oils are particularly effective in promoting anti-weld characteristics

6 CHEMICAL COMPOUND

7 SOILD LUBRICANTS Stick waxes and bar soaps are sometimes used as a convenient means of applying lubrication to the cutting tool.

MACHINABILITY
- Ease with which a given material may be worked with a cutting tool
MACHINABILITY INDEX It depends on following
= 1 2 3 4 5 Chemical composition of w/p Microstructure Mechanical properties Physical properties Cutting Conditions Cutting speed of standard steel for 20 minutes tool life Cutting speed of material for 20 minutes tool life

Standard Steel : Carbon 0.13% max. Manganese 0.06 to 1.10% Sulphur 0.08 to 0.3% Machine variables affecting Cutting speed Feed and depth of cut Tool geometry Tool materials Cutting fluid Rigidity Nature of cutting ( continuous or intermittent cutting) Material variables affecting Hardness Tensile properties Micro structure Chemical composition Degree of cold working Strain hardnablity Shape and dimension of work Rigidity of the workpiece

Evaluation Criterion may be considered as 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tool life between grinds Value of cutting force Quality of surface finish Form and size of chip Temperature of cutting Rate of cutting under a standard force Rate of material removal

CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

CHARACTERISTICS Hot hardness Wear resistance Toughness Cost and easiness in Fabrication Must remain harder than the work material at elevated temperatures. Must withstand excessive wear Combination of strength and ductility. Withstand shocks and vibrations and to prevent breakage.

- Within reasonable limits

TYPES OF TOOL MATERIALS 1 2 3 4 Carbon Steels Medium Alloy Steels High Speed Steels (HSS) Stellites 5 6 7 8 Cemented Carbide Ceramics Diamonds Abrasives

1 Carbon Steels
- Carbon- 0.08 to 1.5% - Used in tools operating at low cutting speed (12m/min) - Comparatively cheap, easy to forge and simple to harden Disadvantage - Low heat and wear resistance - Lose their hardness 200-250oC.

2 Medium Alloy Steels

- In addition carbon, up to 5% alloy content consisting of tungsten, molybdenum, chromium and vanadium. - Small addition of one or more of the above improve the performance of the carbon steels - Hot hardness, wear resistance, resistance to distortion during heat treatment. - It shows midway performance position b/w carbon and high speed steels. - Lose their hardness at temperatures from 250-350oC. Types of Tool Steels Type O Tool Steel Type O Tool Steel & Type A Tool Steel

3 High Speed Steels (HSS)

- General purpose metal for low and medium cutting speeds - It is having superior hot hardness and resistance to wear. - Operate at cutting speed 2 to 3 times higher than for carbon -steels. - Retain their hardness up to about 900oC - It is used in drilling, tapping, hobbing, milling, turning etc. - Tungsten in HSS provides hot hardness and form stability - Molybdenum or vanadium maintains keenness of cutting edge, while addition of cobalt improves hot hardness and makes the cutting tool more wear resistant. General types of HSS

- Oil quenched for hardnening - C- 0.90% ; Mn- 1% ; W- 0.5% ; Cr- 0.5% - Punching dies are generally manufactured from this steel. Type A tool Steel - Heated upto 1100oC- 1300oC and then slow cooling in air - C- 1.0% ; Cr- 5% - Used to manufacture thread rolling dies, coining dies and gauges.

1. 18 4 1 HSS (T Series) 2. Molybdenum HSS (M Series) 3. Cobalt HSS

1. 18 4 1 HSS (T Series) - 18% Tungsten ; 4% chromium ; 1% Vanadium - It is one of the best all purpose tool steels - Addition of vanadium (small amount) will give better result in heavy duty work.

4 Stellites
- Stellite is the trade name of a non ferrous cast alloy composed of cobalt, chromium and tungsten. - 40-48%-cobalt: 30-35%- chromium: 12-19% tungsten. - In addition one or more carbide forming elements , carbon is added in amount of 1.8 to 2.5% - Can not be forged to shape. But, deposited directly on the tool shank in an oxy acetylene flame. - Alternatively, small tips of cast stellite can be brazed Preserve hardness up to 1000C - Can be operated at cutting speeds 2 times higher than HSS - Very brittle, used for non metal cutting, - Used where wear and abrasion are the problem.

2. Molybdenum HSS (M Series) - 6% Molybdenum ; 6% Tungsten ; 4% chromium ; 2% Vanadium - Excellent toughness and cutting ability

3. Cobalt HSS - This is sometimes called as super h.s.s - Cobalt is added from 2 to 15% to increase hot hardness and wear resistance

5 Cemented Carbide
- These are composed of carbon mixed with other elements. - Tungsten carbide is most used one and it is very hard. - Cemented carbides are having very high heat and wear resistance. - Maintain its hardness upto 1200 c.

Ceramics

7
-

Diamond

- Latest development in metal cutting - Aluminium oxide generally referred as ceramics - Cold pressing- aluminium oxide powder compressed (280 kg/cm2) then sintered at 2200oC - Silicon carbide, Boron carbide, Titanium carbide and Titanium boride can also be used - Made in the form of tips - Low heat conductivity - High compressive strength - Brittle - Low bending strength - Withstand temperatures up to 1200oC - Used at cutting speed 4 times that of cemented carbide 40 times of h.s.s tools - Chiefly used for single point cutting tools in semi finish and finishing turning of cast iron, plastics - Can not be used in interrupted cuts and in removing heavy chips - 5 to 8 negative rake for carbon steel and zero rake for non metallic materials (due to high compressive strength and brittleness) - Ceramic with metal bond known as CERMETS

Hardest material Cutting speed- 50 times greater than h.s.s Temperature up to 1650oC Incompressible Large grain structure Low co efficient of friction Used for machining hard materials like glass, ceramics and abrasive materials - Used for producing fine finishes - Maximum depth of cut is 0.125, 0.05mm

Abrasives

- Bonded into wheels and stone - Embedded in papers and cloths - Used for grinding harder materials Two kinds of abrasives Aluminium oxide- grinding all high tensile materials Slicon carbide - low tensile materials and non ferrous metals

Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)

- Consisting atoms of boron and nitrogen - Traded in the name of BOROZON - Hardest tool material available next to diamond - High hardness / thermal conductivity / tensile strength. - Thin layer (0.5mm) of CBN is applied on cemented carbide tools to obtain better machining performance

TOOL LIFE
- Tool life is the is time a tool will operate satisfactorily until it is dulled - If a cutting is to have a long life it is essential that the face of the tool be smooth as possible. - Blunt tool causes a) chatter b) poor surface finish c) over heating of the tool.

TOOL FAILURE
Wear on the flank of the tool Wear at the tool chip interface Combination of flank wear and cratering Crumbling of the cutting edge Loss of hardness Fracture by a process of mechanical breakage

WEAR AT THE TOOL CHIP INTERFACE

- It occurs in the form of crater - Caused by the chip as it slides up the face of the cutting tool - Limited amount of crater will improve cutting action - Sometimes the material which supports the cutting edge is removed CRUMBLING OF THE CUTTING EDGE Occurs when cutting extremely hard materials Improper relief angles Be weak because of excessive clearance angles If the cutting edge are not supported ,they will be subject to cracking - Other factors are - excessive chip - intermittent heating and cooling - interrupted cutting

WEAR ON THE FLNAK

It is a flat portion worn behind the cutting edge. It eliminates some clearance and relief The worn region at the flank is called wear land If wear land increases, the temperatures of the tool at its cutting point will increase - Hardness will be reduced - Poor surface finish on the work piece due to burnishing action of the tool

FACTORS AFFECTING THE TOOL LIFE

- Cutting speed - Feed - Depth of cut - Chip thickness - Tool geometry - Material -Rigidity of the machine Cutting speed - As the cutting speed increases the temperature also rises - hardness of the tool will get change

MEASURING TOOL LIFE

- Number of pieces machined between tool sharpening - Time of actual operation - Equivalent cutting speed - Volume of material removed between tool sharpening

TAYLORS TOOL LIFE EQUATION

Where,

n VT = C

V = cutting speed in m per min T = tool life in minutes C = constant which is numerically equal to cutting speed that gives a tool life of one minute N = exponent which depends on the tool and w/p