Dissertation
Dissertation
Dissertation
by
A dissertation submitted in part consideration of the degree of Beng (Honours) in Civil Engineering Part II: Module H23A13
ABSTRACT The method used to consolidate using surcharge with prefabricated vertical drain is widely used as it is cost-effective. The calculation involved to measure the variation of degree of consolidation for change in parameters is time-consuming if it is done manually. Thus, the importance of spread sheet is magnified. A spread sheet developed as a requirement of this paper has shown the importance of it. The sole intention of the development of the spread sheet is for computation of consolidation process of a project with varying parameters to recognize the most efficient factor that influences the degree of consolidation. Furthermore in this paper, inference of parametric study from numerical analysis has shown variation of parameters influence the consolidation process.
LIST OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................I LIST OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. II LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................IV LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... VII CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ........................................................................... 1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 2 ORGANISATION OF THE REPORT ....................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 SOFT CLAY ............................................................................................................... 3 CONSOLIDATION .................................................................................................... 3 GROUND IMPROVEMENT ..................................................................................... 5 PRE-FABRICATED VERTICAL DRAIN ................................................................. 6 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6 Consolidation with vertical drains ....................................................................... 6 Equal vertical strain ............................................................................................. 7 Drain Properties (dw,qw) ..................................................................................... 10 The Influence Zone of the drain (De) ................................................................. 11 Factors affecting the drain efficiency ................................................................ 12 Soil Properties .................................................................................................... 17 Rate of Consolidation ........................................................................................ 17
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...................................................................... 19 3.1 3.2 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 19 DEVELOPMENT OF SPREADSHEET .................................................................. 21 Information ........................................................................................................ 21
3.2.1
II
Design average degree of consolidation ............................................................ 22 Property of embankment fill and subsoil ........................................................... 22 Property of vertical drain (manufacture properties)........................................... 25 Mandrel size, smear effect & plain strain permeability ..................................... 26 Design analysis .................................................................................................. 27
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................ 32 4.1 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING HORIZONTAL
CONSOLIDATION ............................................................................................................. 32 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 Influence of spacing factor, smear effect and well resistance ........................... 33 Influence of grid pattern..................................................................................... 36 Influence of time ................................................................................................ 37 Influence of drain spacing .................................................................................. 40 Influence of Ch (coefficient of horizontal consolidation)................................... 41
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................ 45 LIST OF REFERENCE ........................................................................................................... 46 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................... 47 APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 49
III
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1: Cell description of section C .................................................................................. 23 Table 3-2: Cell description of section E .................................................................................. 26 Table 3-3: Cell description of section F ................................................................................... 28 Table 4-1: Parameters and values used for computation ......................................................... 33
IV
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1: Variation of stress and pore pressure at a typical point under a footing ................. 4 Figure 2-2: Process of consolidation.......................................................................................... 4 Figure 2-3: Assumption of soil cylinder under ideal conditions (Holtz et al., 1991) ................ 7 Figure 2-4: Schematic of PVD with Drain Resistance and Soil Disturbance (Rixner et al. 1986) ........................................................................................................................................ 10 Figure 2-5: A typical cross-section of a band-shaped drain (Holtz et al., 1991) ..................... 11 Figure 2-6: Relationship of drain influence zone (D) to drain spacing (S) (Bergado et al. 1986) ........................................................................................................................................ 12 Figure 2-7: Example of variation of Degree of Consolidation with depth for drains with well resistance (Jamiolkowski et al. 1983) ...................................................................................... 14 Figure 2-8: Approximation of Disturbed Zone around the mandrel (source: Bergado et al. 1996) ........................................................................................................................................ 16 Figure 2-8: Radial, vertical and combined drain (Rixner et al.) .............................................. 18 Figure 3-1: Research methodology flow chart......................................................................... 20 Figure 3-2: Information section ............................................................................................... 21 Figure 3-3: Screen shot of section B ........................................................................................ 22 Figure 3-4: Screen shot of section C ........................................................................................ 22 Figure 3-5: Drainage path drop down list ................................................................................ 23 Figure 3-6: Message prompt for invalid data input ................................................................. 24 Figure 3-7: Screen shot of section D........................................................................................ 25 Figure 3-8: Screen shot of section E ........................................................................................ 26 Figure 3-9: Screen shot of design analysis section .................................................................. 27 Figure 3-9a: Screen shot of design analysis part A.................................................................. 27 Figure 3-9a-1: Screen shot of the drop down list of influencing factor ................................... 28 Figure 3-9a-2: Drop down for choosing the grid pattern factor............................................... 29 Figure 3-9a-3:Screen shot of the message prompted due to invalid data input ....................... 29 Figure 3-9a-4: Array Table ...................................................................................................... 30 Figure 3-9b: Screen shot of design analysis part B.................................................................. 30 Figure 3-9b-1: Screen shot indicating whether the target is reached or not ............................ 31 Figure 4-1: Degree of consolidation against time with change of smear and well resistance . 35 Figure 4-2: Degree of consolidation against time with change of grid pattern ....................... 36
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Figure 4-3a: Degree of consolidation against spacing with varying time for Ch=1m2/yr ........ 38 Figure 4-3b: Degree of consolidation against spacing with varying time for Ch=5m2/yr ....... 38 Figure 4-3c: Degree of consolidation against spacing with varying time for Ch=10m2/yr ...... 39 Figure 4-3d: Degree of consolidation against spacing with varying time for Ch=20m2/yr ..... 39 Figure 4-4: Degree of consolidation against time with varying drain spacing ........................ 41 Figure 4-5a: Degree of consolidation against time with varying coefficient of horizontal consolidation and drain spacing of 1.0m ................................................................................. 42 Figure 4-5b: Degree of consolidation against time with varying coefficient of horizontal consolidation and drain spacing of 1.5m ................................................................................. 43 Figure 4-5c: Degree of consolidation against time with varying coefficient of horizontal consolidation and drain spacing of 1.5m ................................................................................. 44
VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost I would like thank my Lord for granting me the strength and ability to finish my project. After that, I thank my parents, whose prayer and blessings has made it possible for me to take up this project and finish it easily. After that special thanks to Mr. Chan Swee Huat for his constant and selfless support throughout without which, I would never have been able to attain the goals needed to finish it smoothly.
VII
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Construction in soft clay ground can cause damage to the structure that stands on it, due to low bearing capacity and high compressibility properties of soft clay. It is, therefore, needed to treat the soft soil prior to placing of the final structure. There are so many soil improvement techniques available today to treat the soil. Soil improvement should lead to high bearing capacity and a decrease in compressibility and permeability. The soil property must be changed to withstand the predicted vertical stress that would be imposed by the final structure. Most widely used soil improvement technique is preloading the soft clay along with prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) due to its cost effective factor. Preloading applied to the surface of the soil is usually equal to or greater than the expected structural load. Preloading alone is not sufficient as it will take longer consolidation time thus it is not feasible, therefore, providing an artificial drainage path by introducing vertical drain will shorten the time taken for primary consolidation. Mandrel is installed as to make space for the installation of the PVD causes soil disturbance around the PVD which is known as smear zone. Horizontal permeability in the smear zone is lower than earlier. When discharge of water through the vertical drain reaches the maximum, the drains exhibit a resistance to the flow of water into the drain which is known as well resistance. Smear effect and well resistance reduce the rate of consolidation considerably. Presently, the most widely used method to analyse the consolidation process is the 1D unit cell theory (Barron, 1948 and Hansbo, 1981) as it involves less complication. Hansbo(1981) improved equal strain theory developed by Barron(1948) by taking into consideration the smear effect and the well resistance.
The objectives of the study are outlined in the following: 1. To develop a spread sheet which can be used to record the parameters obtained and calculate the degree of consolidation.
2. To do a parametric study on how variation of teh parameters like factors affecting the efficiency of the consolidation, drain spacing, drain placing pattern and change in horizontal consolidation coefficient influence the rate of consolidation. Furthermore, how time influence the degree of consolidation versus spacing.
1.3
The chapter 2 of this study deals with the reason why the soft clay needs to be improved prior to construction of a structure. Furthermore, it explains what consolidation and ground improvement is. Then, describes the vertical drain technique used and the properties they possess, and how these influence the rate of consolidation. Chapter 3 focuses on development of the spread sheet by briefly explaining the functions that were used with accordance to the information gathered in chapter 2. The results and analysis on factors influencing the consolidation process, such as variation of drain spacing, time, smear effect etc. are presented in chapter 4 along with graphs obtained through the spread sheet. Chapter 5 is the conclusion of the numerical analysis.
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 SOFT CLAY Soft grounds behave dynamically instable due to high compressibility and low bearing capacity, as embankments or digging works are executed in the grounds, ground subsidence and destruction occur. Due to the low permeability of the soft clay the primary consolidation takes a longer time, therefore, the ground needs to be improved. By improving the ground, the rate of drainage can be increased.
2.2 CONSOLIDATION The pore water and the skeletal soil material are relatively incompressible, and only changes in the volume of the voids will change the volume of the soil. For the volume of the voids to change pore water must flow into or out of a soil element. The change in the volume cannot take place immediately because the pore water will not flow instantaneously when the load is first applied to a soil. The excess pore pressure is equal to the change in vertical stress for one dimensional condition. Generally both lateral and vertical strains can occur. There will be no change in the volume of the soil immediately after the application of load, but the soil deformation will result in an initial settlement. This is said to occur under undrained conditions because no pore water has been able to drain from the soil. With time the excess pore pressure generated during the undrained loading will reach its long term or drain value. Consolidation is the process by which soils decrease in volume is called consolidation and it is graphically in the diagram in figure 2-1 (P. Boeraeve, 2008)
Figure 2-1: Variation of stress and pore pressure at a typical point under a footing
The consolidation process is often explained by a piston and spring analogy. The system used for analogy consists of a spring, container, cover with a hole and water. In the system, the spring represents the soil and the water represents the pore water in the soil. The following schematic figure 2 is used to explain consolidation.
1. The container is filled with water and the hole is closed (Fully saturated soil). 2. The piston is loaded while the hole is still closed and the water takes the load (development of excessive pore water pressure) 3. The cap is opened and water starts to drain out through the hole and spring compresses. ( drainage of excessive pore water) 4. After some time, the drainage of water no longer occurs. Now, the spring alone resists the applied load. (Full dissipation of excessive pore water pressure. End of consolidation) To summarize according to Karl Terzaghi consolidation is any process which involves decrease in water content of a saturated soil without replacement of water by air.
2.3 GROUND IMPROVEMENT Ground improvement is preparing the soil to bear the structural load which is to be built on it. The process of ground improvement is to increase the shear strength, reduce the soil compressibility and reduce the soil permeability. The ground improvement method can be classified in two categories (a) the method involving compaction and dewatering of the soil and (b) method involving utilization of various reinforcement and use of the chemical admixtures. Ground improvement methods have proven to provide shorter construction time, reduced construction cost, soil strength improvement, other characteristics that may have an impact on their utilization to specific projects and reduction of differential and total settlements (Bergardo et al. 1996). Consolidation settlement creates a lot of problem in foundation and infrastructure engineering. The soft clay takes a longer time to consolidate due to its low permeability. To shorten the time taken for settlement the ground can be improved by installing vertical drain together with surcharge embankment (Bergardo et al. 1996).
The process of consolidation of soft clay takes a long time to complete due to the low permeability that soft clay possesses. To shorten the time taken for consolidation vertical drains are installed along with preloading by means of an embankment. Vertical drains are artificial drainage path created to shorten the drainage path in soft clay subsoil (T.Stapelfeldt, 2006). Early vertical drains used for consolidation process utilized sand drains (Bergardo et al. 1996), they are basically boreholes filled with course granular soil (T.Stapelfeldt, 2006; Fox, Nicola and Donald, 2003). The sand drain was completely replaced by prefabricated drains due to the fact that it is cost effective, the dimensions of the prefabricated drains are smaller than that of sand drain and the soil disturbance caused during the installation of mandrel of prefabricated drain is lower compared to that of sand drains. The higher horizontal permeability of the clay contributes to the shorter consolidation process along with the vertical drain. The hydraulic gradient created by the preloading causes pore water to be squeezed out during consolidation and water to flow to the vertical drain horizontally and carried through the vertical drain to the permeable layer. The drainage path is reduced by the installation of vertical drain and, thereby, reducing the time taken for the completion of the consolidation process (Bergardo et al. 1996). 2.4.2 Consolidation with vertical drains Chamari (2004) claims radial consolidation was developed from the premise of onedimensional consolidation theory of Terzaghi (1925). Barron (1948) presented a solution to the problem of radial consolidation of the sand drain containing a central sand drain (Chamari, 2004 and Bergardo et al. 1996). He carried a study on two extreme cases: (a) free strain assuming that the vertical stress acting over the circular zone of influence of every vertical drain is uniform and during the consolidation process the surface displacement of the zones are non-uniform and (b) equal vertical strain assumes non uniform vertical stress and the horizontal section remains unchanged throughout the project (Chamari, 2004; Bergardo et al. 1996 and Fox, Nicola and Donald, 2003). The study of two cases showed that they give similar average consolidation (Gopalan 2010). Due to less complexity mathematical equation
the equal vertical strain assumed by Barron is widely used method in vertical drain design (Chen, 2004 and Gopalan, 2010).
Barrons solution for horizontal consolidation using an axisymmetric unit cell model (see Figure 2-3) under ideal condition is based on following assumptions: All vertical loads are initially carried by excess pore water pressure hence the soil is saturated. The applied load is assumed to be uniformly distributed and all strains occur in vertical direction. The zone of influence of the drain is assumed to be circular and axisymmetric. The permeability of the drain is infinite in comparison with that of the soil. Darcys law is valid.
Figure 2-3: Assumption of soil cylinder under ideal conditions (Holtz et al., 1991)
The differential equation governing the consolidation for radial flow only is given by:
[(
)]
(2.1)
where, u r t
= average excess pore pressure at any point and at any given time, = the radial distance of the considered point from the center of the drained soil cylinder, = time after an instantaneous increase of the total vertical stress, and = horizontal coefficient of consolidation
Under ideal conditions where there are no smear effect and well resistance, the average degree of consolidation solution are as follows: [ where: ]
(2.2)
(2.3)
and [ ][ ] (2.4)
and where, De = diameter of the equivalent soil cylinder, dw = equivalent diameter of the drain, and n
The equation developed by Barron (1948) for prefabricated drain applications was modified by Hansbo (1979). The modification of the equation dealt with simplification of the assumptions due to the characteristics of the prefabricated vertical drain, physical dimensions and effect of PVD installation. Therefore Hansbos equation includes drain resistance and smear effect and expressed as follows: [ ] (2.5)
and (2.6)
where F is an additive of spacing of the drains, smear effect and well resistance which is expressed as F(n), Fs and Fr respectively. If spacing ratio is 20 or more the spacing factor reduces to: ( )
(2.7)
Smear effect, Fs and Well Resistance, Fr will be explained in detail in the following sub categories and the (figure 2-4) below is a schematic diagram of PVD with Drain Resistance and Soil Disturbance. The time, t, taken to obtain a given degree of consolidation with the inclusion of the effects of smear and well resistance is derived from the equations 2.3, 2.5 and 2.6 and expressed as follows:
(2.8)
Figure 2-4: Schematic of PVD with Drain Resistance and Soil Disturbance (Rixner et al. 1986)
The theory of consolidation with vertical drain assumes that the vertical drain has a circular cross section through which the soil is drained. The equivalent diameter of a vertical drain is converted to the diameter of a circular drain which means that the diameter would have the same theoretical radial drainage as the band shaped drain. Thus Hansbo (1987) supported the subsequent finite element study performed by Rixner, Kraemer and Smith (1986) and suggested that the equivalent diameter could be obtained through the following expression and appropriate for design use: for (2.9)
where, a b
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The discharge capacity, qw, is an important property as it will decide the efficiency of the drain and higher the discharge capacity quicker the water expelled out of the soil. Discharge capacity of prefabricated drain is required to analyse the drain resistance. Accurate discharge capacity measurement could be time consuming and requires sophisticated laboratory testing. Due to the fact that the influence of well resistance is less significant relative to the spacing effect and the smear effect, a precise laboratory testing would be wastage of money. Therefore discharge capacity value is usually obtained from published results documented by the manufacturers (Rixner et al, 1986).
The vertical drains are commonly installed in triangular or square pattern (Figure 25). The drain influence zone, De, is controllable as t is a function of drain spacing and pattern. The influence zone function is given as; for square pattern and for triangular pattern and (2.10a) (2.10b)
The square pattern is more convenient to install in the field compared to the triangular drain and square pattern is usually preferred. However triangular pattern provides more uniform consolidation (Bergado et al., 1986, Rixner et al.,1986 and Stapelfeldt, 2006) and
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more efficient compared to square drain but would need more drains in an area than square pattern.
Figure 2-6: Relationship of drain influence zone (D) to drain spacing (S) (Bergado et al. 1986)
Due to limited discharge capacity of the prefabricated vertical drains, Hansbo (1979) introduced a drain resistance factor, Fr, assuming for flow along the vertical axis of the drain that Darcys law can be applied. The well resistance factor is as follows: (2.11)
where, z L kh
= distance from the drainage end of the drain = twice the length of the drain when drainage occurs at one end only and equal to the length of the drain when drainage occurs at both end = coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction in the undisturbed soil
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The filter permeability and the discharge capacity are the important and relevant features for the performance and design for the vertical drain. The discharge capacity of the vertical drain varies significantly depending on the kind of the drain and decreases with the increasing lateral pressure. The calculation of degree of consolidation is affected by the introduction of the well resistance which is the degree of consolidation is not constant with depth as shown in the figure 2-5(Bergado et al. 1996). Rixner et al. (1986) stated to obtain an average degree of consolidation for the entire layer, an average of Fr is included to the equation 2.8. Averaging the Fr results in the following equations:
For one way drainage; (2.11a) For two way drainage; (2.11b)
Well resistance may play a very important role when pre fabricated vertical drains of great lengths are used with typical values of qw/kh less than 500m2 where the time necessary to achieve a specific degree of consolidation is increased (Jamiolkowski et al. 1983). The influence of well resistance on the consolidation rate increases as the drain length increases. For a typical band shaped drain qw/kh is equal to 400 m2 (Bergado et al. 1996).
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Figure 2-7: Example of variation of Degree of Consolidation with depth for drains with well resistance (Jamiolkowski et al. 1983)
The mandrel, used for protection of the vertical drain and creating space for the vertical drain by displacing the soil during installation of the vertical drain, is penetrated into the subsoil either by static force or vibratory force. The installation of the mandrel causes the soil to displace and shear in the area around the drain. The shearing of the soil is accompanied by increase in pore pressure and total stress. Thus a zone of smear will be formed with increased compressibility and reduced permeability around the drain. The permeability and the compressibility in the smear zone are different from that of the undisturbed zone thus it is crucial to take into account when considering the behavior of the soil stabilized with drain (Bergado et al, 1996 and Gopalan, 2010). The smear zone, ds, as indicated in the figure 2-4, also known as zone of soil disturbance, is dependent on the dimensions of the mandrel. Therefore the cross sectional dimension of the mandrel should be minimized but at the same time an adequate stiffness of mandrel is required (Bergado et al, 1996). Bergado et al. (1996) conducted a study on how the size of the mandrel could affect the settlement period, he installed small mandrels in one half of the site and a large mandrel in the other half. The results obtained from the study indicated faster settlement rate and higher compressibility in the region where the small
14
mandrel was installed. That confirmed that a smaller smear zone was developed in the area of the smaller mandrel (Gopalan, 2010). Therefore the smear effect is always an important factor that needs to be considered in the process of the installation of the PVD, the smear effect factor in the equation (2.5) is expressed as follows: [( ) ] [ ] (2.12)
where, ds ks
= diameter of the disturbed zone around the drain = coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction in the disturbed zone
For design purposes, Jamiolkowski et al. (1981) evaluated that the diameter of the disturbed zone around the drain, ds, can be correlated to the mandrels cross sectional dimension as follows;
(2.13)
where, dm = diameter of a circle with an area equal to the cross-sectional area of the mandrel
15
Figure 2-8: Approximation of Disturbed Zone around the mandrel (source: Bergado et al. 1996)
The following expression was recommended by Hansbo (1987) based on the results of Holtz and Holms (1973) and Akagi (1979): (2.14)
Thus Hansbo (1981) reported that with increasing diameter of the drain for sand drain or diameter of the mandrel increases the influence of smear (Bergado et al., 1996). The coefficient of the horizontal permeability, kh, reduces towards the drain but there is no change in the coefficient of vertical permeability, kv. Hansbo (1987) claimed for design purpose the coefficient of permeability of smear zone, ks, is equal to kv (Gopalan, 2010). Bergado et al. concluded after the test performed on the soft Bangkok clay that to unity (Bergado et al., 1996 and Indraratna et al., 2003)
16
can be approximated
The coefficient of consolidation for horizontal drainage could be evaluated through the variable, coefficient of vertical consolidation, and expressed as; [ ] (2.15)
The ratio of kh/kv can be evaluated by back-analysis. A rough approximation of the insitu anistropy of the permeability of clays (kh/kv) can be made on the basis of the data given by Jamiolkowski et al. (1983) as tabulated in the Table 2-1. Jamiolkowski et al. (1985) reviewed that the Ch and kh can also be evaluated through the pore pressure dissipation curve analysis and in-situ piezometer probes. The following relationship can be used to calculate Ch if laboratory mv is obtained and kh determined by self-boring permeameters (Jamiolkowski et al., 1983). (2.16)
where,
2.4.8 Rate of Consolidation According to (Bergado et al. 1996) the principle objective of soil precompression using the vertical drain is to achieve the desired degree of consolidation in a specific period of time. In practice the degree of consolidation due to horizontal and vertical flow are combined to formulate the overall degree of consolidation, U. The combined effect is given by Carillo (1942) as:
17
(2.17)
where, U
Uh = average degree of consolidation due to horizontal drainage and Uv = average degree of consolidation due to vertical drainage. A comparison between the radial, vertical and combined drainage for one dimensional consolidation is shown in the figure below (figure 2- ) Rixner et al.1986.
Figure 2-9: Radial, vertical and combined drain (Rixner et al. 1986)
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This study consists of three levels as follows; LEVEL 1: writing a comprehensive literature review on soft clay improvement using prefabricated vertical drain. The literatures are obtained through reading of articles, journals, books and internet. LEVEL 2: gathering of all the required information to develop the spread sheet and development of the spread sheet for equal vertical strain will be initiated. LEVEL 3: this level satisfies the purpose of this study. The numerical analysis will be made on how variable parameters affect the degree of consolidation,
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Data entering
Inference
Conclusion
Submission
20
The development of the spread sheet is based on the literature of Hansbos equal vertical strain. The spread sheet consists of diagrams, formulas of the equations, explanation of some functions and moreover it is user friendly. The screenshot of the spread sheet is in the APPENDIX. The spread sheet contains a schematic diagram of PVD with the smear and the drain resistance, the sheet is divided into 6 tables and it is categorized in manner that identical information in respective tables with a suitable title for the table. It is categorized as follows: A. Information B. Design average degree of consolidation C. Property of embankment fill and subsoil D. Property of vertical drain (manufacture properties) E. Mandrel size , smear effect & plain strain permeability F. Design analysis
3.2.1 Information
This segment of the spread sheet contains space for the user to input the extra information that would be beneficial for future reference like the place where the examination is done. The right side of the figure 3-2 shows two double red line for the user to input.
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Cell C15 and D15 are not locked as data needs to be input. Equation 2.17 is used to calculate the Target Degree of consolidation by Vertical Drains. The formula in D14 is; =(1-((1-C15)/(1-D15))) On the right hand side the description for the notation used in cell C14 to E15 are given for convenience.
This section of the spread sheet contains a table with the details of the embankment and subsoil (figure 3-4). The description of each cell is tabulated in the table 3-1.
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Table 3-1: Cell description of section C Cell C21 D21 E21 F21 G21 H21 I21 J21 K21 L21 Description Thickness of the subsoil Unit weight of the subsoil Drainage path (either one-way or two-way) Coefficient of horizontal permeability Coefficient of vertical permeability Coefficient of vertical consolidation Co efficient of horizontal consolidation Embankment fill height in metres Unit weight of embankment Effective horizontal stress
The cell C22 is the measurement of the subsoil thickness in metres must be input. Cell D22 is the value of the unit weight in kN/m3. The drainage path should be selected from the cell E22. The drainage path is either one way or two ways therefore data validation is used and the validation criteria is list and source is 1,2, this makes it convenient for the user as no other value could be entered except 1 or 2 and its a drop down list where the user is able to select a number (figure 3-5). Number 1 is for one-way drainage and 2 for two way drainage.
If any other value is entered deliberately or accidently a customized error message will be prompted (Figure 3-6) ignoring this message will not allow the user to proceed.
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The value in m/yr for coefficient of horizontal permeability and vertical permeability of the subsoil must be input in cell F22 and G22 respectively. The coefficient of vertical consolidation in m2/yr must be input in cell H22 and subsequently the cell I22 will produce the value for coefficient of horizontal consolidation in m2/yr since cell I22 is a function of cell F22, G22 and I22. Coefficient of horizontal consolidation is back calculated thus the formula is entered as follows; =(F22/G22)*H22 The embankment fill height input in the information section is directly obtained to the cell J22 through the simple formula; =L8 Reason the information repeated again is to make the spread sheet more user friendly by including the information in respective table as well though it was included earlier due to the importance. Cell K22 is input value for unit weight of the fill height in metres. The maximum horizontal effective stress in cell L22 is produced afterwards, the formula input in the cell L22 is; =1*(C22*(D22-9.81) +K22*J22) This equation is written at the bottom of the table for the purpose of reference.
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This section of the spread sheet contains a table with information of vertical drain properties.
The length (cell D29) and width (cell E29) of the drain varies from one vertical drain to another therfore the cell D30 and E30 are not locked and data must be input. The cell F30 is locked as it contains a formula to calculate equivalent diameter of the drain; =(D30+E30)/2 Cell G30 is the value for discharge capacity which must be input by the user as such it is not locked. Cell I30 is also not locked as it is an input data cell, if the user wants the true value of qw/kh, it can be obtained from cell K30. The formula used for K30 is: =G30/F22
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Table 3-2: Cell description of section E Cell C37 D37 E37 Description Width of the mandrel Length of the mandrel Diameter of a circle with an area equal to the cross sectional area of mandrel F37 G37 H37 I37 Disturbed zone diameter Ratio Coefficient of horizontal permeability in the smear zone Ratio
The length and the width in millimetres of the mandrel is a variable not a constant therefore the cell C38, D38 and H38 (figure 3-8) are not locked for the user to input data. The value of dm in cell E38 is derived from the width and the length of the mandrel and the formula used to determine is as follows; =SQRT((4*C38*D38)/PI()) and formula of ds in cell F38 is; =2*E38
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Cell G8 and I8 is also obtained using a formula; =F38/F30 and =F22/H38 respectively.
Due to the fact that the figure 3-9 is long and too small to see, the table will be divided into two figure 3-9a and 3-9b.
Table 3-3: Cell description of section F Cell C44 C46 D46 E46 F46 G46 H46 Description The factors that will be included in the calculation Grid pattern (either square or triangular Drain spacing Drain influence zone Spacing ratio Drain length Time
The cell F44 is a drop down (figure 3-9a-1) list created through validation data for consideration of smear effect and well resistance. Following figure shows the drop down list with three conditions; spacing effect only, spacing and smear effect only and spacing, smear and well resistance. This is convenient to use if the user wants to make comparison how these factors affect the degree of consolidation.
Figure 3-9a-1: Screen shot of the drop down list of influencing factor The cells under the cell F44 also contains a drop down list to select the grid pattern, the list is 1 and 2, 1 is for triangular grid and 2 is for square grid. Figure 3-9a-2 and figure 3-9a-3 shows the drop down list and the error message prompted due to invalid input data;
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Figure 3-9a-3: screen shot of the message prompted due to invalid data input
The drain spacing is a variable function and therefore it must be input by the user in the cells below the cells in range D47:D52. Subsequently drain influence zone will be calculated in the cells in range E47:E52 as De is equal to product of spacing and constant specific to the grid pattern. Constant of triangular grid and square grid is 1.05 and 1.128 respectively. The cells in range E47:E52 contains VLOOKUP formula to calculate the influence zone. VLOOKUP formula in cell E47 is shown below. =VLOOKUP(C47,Q$45:R$46,2,)*D47 The lookup value reside in the column C, the array table (figure 3-9a-4) is in cell Q45:R46 where lookup value will be searched and range is locked by including a dollar symbol, the column number 2 is searched in the array and then multiplied by value in Cell D47. The equation is dragged down to obtain the values for the cells below.
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Cell F47 is the ratio and the formula entered is; =E47/$F$30*1000
Cell F47:F52 contains the value of the drain length which must be input and the cell is not locked and same with the cells in range G47:G52 which contains the time period of the consolidation process. Cell I47 and J47 (figure 3-9b) contains the following formula =LN(F47)-0.75 and =($I$38-1)*LN($G$38) respectively. To obtain the values for the cells below drag the cell I47 and J47 down.
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Cells in range K47:K52 contains the value of the well resistance and following formula is entered in the cell K47 drag down to obtain the values of other cells. =IF($E$22=2,(PI()*POWER(G47,2)/($I$30*6)),IF($E$22=1,(2*PI()*POWER(G47,2 ))/(3*$I$30),0)) IF function is used as the equation of well resistance is different for 1-way drainage from 2-way drainage. Equation states, if drainage path ($E$22) is equal to 2 then use equation 2.11a, if not use equation 2.11b. Cell L47 is sum of cell I47:K47. Cell M47 contains the following formula. =($I$22*H47/12)/(POWER(E47,2)) As cell H47 is in months, cell H47 is divided by 12 to make it into years and following formula is stated in the cell N47 =1-EXP(-8*M47/L47) Finally cell O47 will check whether the result obtained in cell N47 is greater than or equal to the target degree of consolidation by vertical drains ( cell E15) if it true it will display OK if it is not true nothing will be displayed indicating target is not reached (figure 3-9b-1). Following is formula stated in cell O47 =IF(N47>=$E$15,"OK",""),
Figure 3-9b-1: Screen shot indicating whether the target is reached or not
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CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING HORIZONTAL CONSOLIDATION
In this chapter, the results of how the changes in variable parameters influence the rate of consolidation are presented. The numerical analysis will be done through the spread sheet that was developed as part of the project, to enumerate the rate of consolidation with the change of the parameters that affect the consolidation process. The study will be divided into 5 cases and analyzed how the variables influence the degree of consolidation with time. Following are the cases. Case A: the influence of spacing factor, smear effect and well resistance on the rate of horizontal consolidation Case B: influence of drain placing pattern on the rate of horizontal consolidation Case C: influence of time in the degree of consolidation against spacing Case D: influence of drain spacing on the rate of horizontal consolidation Case E: influence of coefficient of horizontal consolidation on rate of consolidation The parameters used for the study is tabulated in Table 4-1. The parameters are not genuine but assumptions. The Ch and Cv value used is constant for all the cases except for case C and E; square grid pattern will be used for all the cases except for case B and except for case A all the factors affecting the consolidation process will be kept constant.
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Table 4-1: Parameters and values used for computation Parameters Thickness of subsoil Unit weight of subsoil Drainage path kh kv Cv Ch Embankment height Embankment unit weight Drain width (a) Drain thickness (b) qw qw/kh Mandrel Width Mandrel length ks Values 19 m 15.4 kN/m3 2 way 0.064 m/yr 0.064 m/yr 5 m2/yr 5 m2/yr 5.24m 18 kN/m3 100 mm 4 mm 1892 m3/yr 400 m2 50 mm 150 mm 0.032m/yr
The efficiency of the vertical drain is affected due to the effect of smear and well resistance. The study of the numerical analysis would be on three types; influence of (1) spacing factor (ideal condition), (2) smear and spacing factor and (3) well resistance, smear and spacing factor. Each type will be identified as case 1, case 2 and case 3 respectively from now onwards. Various PVD spacing 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0m are used for each case, to analyse how change in drain spacing and the cases affect the average degree of consolidation with time. As shown in figure 4-1 that the consolidation process is faster under ideal (no smear and no well resistance) conditions for all three dimension of drain spacing. By the end of the first month, difference of degree of consolidation between the case 1 and case 2 is 16.4%, therefore, it can be concluded that smear factor reduces the consolidation process significantly thus iit is important to include smear effect in the calculation of the average degree of consolidation. The inclusion of the well resistance does not affect the consolidation as much as smear factor, as it can be seen from percentage difference after inclusion of the well resistance is not more than 5%. The maximum percentage difference for case 1 and case
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3 is observed by the end of the first month which is 20.5%, and at the end of the ninth month, the difference is only 0.3%, which is only, a 0.1% increment thereby it is understood that well resistance is insignificant and subsequently no much effect in the consolidation process. To achieve 95 % of degree of consolidation with drain spacing of 1.0m, the consolidation process approximately takes about 2.5 months under ideal condition. The difference between the case 1 and case 3 is almost 3 months. This indicates the significant of including well resistance and smear effect to the calculation of the consolidation, if the well resistance and the smear are not considered the predicted time of achieving the target consolidation will be underestimated. Therefore in reality where well resistance and smear will be present the time taken to achieve a 95% of consolidation with drain spacing of 1.0m would be about 5 months. With drain spacing of 1.5m it will take around 14 months and for drain spacing of 2.0m the time consumed to consolidate is approximately 22 months. Therefore if there is enough time to allow consolidation, it is advisable to use larger drain spacing as it will reduce the cost. From the numerical differences between the cases for different drain spacing it can be concluded that well resistance has less effect on the consolidation process compared to the smear effect. Therefore it is very vital to include smear effect in the calculation of the degree of consolidation even if well resistance is neglected. Often all three factors are taken into account since they are present in the vertically improved ground. It is seen that the difference in the degree of consolidation with time for drain spacing 1.0m and 2.0m is very high at some point of time. Thus increasing the drain spacing affects the consolidation by delaying the achievement of the targetted average degree of consolidation so it can be concluded the consolidation process is faster with shorter drain spacing. Drain spacing is a function of spacing factor so increase in the spacing factor increases the time taken to achieve degree of consolidation. Though the smear and well resistance are constant for all condition but the difernce varies this is due to the change in T h value decreases as spacing increases and the additive factors.
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Figure 4-9: Degree of consolidation against time with change of smear and well resistance
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The results obtained for the variation of the grid pattern is shown in figure 4-2. Consolidation is accelerated faster with the triangular grid compared to the square grid for all three variation of drain spacing. Therefore to obtain a faster consolidation process triangular grid can be utilized. But due to the fact that they are placed closer than square grid, triangular grid pattern requires more vertical drain than square grid pattern which is not economical. Therefore it is better to use square grid as they are economical and the difference in the degree of consolidation between the two grid patterns is not more than 6% for all the cases. Increase in the drain spacing shows that consolidation is slowed down and takes longer time to achieve the targeted degree of consolidation.
Figure 4-2: Degree of consolidation against time with change of grid pattern
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4.1.3 Influence of time Results for the variation of time of 3, 6, 9, 12 months for Ch=1, 5, 10 and 20m2/yr are shown in the figure 4-3a, 4-3b, 4-3c and 4-3d respectively. The degree of consolidation decreases with increase of drain spacing for all four cases. The consolidation for 6, 9 and 12 months is almost 100% at spacing 1.00m. The plot of 3 months is away from the all the other three plots and the degree of consolidation below the target. The difference in consolidation between the 3rd and 6th month, 3rd and 9th month and 3rd and 12th month is more than 20% except for spacing of 1.0m. Therefore by the end of three months the target cannot be reached for the given drain spacing. The difference in consolidation between 9th and 12th month is not more than lesser compared to the other differences. The degree of consolidation decreases with decrease in time for a specific drain spacing. For soil with 1m2/yr of coefficient of horizontal consolidation the consolidation did not reach the target of 95 % within 12 months. The highest consolidation was 88.2% at the end of the 12th month. For drain spacing of 1.2 m the difference in consolidation between the 9th month and the 12th month is 10.1%, for 9th month and 6th month is 14.8% and for 6th month and 3rd month is 21.65 this indicates the consolidation of the soil does not consolidate at a constant rate but reduces with time. For soil with Ch of 5m2/yr it is not possible to achieve the degree of consolidation of 95% within three month for the spacing range that is used. The maximum drain spacing that can be used to reach the target within 6, 9 and 12 months is approximately 1.1m, 1.3m and 1.5m respectively. The plot shifting towards the spacing axis for soil with large Ch value points out that the degree of consolidation is higher for the soil with high coefficient of horizontal consolidation.
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Figure 4-3a: Degree of consolidation against spacing with varying time for Ch=1m2/yr
Figure 4-3b: Degree of consolidation against spacing with varying time for Ch=5m2/yr
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Figure 4-3c: Degree of consolidation against spacing with varying time for Ch=10m2/yr
Figure 4-3d: Degree of consolidation against spacing with varying time for Ch=20m2/yr
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4.1.4 Influence of drain spacing Figure 4-4 illustrates the effect of varying drain spacing on degree of consolidation with time. The degree of consolidation increases with time for all three cases; drain spacing of 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0m. The difference in degree of consolidation between all three cases is very high. The highest difference in consolidation between spacing of 1.0m and 1.5m is observed in the second month with a difference of 31.4% which is considerably a large number. Difference in consolidation process between spacing of 1.0m and 2.0m by the end of third month is the highest with a value of 51.6%. At the end of sixth month, spacing of 1.5m and 2.0m has the highest difference in consolidation of 22.8%. The numerical differences indicate that the consolidation process slows down with the increase of drain spacing Consolidation of 95% was in much shorter time with the drain spacing of 1.0m which is roughly 5 months and with drain spacing of 1.5 and 2.0 meter the time taken is approximately 12 and 22 months respectively. Hence shorter drain spacing must be utilized if the allowable time period for consolidation is shorter. But if the allowable time period is longer then it is wise to use the larger drain spacing as it would be more economical than placing the drains close.
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Figure 4-4: Degree of consolidation against time with varying drain spacing
The numerical results for the variation of coefficient of horizontal consolidation value are shown in figure 4-5a, 4-5b and 4-5c for drain spacing of 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0m respectively. The assumed Ch values analyzed are 1, 5, 10, 15 and 20 m2/yr. Let study the difference in consolidation for the time 2.5 months. For the drain spacing of 1.0m as shown in figure 4-5a, the consolidation is almost 100% for soil which has a Ch of 15 and 20m2/yr. With Ch equal to 1m2/yr the consolidation is only 28.0%. This shows that the soil with higher Ch value will consolidate faster and in a shorter time period. The consolidation for Ch of 20m2/ yr is approximately 100%, 95% and 75% for drain spacing of 1.0m, 1.5m and 2.0m respectively thus it can be concluded that the drain spacing affects the consolidation process even if the soil has a large coefficient of consolidation. With the drain spacing of 1.5 and 2.0m the soil with Ch of 1m2/yr will reach 95% of consolidation in approximately 50 and 110 months.
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Figure 4-5a: Degree of consolidation against time with varying coefficient of horizontal consolidation and drain spacing of 1.0m
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Figure 4-5b: Degree of consolidation against time with varying coefficient of horizontal consolidation and drain spacing of 1.5m
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Figure 4-5c: Degree of consolidation against time with varying coefficient of horizontal consolidation and drain spacing of 2.0m
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The objectives achieved and results obtained through the parametric study are conluded below; 1. The spread sheet for the design of prefabricated vertical dain is developed. 2. The influence of smear and well resistance on the degree of consolidation with time is significant. If factor of smear and well resistance are ot considered in predicting the rate of consolidation, it will overestimated and thus more time will be requrired for the completion of the consolidation process than predicted. This is further illustrated in figure 4-1. 3. It is important to consider the drain pattern due to its influence on the degree of consolidation is considerable. The most effective pattern is triangular shaped one nevertheless placing in a trianfular pattern is costly as it requires more vertical drain compared to square drain. Therfore, it is wiser to use squre pattern since the degree of consolidation with time is almost the same. 4. Design charts illustrated in figures 3-4a to 3-4d eloborates the importance of time in the consolidation process. These charts could be used for studies like for a soil with a specific Ch value, what is the spacing required for a given time. For soil with higher coefficient of horizontal consolidation the rate of consolidation is high at a fixed time compared to the soil with a lower one. 5. As the drain spacing gets larger the time taken for a specific amount of consolidation is higher compared to the smaller drain spacing.
It would have been better if the study was based on a case study as the parameters will not be assumed and the results would have been more realistic. The spread sheet could be improved more like including extra descriptive pitures to make it more user friendly.
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LIST OF REFERENCE
A.D. Smith, J.J. Rixner & S.R. Kraemer, 1986, Prefabricated Vertical Drains, Engineering Guidelines, 1, 1-94. B. Indraratna, C. Rujikiatkamjorn & I. Sathananthanm, 2005, Radial consolidation of clay using compressibility indices and varying horizontal permeability, 42, 39PP. C. Bamunawita, 2004, Soft clay foundation improvement via prefabricated vertical drains and vacuum preloading, 257pp. D.G Lin, W.T Liu & P.C Lin, Numerical analyses of pvd improved ground at reference section of second Bangkok international airport, accessed date 23rd October 2011, http://www.kyu.edu.tw/93/96paper/96%B9q%A4l%C0%C9/96-068.pdf
Hawlader, B. C., G. Imai, et al. (2002). "Numerical study of the factors affecting the consolidation of clay with vertical drains." Geotextiles and Geomembranes 20(4): 213-239.
Indraratna, B and Rujikiatkamjorn, C, 2006, Predictions and Performances of Prefabricated Vertical Drain Stabilised Soft Clay Foundations, Proceedings of the Symposium on Rigid Inclusions in Difficult Soft Soil Conditions International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE TC36), 14pp.
Modeling of
Geosynthetic Vertical Drains in Soft Clays, Journal of Ground Improvement, 7(3), 127-138. P. Boeraeve, 2008, Structural Stability, Soil mechanics, 2, 1-12. T.Gopalan, 2010, Performance prediction of prefabricated vertical drains Beneath embankment on soft ground by Finite element analysis, 67pp. T. Stapelfeldt, Preloading and vertical drains, accessed 05th April 2012, http://civil.aalto.fi/en/research/soil/theses/preloading_and_vertical_drains.pdf
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Chu, J., M. W. Bo, et al. (2004). "Practical considerations for using vertical drains in soil improvement projects." Geotextiles and Geomembranes 22(12): 101-117. Liu, H.-l. and J. Chu (2009). "A new type of prefabricated vertical drain with improved properties." Geotextiles and Geomembranes 27(2): 152-155. Rowe, R. K. and C. Taechakumthorn (2008). "Combined effect of PVDs and reinforcement on embankments over rate-sensitive soils." Geotextiles and Geomembranes 26(3): 239-249.
Shen, S.-L., J.-C. Chai, et al. (2005). "Analysis of field performance of embankments on soft clay deposit with and without PVD-improvement." Geotextiles and Geomembranes 23(6): 463-485.
Sinha, A. K., V. G. Havanagi, et al. (2009). "An approach to shorten the construction period of high embankment on soft soil improved with PVD." Geotextiles and Geomembranes 27(6): 488-492.
Tripathi, K. K. and M. S. Nagesha (2010). "Discharge capacity requirement of prefabricated vertical drains." Geotextiles and Geomembranes 28(1): 128-132. A. S. Balasubramaniam, B. Indraratna, C. Rujikiatkamjorn & I. Sathananthan, 2005, Analytical and Numerical Modeling of Soft Soil Stabilized byPrefabricated Vertical Drains Incorporating Vacuum Preloading, International journal of geomechanics, 114-124.
J. C. Chai & N. Miura, 1999, A design method for soft subsoil improvement with prefabricated vertical drain, accessed on 31st March 2012, <http://toshi1.civil.saga-u.ac.jp/chai/PDF-new-IS/P31.pdf>.
L. Hazzar & M. Bouassida, 2009, A first version software programme for designing improved soils by vertical drains, accessed on 2nd April,2012, Journal of 2nd International Conference on New Developments in Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering,28-30 May 2009, Near East University, Nicosia, North Cyprus.
A.S.Balasubramaniam, D.T. Bergado, I.A.Chisti, T.Ruenkrairergsa & Y. Taesiri, 1999, Evaluation of the PVD performance at the second Bangkok Chonburi Highway(SBCH)Project, Lowland Technology International, 1, No.2, 55-75.
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D. Basu & M. Prezzi, 2007, Effect of the Smear and Transition Zones around Prefabricated Vertical Drains Installed in a Triangular Pattern on the Rate of Soil Consolidation, international journal of geomechanics,7, 34-53.
Chin Jian Leo, 2004, Equal Strain Consolidation by Vertical Drains, journal of Geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering, 130, 16-327. Chua Kang Tor & Jimmy Lee Shen Sun, 1995, Evaluation of Discharge capacity of prefabricated vertical drain, PSB Corporation, 1-12. G.K Kin, 2010, The effectiveness of prefabricated vertical drains and preloading in soft soil improvement, 56
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: Spread sheet
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