This chapter discusses the mechanical properties and behaviors of metals when external forces are applied. It introduces key concepts such as stress, strain, elasticity, plasticity, and modulus of Young. Metals deform elastically or plastically depending on the magnitude of applied stress. Plastic deformation occurs through the motion of dislocations in crystal structures. The chapter also covers strengthening mechanisms in metals like work hardening and grain refinement.
This chapter discusses the mechanical properties and behaviors of metals when external forces are applied. It introduces key concepts such as stress, strain, elasticity, plasticity, and modulus of Young. Metals deform elastically or plastically depending on the magnitude of applied stress. Plastic deformation occurs through the motion of dislocations in crystal structures. The chapter also covers strengthening mechanisms in metals like work hardening and grain refinement.
This chapter discusses the mechanical properties and behaviors of metals when external forces are applied. It introduces key concepts such as stress, strain, elasticity, plasticity, and modulus of Young. Metals deform elastically or plastically depending on the magnitude of applied stress. Plastic deformation occurs through the motion of dislocations in crystal structures. The chapter also covers strengthening mechanisms in metals like work hardening and grain refinement.
This chapter discusses the mechanical properties and behaviors of metals when external forces are applied. It introduces key concepts such as stress, strain, elasticity, plasticity, and modulus of Young. Metals deform elastically or plastically depending on the magnitude of applied stress. Plastic deformation occurs through the motion of dislocations in crystal structures. The chapter also covers strengthening mechanisms in metals like work hardening and grain refinement.
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Chapter 6
Mechanical Properties of Metals
Mechanical Properties refers to the behavior of material when external forces are applied
Stress and strain
fracture
For engineering point of view: allows to predict the ability of a component or a structure to withstand the forces applied to it For science point of view: what makes materials strong helps us to design a better new one Learn basic concepts for metals, which have the simplest behavior Return to it later when we study ceramics, polymers, composite materials, nanotubes
Chapter 6
6.1 Elastic and Plastic Deformation
Metal piece is subjected to a uniaxial force deformation occurs When force is removed: - metal returns to its original dimensions elastic deformation (atoms return to their original position) - metal deformed to an extent that it cannot fully recover its original dimensions plastic deformation (shape of the material changes, atoms are permanently displaced from their positions)
F A0 L0 A L= L0+ L
Chapter 6
6.2 Concept of Stress and Strain
Load can be applied to the material by applying axial forces:
Not deformed A0
Tension F A
Compression
F L= L0+ L A L= L0+ L
L0
F F L can be measured as a function of the applied force; area A0 changes in response Chapter 6 3
Stress () and Strain ()
Stress () defining F is not enough ( F and A can vary) Stress stays constant
Block of metal F A
= Units
F A
L= L0+ L
Force / area = N / m2 = Pa usually in MPa or GPa
Strain () result of stress F For tension and compression: change in length of a sample divided by the original length of sample
L L 4
Chapter 6
Shear and Torsion (similar to shear)
Not deformed A0 L0 L0
Pure shear S A0 S L0
Torsion
S S
Note: the forces are applied in this way, so that there is no net torque If the forces are applied along the faces of the material, they are called shear forces Chapter 6 5
Shear Stress and Shear Strain
If the shear force S acts over an area A, the shear stress :
( shear _ stress ) =
S ( shear _ force) A(area )
The shear strain is defined in terms of the amount of the shear displacement a divided by distance over which the shear acts:
a = tan h
Chapter 6
Elastic Properties of Materials
Most materials will get narrow when stretched and thicken when compressed This behaviour is qualified by Poissons ratio, which is defined as the ratio of lateral and axial strain
Poisson' s _ Ratio : =
y x = z z
the minus sign is there because usually if z > 0, and x + y < 0 > 0 It can be proven that we must have ; = is the case when there is no volume change
(l x + l x )(l y + l y )(l z + l z ) = l x l y l z Chapter 6
Poissons Ratio, For isotropic materials (i.e. material composed of many randomly - oriented grains) = 0.25 For most metals: 0.25 < < 0.35 If = 0 :means that the width of the material doesnt change when it is stretched or compressed Can be: <0 (i.e. the material gets thicker when stretched)
Chapter 6
6.3 Modulus of elasticity, or Youngs Modulus
Stress and strain are properties that dont depend on the dimensions of the material (for small ), just type of the material
E=
( stress ) ( strain)
E Youngs Modulus, Pa Comes from the linear range in the stress-strain diagram many exceptions Behavior is related to atomic bonding between the atoms Material Metals Polypropelene Rubber Hydrogels and live cells Youngs Modulus [GPa] 20-100 1.5-2 0.01 <0.00001 Chapter 6
Q.: A wagon of mass m = 1100kg is suspended from the bridge by a steel cable of d = 1cm and length L = 10m. E(steel) = 21011Pa (a) By how much will the cable stretch? (b) Can the cable handle this?
Chapter 6
10
Tensile Test
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Modulus of elasticity Yield strength at 0.2% offset Ultimate tensile strength Percent elongation at fracture Percent reduction in area at fracture
Chapter 6
11
Other tensile test characteristics:
Yield strength (at 0.2% offset)
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): the maximum strength reached in the stressstrain curve
F L = E A(original ) L
Percent elongation at fracture (measure of ductility of the metal) Percent reduction in area at fracture % _ reduction _ in _ area = Chapter 6
Ainitial A final Ainitial
100% 12
True and Engineering Stress
engineering =
F Ainitial F
= E
L L
true =
Ainstant 13
Chapter 6
6.4 Hardness Hardness: a measure of the resistance of a material to plastic (permanent) deformation Measured by indentation indenter material (ball, pyramid, cone) is harder than the material being tested (i.e.: tungsten carbide, diamond) indenter is pressed at 90o hardness is based on the depth of the impression or its crosssectional area
Several common hardness tests: hardness numbers can be calculated
Material strength and hardness are related Hardness test is nondestructive often used Chapter 6 14
Hardness tests: hardness numbers
Chapter 6
15
6.5 Plastic deformations of single crystal metals
A rod of a single crystal Zn (hcp) stressed beyond its elastic limit: slipbands: slip of metal atoms on specific crystallographic planes (slip planes) slip is predominately along the basal planes
A rod of a single crystal Cu (fcc) during plastic deformation: slip lines: 50-500 atoms apart slipbands: separated by ~>10,000 atomic planes 16
Chapter 6
Other mechanical characteristics
Ductility: amount of plastic deformation that occurs before fracture - if ductility is high, the material can be deformed by applying stresses. Ex.: gold - if it is low, material breaks first, without significant deformation (material is brittle) - depend on T: at low T many metals become brittle and can break as a glass
Resilience: ability to have high yield strength and low E. Ex.: good springs
Toughness: ability to absorb energy up to a fracture
Chapter 6
17
Mechanism of Slip deformation
the group of atoms do NOT slide over each other during plastic shear deformation the process requires too much energy
The process takes less energy!!!
Chapter 6 18
Motion of Dislocations
In the metal slip mechanism, dislocations move through the metal crystals like wave fronts, allowing metallic atoms to slide over each other under low shear stress deformation without fracture Chapter 6 19
Slip Systems Typically slip planes are the most densely packed planes (less energy is required to move from one position to another), which are the farthest separated
Combination of a slip plane and a slip direction: slip system
Chapter 6
20
10
Slip systems observed in crystal structures
For hcp crystals: 3 slip systems, restricts their ductility
Chapter 6 21
Schmids Law Slip process begins within the crystal when the shear stress on the slip plane in slip direction reaches critical resolved shear stress c hcp (Zn, Mg): 0.18, 0.77 MPa fcc (Cu): 0.48 MPa
r =
Fr Aslip _ plane
Fr = F cos r =
Aslip _ plane =
Ao cos
F cos cos F = cos cos = cos cos Schmids law Ao Ao
Chapter 6
22
11
Q.: A stress of 75 MPa is applied in the [0 01] direction on an fcc single crystal. Calculate (a) the resolved shear stress acting on the (111) [-101] slip system and, (b) (b) the resolved shear stress acting on the (111) [-110] slip system.
Chapter 6
23
Mechanical Twinning Another important plastic deformation mechanism (low T)
Schematic diagram of surfaces of a deformed metal after (a) slip and (b) twinning
from G. Gottstein
Chapter 6
24
12
6.6 Plastic Deformations in Polycrystalline Metals
Majority of engineering alloys and metals are polycrystalline Grain boundaries act as diffusion barriers for dislocation movements In practice: fine grain materials are stronger and harder (but less resistant to creep and corrosion)
Strength and grain size are related by Hall-Pelch equation:
y = o + o and k constants
k d
as grain diameter decreases, the yield strength of the material increases
Chapter 6 25
Pile-up of dislocations Schematic
Observed in stainless steel (TEM)
Grain shape changes with plastic deformation Dislocation arrangement changes
Chapter 6 26
13
6.7 Cold Plastic Deformation for Strengthening of Metals
The dislocation density increases with increased cold deformation New dislocations are created by the deformation and must interact with those already existing As the dislocation density increases with deformation, it becomes more and more difficult for the dislocations to move through the existing dislocations Thus the metal work or strain hardens with cold deformation
Percent cold work versus tensile strength and elongation for unalloyed oxygen-free copper
Cold work is expressed as a percent reduction in cross-sectional area of the metal being reduced.
Chapter 6
27
6.8 Superplasticity in Metals
Superplasticity: the ability of some metals to deform plastically by 1000-2000% at high temperature and low loading rates Ex.: Ti alloy (6Al 4V) 12% @ RT, typical tensile test load rates ~1000% @ 840oC, lower loading rates Requirements: 1. The material must possess very fine grain size (5-10mm) and be highly strain-rate density 2. A high loading T (>0.5 Tm) is required 3. A low and controlled strain rate in the range of 0.01-0.00001 s-1 is required
Chapter 6
28
14
Nanocrystalline Metals Nanocrystalline metals: d < 10-50nm
y = o +
k d
Consider Cu: o = 25 MPa, k = 0.11 MPa m0.5 (from Table 6.5)
10 nm 10 8 = ? = 10 m 25MPa + 0.11MPa 5 10 Is this possible?
25MPa +
0.11MPa
Different dislocation mechanism: grain boundary sliding, diffusion, etc
Chapter 6
29
Summary Introduced stress, strain and modulus of elasticity
F A
L L
E=
( stress ) ( strain)
Plastic deformations of single crystal metals
- In the single crystal metal - slip mechanism: dislocations move through the metal crystals like wave fronts, allowing metallic atoms to slide over each other under low shear stress - Slip process begins within the crystal when the shear stress on the slip plane in slip direction reaches critical resolved shear stress c - Schmids law:
r =
F cos cos F = cos cos = cos cos Ao Ao
Plastic deformations in polycrystalline metals
- Strength and grain size are related by Hall-Pelch equation:
