Source and Receiver - pdf2

Unit 1
Communication - An Introduction
Learning Outcome
After reading this unit, you will be able to: Explain the meaning and definition of communication Pinpoint the Importance of communication Elucidate on the nature of communication Identify the principles of communication Clarify the Process of communication
Time Required to Complete the unit

1. 2. 1st Reading: It will need 3 Hrs for reading a unit 2nd Reading with understanding: It will need 4 Hrs for reading and understanding a unit 3. 4.
5.
Self Assessment: It will need 3 Hrs for reading and understanding a unit Assignment: It will need 2 Hrs for completing an assignment Revision and Further Reading: It is a continuous process
Content Map
1.1 1.2 1.3 Introduction Meaning and definition of communication Importance of Communication 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.4 Role of Communication in Business Objectives of Communication
Nature of Communication 1
Managerial Skill Development
1.5 1.6
Principles of Communication Process of Communication 1.6.1 Communication Process: Models and Theories
1.7 1.8
Communication Network Cross Cultural Communication 1.8.1 1.8.2 Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Behaviour Tips for Communicating with People Cross-Culturally
1.9 1.10 1.11
Summary Self Assessment Test Further Reading
1.1 Introduction
The term 'communication' originates from the Latin word communicare, which means to share or impart. When used as per its function, it means a common ground of understanding. Communication is the process of exchanging of facts, ideas and opinions and a means that individuals or organisations use for sharing meaning and understanding with one another. In other words, it is the transmission and interaction of facts, ideas, opinions, feelings or attitudes. Communication is an interdisciplinary concept as theoretically it is approached from various disciplines such as mathematics, accounting, psychology, ecology, linguistics, systems analysis, etymology, cybernetics, auditing etc. Communication enables us to do important things: to grow, to learn, to be aware of ourselves and to adjust to our environment.
1.2 Meaning and definition of communication

Communication is a process, which involves organising, selecting and transmitting symbols in an appropriate way to ensure the listener perceives and recreates in his own mind the intended meaning of the communicator. Communication involves the initiation of meaning in the listener, the transmission of information and thousands of probable stimuli. Human beings have a compulsive urge to communicate with each other. Mutual understanding is not only based on communication but also is the core of human relations. There can be no mutual understanding without communication; mutual understanding is the core of human relations. Communication is like birth, death, breath and wanting to be loveda part of life itself. Man is a communicating animal; he alone has the power to express in words. Sight, sound, touch, smell and taste are the modes of exchange of messages. The story of man's progress is the story of his progress in communication skills. The degree to which a civilisation or culture progresses is reflected in the state of its communication process. Communication is a two-fold process between two parties- the sender and the receiver. It involves an exchange and progression of thoughts, ideas, knowledge and information towards a mutually accepted goal or direction. Here are some definitions by experts: American Society of Training Directors: Communication is the interchange of thought or information to bring about mutual understanding and confidence or global human relation. Behind Brown: Communication is the transmission and interchange of facts, 3
ideas, feelings or course of action. Managerial Skill Development
Alien Louis A.:
Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.
Ordway Tead:
Communicating is a composite of information given and received, of a learning experience in which certain attitudes, knowledge and skills change, carving with them alterations of behaviour, of listening effort by all involved, of a sympathetic fresh examination of issues by the communicator himself, of a sensitive interacting points of view, leading to a higher level of shared understanding and common intention.
Theo Haiemann:
Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another. It is the process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others.
M.T. Myers and G.E. Myers: Communication refers to a special kind of patterning: patterning, which is expressed in symbolic form. For communication to take place between or among people, two requirements must be met: A symbolic system must be shared by the people involved (we need to speak the same language or jargon or dialects) and The associations between the symbols and their referents must be shared. Some interesting comments about communication Davis: "Process of passing information and understanding from one person to another... The only way that management can be achieved in an organisation is through the process of communication". Chester Barnard: In exhaustive theory of organisation, communication would occupy a central place because the structure, extensiveness and scope of organisations are almost entirely determined by communication techniques.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. 2. What is communication? How did Ordway Tead describe communication?
Discussion
Discuss the various definitions of communication .
1.3 Importance of Communication

It is an established fact that the present era is often called the Age of Communication and Information. The importance of communication has been greatly emphasized by all management experts. Communication, like birth, death, growth and decay, is a part of individual life as well as organisational existence. Its importance is selfexplanatory and is a common experience of all as well. In recent times, communication has turned into business; rarely would you find managers, subordinates, salesmen, technicians, foremen, lawyers, auditors, consultants, teachers, doctors or anyone else who is not concerned with the difficulties associated with communication. Managerial Skill Development 5
It has been rightly observed that the number one management problem today is miscommunication. Group activities in context with common goals cannot be accomplished without communication. The entire organisation control, coordination and motivation cannot be accomplished in case of lapses in communication. A common practice among many organisations is moving messages vertically, horizontally and diagonally between various officially designated positions. The modern industrial scenario relies heavily on communication for its augmentation and survival. George R. Terry states: "Communication serves as the lubricant, posturing for the smooth operations of the management process". The reasons for the growing significance of communication can be judged from the following paragraphs: Coordination: Modern complex organisations are large, consisting of numerous employees working towards accomplishing common goals. The organisational structure illustrates many levels of organisation hierarchy- both horizontally and vertically. More often than not, this leads to issues related to coordination. Effectual systems of communication encourage better coordination. Coordination is viewed as a necessity among groups; channels are vital for efficient functioning of the organisation as a whole.. Communication encourages better coordination. Smooth Working: Smooth and uninterrupted working of an enterprise, largely depends on good communication network. Communication takes on a greater role in this direction. Accurate decision-making and efficiency of the organisation is anchored in information supply. If messages have obstacles in the course of their flow, it is impossible to bring about a smooth functioning and uninterrupted working of the organisation. According to Herbert G. Micks, Communication is basic to an organisations existence from the birth of the organisation through its continuing life. Effective Decision-Making: It is essential to have a record of past and present data for immediate and effective decision-making. Communication is the primary base by means of which information is supplied to further help in making decisions. Problem-defining, alternative courses of action, selecting the best option available, can be possible with the provision of relevant and adequate information conveyed to the decision-maker. In event of inadequate or no information, it would be relatively impossible even for the top management to take important decisions. Conversely, it is unlikely to achieve goals and objectives unless the top management has a smooth interaction with all levels of the organisation.
Managerial Efficiency: As quoted in George Terry's remark earlier, communication encourages managerial efficiency. Efficiency lays in the manner individuals and groups are assigned their respective targets.. Managerial functions like planning, control, coordination, motivation cannot be discharged without communication. As management is an art of ensuring targets are achieved in collaboration with other people, communication educates personnel working in the organisation about the desires of the management. Management communicates goals, policies and targets by issuing verbal and written orders and instructions. The yardstick for measuring managerial efficiency is communication.
Co-operation: Co-operation among workers is possible only when there is an exchange of information between individuals and groups and between the management and the employees. This not only promotes the industrial peace but also maximizes production. The two-way communication network enhances co-operation between people. The flow of communication can be smooth and receptive with co-operation, confidence and message flow vertically, horizontally and across the organisation. In short, communication promotes co-operation and understanding among employees.
Effective Leadership: Leadership implies the presence of a leader and followers. There is always a continuous process of communication between them. Communication is the basis for direction, motivation as well as establishment of effective leadership. The followers have to follow the leader and through conveying of ideas, opinions, feelings and be in constant communication with them. Thus, transmission and reception ensures a two-way traffic, the sine qua non for effective leadership. A manager with good communication skills can become a successful leader of his subordinates. E.g. In 1981, Narayana Murthy, with an investment of Rs. 10, 000 ($250 at the time) from his wife, founded Infosys with six other software professionals. Under his leadership, Infosys was listed on NASDAQ in 1999. Today, Infosys is acknowledged by customers, employees, investors and the public as a highly respected, dynamic and innovative company. The Economist ranked Narayana Murthy among the ten most admired global business leaders in 2005.
Job Satisfaction: Communication is essential for achieving job satisfaction. Management conveys messages, which promote mutual understanding. Reception and recognition provide job satisfaction to employees. Two-way communication creates confidence, which leads to job satisfaction among employees. Openness, straightforward expression of opinions is necessary in this direction.
Increase Productivity: Communication helps the management in achieving maximum productivity with minimum cost and eliminating waste. These are the main objectives of the management. It is remarked that an archenemy of communication is the very illusion of it. This illusion can be avoided only with an effective system of communication. It is through communication that the workers can be well informed about the process of production, new methods of production and the activities of the workers in a similar organisation. Thus, a good system of communication helps the management to achieve maximum productivity with minimum cost, elimination of waste, reduction of cost etc. Inter-firm comparison is not possible without effective communication.
Morale Building: Morale and good relations in the organisation are essential for achieving goals of the organisation and promoting its benevolence goodwill in the public. An effective system, of communication builds good morale and improves human relations. Participatory communication is the best technique of morale building and motivation. S. Khandwala remarked, "Most of the conflicts in business are not basic but are caused by misunderstood motives and ignorance of facts. Proper communication between the interested parties reduces the points of friction and minimises those that inevitably arise".
Achieving Managerial Roles: Henry Mintzberg has described a managers job by assigning three roles, namely inter-personal roles, informational roles and decisional roles. Communication plays a vital role in these three types of role. In case of interpersonal role, a manager has to constantly interact with subordinates. In informational role, a manager has to collect information from various people and supply the necessary information to others both inside and outside the organisation. A manager in a decisional role or written media of communication discharges interpersonal, informational and decisional roles as well. The importance of communication may be concluded with the remark of Chester I.
Barnard: The first executive function is to develop and maintain a system of communication.
1.3.1 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS

Communication plays a very important role in an organisation. In fact, it is said to be the lifeline of the organisation. Everything in the universe, human or otherwise, communicates; though the means of communication may be very different. Communication is very crucial and unavoidable, as we have certain views and opinions, which we want to convey to another person, group or even to the outside world.
Communication in an organisation is inevitable. Departments communicate on a periodic basis in respect to daily activities and the organisation's relationship with the external world. This is done via written and unwritten means, either planned or impromptu. It could be hierarchical, that is, from top to bottom or vice versa. It could be formal, informal, vertical, horizontal or diagonal. Irrespective of the means, modes or types of communication, occurrence of communication is essential and of prime importance. Communication within an organisation could be grapevine or rumour. In totality, communication in an organisation is very complex and needs to be correctly managed handled and monitored to avert chaos, crisis or conflict. The basic functions and roles of the management cannot be conducted without communication. Planning organising, coordinating, budgeting, monitoring, controlling, staffing, delegation; including marketing, production, financing, staffing (human resource managing), research and development, purchasing, selling, etc cannot be coordinated, harnessed and their goals achieved devoid of communication. Communication plays a key role in meetings, annual general meeting ordinary meeting, urgent meeting, etc. The effectiveness of an organisation also depends on the success of its meetings where goals to be achieved, targets to be met and activities to be carried out are ironed out and discussed. If the ideas are not comprehended at meetings, the workers are bound to then one need to be sure that the workers will mess up everything. Thus, the chairman of the meeting must be an effective speaker or communication capable of ensuring that everyone got what has been discussed correctly. This will help eradicate rumours and grapevine and eventually achieve set standards, goals and/or objectives. In conclusion, everyone in an organisation needs to have good communication skill, not the boss only, but also the subordinates. It is what all of us (workers) need to jointly strive to achieve the set goals. Remove communication in an organisation, we are going to have dead entity, good for nothing and worth been shut down. Communication is the backbone for organisation's success.
1.3.2 OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION

The basic objective of human communication is trying to elicit a reaction from the person we are trying to communicate with. From a business or commercial angle, if we observe any small or large business around us we will be able to notice that the amount of success the business has achieved mainly relies on its power of communication. Communication defines the level of success that the company has attained. Following are a few of the main objectives of business communication. Managerial Skill Development 9
1. Information: The core objective of a business is to convey information and making individuals more up to date, E.g.- all the advertisement campaigns that we notice around us are an attempt to inform and convey the information across to others, and in case of companies, this information is generally regarding the product or services at offer. However, the method of communication may be verbal, written, visual or any other. All companies thrive on information pertinent to their business activity. They must have excellent knowledge regarding the market, their competitors, the government policies, the type of credit they can gain from; the existing economic situation etc. Pertinent information is the main aspect for successful business. However, in the recent times, because of the arrival of the World Wide Web, there has been a swift outburst in the quantity of information that is accessible to a company and it is turning out to be gradually more difficult for a company to come across information that is genuine, comprehensive, up-to-date and new. Furthermore, it has become very important for any company to get hold of that information. Moreover, this demand for correct information has initiated a new faction of people called the infomederies, who do not handle any type of goods but provide information. A company not only acquires information but furthermore provides information as well, for e.g.- The company has to provide factual information about profitability, quality of products, facilities provided to the workers or services rendered towards the community. 2. Motivation: Communication in business is moreover essential to boost the workers' motivation. Thus if the communication is carried out correctly and is successful in encouraging the workers and workers are sufficiently encouraged, the work gets completed easily, proficiently and the workers will carry out their functions by themselves without supervision. Communication should be utilised to construct a proper working atmosphere. In order to create a strong competitive atmosphere between the workers and furthermore can be acknowledged and rewarded for their accomplishments. Employees who work at a lower level in the chain of command of the organisation should be motivated to give ideas and inputs on the methods to improve the functioning of an organisation, this type of communication brings about a feeling of involvement and connection and creates more loyalty towards the company. 3. Raising Morale: Another extremely significant objective of business communication (internal) is maintaining a sense of high morale amongst the workers, so that they perform their tasks with dynamism and resilience as a team. This is a key aspect that can 10 Managerial Skill Development
create a great impact on the success of a company. However as morale is a psychological aspect, the condition of high morale is not a lasting feature. An organisation could have a sense of high morale between the workers for a particular phase but could discover that the employees have lost their morale in the following phase. Therefore, to keep the sense of high morale amongst the employees, an organisation has to constantly put in their efforts in that course. It can be managed by maintaining an open door policy, keeping tabs on the gossip and not permitting destructive rumours to spread among employees. 4. Order and instructions: An order is an oral or written rule influencing the start, end or adjusting an activity. This form of communication is internal and is executed within a company. Order may be in written or verbal form. Written orders are given when the type of job is extremely vital or the person who would carry out the task is far off. Care must be taken at the time of handing out written orders; a copy of the order should always be maintained so that it is easy during the follow up. Oral orders come into play at the time of urgency in the work and when the person is in close proximity. However, it is extremely vital to follow up in both the cases. 5. Education and training: These days, communication can be additionally used in business to enhance the scope of knowledge. The goal of education is attained by business communication on three levels (a) Management (b) employees (c) general public a. Education for future managers: At this juncture, junior personnel in the organisation are taught to deal with vital assignments comprising of responsibility, so that they can achieve something more than their superiors in the long run. b. Education for newbies: When new personnel join an organisation they are introduced by enlightening them in relation to the culture of the company, code of discipline, work ethos etc. This is generally carried out by way of a training method to accustom the new recruits with the working style of the organisation. c. Educating the public: This is carried out by advertising, informative seminars, newspapers, journals to notify the public regarding the product, the working style of the company and different schemes presented by the company.
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Study Notes
Assessment
1. 2. Why is communication important in an organization? What is the role of communication in business?
Discussion
Discuss the objectives of communication.
1.4 Nature of Communication

The Nature of communication can be explained using following characteristics of communication: Two-way process: Communication can occur only when there are at least two individuals. As shown in fig 1.1, one person has to convey some message and another has to receive it. However, the receiver need not necessarily be an individual. Information may be conveyed to a group of persons collectively. For example, in a classroom, the teacher conveys information to a group of students. If the receiver needs any clarification, he can ask the sender of message immediately, for example, face to face or telephonic conversation. Communication may carried by means of letters, circulars etc. If communication is conducted via post or email, the receiver may respond by a letter or as per the mode desired by him or the respective sender.
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Sender
Message Feedback improves communication
Receiver
Fig. 1.1: Two-way communication Knowledge of language: For successful communication, it is essential that the receiver have thorough understanding of the message. To heighten the possibility of effectual communication, senders must speak in a language the receiver is familiar with. For example, if the receiver cannot understand English and the subsequent sender conveys his ideas in English, the communication will inevitably be a failure. Meeting of minds necessary: The receiver must comprehend the intended meaning of the message the sender wants him to understand. A consensus is essential, which is nothing but recognizing the meaning of identity of minds. If weekly target declared by a supervisor is misconstrued by a worker as monthly target, there is dearth of agreement. Inattention, poor vocabulary, faulty pronunciation etc., may result in lack of consensus. The message must have substance: The gist of the message holds importance only until the receiver shows interest in the subject matter. In other words, the sender of message must have something worthwhile for the receiver. E.g., any discussion about cricket will be well received by a cricket fanatic. Communication can also be conducted through gestures: Communication should not necessarily be verbal or written. Certain gestures or actions can also depict an individual's willingness or understanding of a given problem. Nodding of heads, rolling of eyes, movement of lips etc., are some of the gestures used for convey certain basic ideas. Communication is all-pervasive: Communication is omnipresent; it exists in all levels of management. The top management conveys information to the middle management and vice versa. Similarly, the middle management conveys information to the supervisory staff and vice versa. There is flow of communication in all directions in a workplace. Communication is a continuous process: In every workplace, someone will always be conveying or receiving information in some form. Sharing or exchanging information is a continual process. As long as there is work personal, official or unofficial, communication will exist. Managerial Skill Development 13
Communication may be formal or informal:
Formal communication follows the
hierarchy- the official channel established. For example, when a worker wishes to convey certain information to the production manager, it can be channelised only through the foreman. He cannot bypass the foreman and convey information directly to the production manager. Informal communication does not follow the official channel. It provides individuals with the liberty to freely convey information to anybody else without considering the hierarchy. For example, discussion among friends.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. 2. How can communication take place through gestures? What is formal and informal communication?
Discussion
Discuss the two way process of communication. 14 Managerial Skill Development
1.5 Principles of Communication

Communication is complex. While listening to or reading someone else's message, we often filter what is being said through a screen of our own perceptions. Thus our preconceived notions and opinions become one of the major barriers to communication. There is an old communications game- telegraph, that is played in a circle. A message is whispered around from person to person. What the exercise usually proves is how profoundly the message changes as it passes through the distortion of each person's inner "filter". Communication, when effectually conducted, can assist in building sturdy relationships and harmonious working conditions. It also simplifies the process of sharing the best of ourselves with others There are certain basic principles that need to be followed while conversing informally with a colleague, addressing a conference or meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report; they are as follows: Identify your audience. Discern the purpose. Know your topic. Anticipate objections. Present a complete picture. Achieve credibility with your audience. Follow through on what you say. Communicate a little at a time. Impart information in several ways. Formulate a practical, useful way to receive feedback. Use multiple communication techniques. Communication is largely non-verbal. Context affects communication. Meanings are in people, not in words. Communication is irreversible. 15
Noise affects communication. Communication is circular. Creating common ground is essential. Communication has effects. We can concise these principles as follows: Be direct and concise: Be clear about the message and the subsequent meaning you
wish to convey. Make your point upfront with minimal preamble. Communicate as directly, concisely and economically as possible, almost as if you have to pay for every word. Frankly, people do pay for every word- with their precious time and sharing of mind. Never lose sight of this principle. Be honest and genuine: Words are uttered and written by you, but true wisdom and inspiration worth reading and hearing comes from within. If you are honest and genuine about your opinions and express them well, people will be attentive and respond with kindness. They will share and trust and feel comfortable doing business with you. In time, they will follow you, which is the essence of leadership. It occurs on an emotional level. Be present and open: Experience the moment- the here and the now. You can only learn from the past and plan, but the present packs a tremendous amount of information and content. Its presence is momentary after and then it is gone. Listen attentively, not just to what people are saying, but also to the meaning and feeling behind the words. That is truly priceless. Be confident but measured: Be confident and strong in your views and statements, but remember that whomever you are communicating with has their own thoughts, feelings, perspectives, ideals and objectives. Do not shove things down their throats or threaten. That might elicit responses you did not expect or desire. Be apologetic only when you have truly behaved in a regretful manner.
Study Notes
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Assessment
1. Explain why communication is complex?
2. What are the basic principles of communication while addressing a conference or
meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report?
Discussion
Discuss the basic principles of communication.
1.6 Process of Communication

The process of communication as shown in fig 1.2 involves exchange of ideas and it can be verbal or non-verbal in nature. The pre-requisite of communication is a message and this message must be conveyed through some medium to the recipient in such a way that it is understood by the recipient in the same manner as intended by the sender. The recipient must respond within a period. The response from the recipient to the sender is called feedback. Therefore, communication is said to be a two way process, which is incomplete without a feedback from the recipient to the sender on how well the message is understood by him.
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Fig 1.2: Communication process Following are the components of the process of communication. ollowing Context: Communication is affected by the context in which it occurs. This context could . be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a context. E.g. usage of the term Labour in relation to manpower or workload. Sender / Encoder: Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender utilizes symbols (words, graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the words, required response. For instance, a training manager conducting training for induction of instance new joinees. Sender may be an individual, a group or an organisation The views, . organisation. background, approach, skills, competencies and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and non-verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the same terms as intended by the sender. Message: Message is a key idea that the sender plans to communicate. It elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with planning the message to be conveyed. One must ensure that the main objective of the message is comprehensible comprehensible. Medium: Medium is a means used for exchanging/transmitting the message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message, as there are high message, probabilities of the message not being conveyed to the target recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies based on the features of communication. Written medium, for instance, is chosen when medium a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people, while an oral medium is
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chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient and queries are addressed on the spot. Recipient / Decoder: Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is depends on various factors like knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message and the reliance of encoder on decoder. Feedback: Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal or non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It could also be in written form (memos, reports, etc).
1.6.1 COMMUNICATION PROCESS: MODELS AND THEORIES

There are many communication process models and theories available for understanding the process involved in it, as developed by different people. It is very tedious, time and space consuming to consider all the communication models. It is, therefore, desirable to familiarise with some significant and important models that serve the purpose of understanding the process of communication. 1. Linear Model According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, one of the most productive schematic models of a communications system that has been proposed as an answer to Lasswells question (Who (says) What (to) Whom (in) What Channel (with) What Effect?) in relation to communication that emerged in the late 1940s, largely from the speculations of two American mathematicians, Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver. The simplicity of their model, its clarity and its surface generality proved attractive to many students of communication in various disciplines; although it neither is the only model of the communication process extant nor is, it universally accepted. As originally conceived, the model contained five elementsan information source, a transmitter, a channel of transmission, a receiver and a destinationall arranged in linear order. Messages (electronic messages, initially) were supposed to travel along this course, to be transformed into electric energy by the transmitter and to be reconstituted into intelligible language by the receiver. In due course, the five elements of the model were renamed to specify components for other types of communication transmitted in various manners. The information source was split into its components (both source and message) as a provision for wider range of applicability. The six constituents of the revised model are: Managerial Skill Development 19
A source An encoder A message A channel A decoder A receiver
Some communication systems have simple components. For instance A person on a landline telephone The mouthpiece of the telephone The words spoken The electrical wires along which the words (now electrical impulses) travel The earpiece of another telephone The mind of the listener In other communication systems, the components are more complicated to isolatee.g., the communication of the emotions of a artist through a painting to people who may on an act in response to the message long after the death of the artist. Begging a multitude of psychological, aesthetic and sociological questions concerning the exact nature of each component, the linear model appeared, from the commonsense perspective, at least, to explain generally the ways in which certain classes of communication occurred. It did not indicate the reason for the inability of certain nication communicationsobvious in daily lifeto fit its neat model. obvious life
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Fig. 1.3: Linear Model of Communication Managerial Skill Development
2. Aristotles Model Aristotle took the first step towards the development of a communication model. He developed an easy, simple and elementary model of the communication process. As shown in the figure 1.4, in a communication event, there are three main ingredients, like , like: The Speaker The Speech and The Audience
Fig. 1.4: Aristotles Model Subsequently, a number of experts have formulated modern models of communication that are more complex and dynamic. 3. David K. Berlos Model David Berlos process theory is one of the fundamental theories for all communication theorists. The various theories of process models specify the idea persuasively to another person; Berlos model is of general importance in developing other communication models and identifying elements of communication. Berlo's process theory has contributed largely to the subject of communication. In this model, he identified essential elements and other factors affecting them (the five senses). However, the model owever, does not consider verbal and nonverbal stimuli. As shown in figure 1.5, the nine components non he are included in his model are: Source, Encoder, Message, Channel, Receiver, Decoder, : Meaning, Feedback and Noise.
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Fig. 1.5: David K. Berlos Model 4. Harold D. Lasswell Model The communication process of Lasswell, in its broader analysis, spawns to four basic and important questions. They are: Who? What? Whom? Which? These behavioural aspects of the sender in the communication process are well defined.
COMMUNICATIONS Lasswell's model ignores the essential elements of the communication process. However, Lasswell's model indicates the major elements in the process by posing some questions related to the act of communication. They are: Who? Says What? In What Channel? To Whom? With What Effect?
Fig. 1.6: Lasswell's Model
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1. Why? Why do we want to communicate? What is the purpose of the communication? Is it to persuade or to inform? Is any particular action required? 2. What? What do we want to communicate? It may be an order, an idea, an attitude or a feeling. What form of words or possible actions suits the situation? 3. How? How are we going to communicate? In what form will the communication get home the message fastest? What impact will a particular form have on the recipient? 4. Who? Is there a key to the communication situation? How does he feel about me, about this situation? 5. When? Finally, when is the right time to get across this message? When is the receiver likely to give it the most attention? Is timing critical to the success of the communication?
In this model, he covers the five elements in the process by putting forth the above questions. The model emphasises on the effects of communication and the response of the receivers. The behavioural aspects of the sender are the important element in the process. Table. 1.1: LASSWELL MODEL
Who Says What In Which Channel To Whom With What Effect
Sender
Message
Media
Receiver
Effect
Management can ask for assistance of trade unions and their media, to bring about effective communication. The management and trade unions should constantly maintain good relations with each other as it encourages industrial peace and harmony. The executives should interact with unions and exchange views, share viewpoints to pass on open and frank information to them to generate confidence. The growth of trade union Managerial Skill Development 23
movement has increased the importance of communication in the industry. A good mutual understanding and a friendly and harmonious atmosphere of cooperation in the enterprise etc. can be developed by way of an effective system of communication in the industry. 5. Emphasis on Human Relations In recent times, the emphasis is on recognition of dignity of labour and authority. Workers are not to be treated as commodities. They are inclusive of the organisation and are treated like a partnership relationship. The concept of master-servant relationship has lost its significance. They are co-partners of the enterprise. A successful management is one, which must recognize the needs, attitudes, feelings of the workers. By itself, the emphasis is on human relations that implies better understanding of workers. Simultaneously, this accentuates the significance of the two-way traffic in communication. Therefore, the growing recognition of human relations and maintaining good human relations with workers along with a host of other factors has necessitated effective communication. 6. Public Relations The social responsibility of management cannot be overlooked. The responsibilities imply the obligations, which a business house owes to the society. There are four important groups for example, owners of the business, i.e., the shareholders, customers, employees and the society. Each group should be given a timely report of the measures taken for allocating their respective social responsibilities. Public relations emphasises a proper understanding of the nature, of the public and the social environment in which an industry is operating and the changes that are constantly occurring. Relation is the outcome of mutual understanding derived from the process of sharing of common interests. The integration of these two elements gives us public relations, which in recent times is a specialised management function.
Study Notes
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Assessment
1. Explain the linear model of communication? 2. Explain the Harold D. Lasswell Model of communication?
Discussion
Discuss the two way process of communication.
1.7 Communication Network

Communication Network is divided into two parts in an organisation.
Fig. 1.7: Communication network in an organisation Managerial Skill Development 25
An organisation is a composite of various individuals working in unison towards a common goal. They are constantly interacting with each other and with people outside the company. The communication network in an organisation is bifurcated into two parts: INTERNAL COMMUNICATION Interaction among members of the same organisation is termed as internal communication. It could be both formal and informal. Large organisations with hundreds of people employees face inability in communicating and directly interacting with everyone. They adopt a number of strategies e.g. newsletters, annual reports to communicate the essential message. In such large setups, it is impossible and unnecessary to transmit information to everyone. Informal communication is prevalent in organisations with a preliminary work force of approximately 20 people, all of whom have direct interaction with each other every day. Almost all messages are communicated back and forth in an informal manner. The channels of communication may be as follows: Vertical Horizontal Diagonal
DIAGONAL VERTICAL
HORIZONTAL
Fig. 1.8: Vertical, horizontal and diagonal communication VERTICAL COMMUNICATION Vertical communication is upward and downward flow of messages. Information is transmitted from the top management to the employees working in the organisation or vice versa. Since it is impossible to have upward and downward direct interface on all occasions, 26 Managerial Skill Development
especially when the downward number of people working is high, messages navigate or break through with assistance from a mediator or an opinion leader. In such situations, it is highly possible that the message would be distorted as it travels from one person to another. Let us use the analogy of a game, viz. Chinese Whisper, to understand how distortion in message occurs. The content of the original message changes as it advances from one person to another with the addition or deletion of words. Eventually, when the message reaches the last person, it is observed, that amusingly the message has totally lost its meaning. If the observations from this game were transformed into the organisational set-up, it would be perceived that those messages are distorted when they are passed on upwards or downwards. Distortion of original message can be evaded by ensuring the passed on is not fragmented and there are lesser people to pass the information further. Further efforts could be made to ensure that there is direct communication within the departments. The managing heads of the various departments could form a close link and disperse information. Besides, distortions can he minimised with the usage of the electronic media and e-mails. LATERAL/HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION Interaction with peers or colleagues is called lateral/horizontal communication. This could prove to be the most effectual form of communication, as peers are not stalled by the chain-of-command methods. The volume of horizontal communication that a company benefits from would be subject to the interdependence of various departments. In fact, if the work is conducted by considering operations of various departments, communication is improved and more inclusive. Without lateral communication, there cannot be productive development at the organisational level. In similar situations, there would be lack of coordination, cooperation and numerous forced attempts would be carried out to amalgamate activities of various departments. Further, it could also cause repetition of work and poor employee relationships. DIAGONAL COMMUNICATION In an organisation, communication does not necessarily move across a specific path. Vertical and lateral forms or informal and diagonal forms of transferring messages are vital. As shown in figure 1.9, in diagonal communication, there is no direct path planned for transmission of information. At certain stages, it could take on the upward trend, then a lateral direction and, finally, move downward or even skip a few stages. This channel is considered extremely effective as hierarchical bindings are removed Managerial Skill Development 27
and there is a free flow of communication, irrespective of position or status. Furthermore, it facilitates in building relationships and bonding between the superior and the subordinate. In fact, in many Western countries, managers are trained to harmonise with the employees; it works to eradicate fear of status and position. Nonetheless, this channel could lead to gossip, grapevine and rumours. Since nobody is directly accountable for the flow of information, nobody is prepared to assume responsibility. Only a sensible manager can filter through the information, in the midst of rumours and gossip, note the aim of the sender and finally reach a definite conclusion. This channel could, nevertheless turn a little challenging for managers who aspire to control flow of information. They might feel vulnerable that their controlling authority is under observation. However, this is a temporary phase and with continuous and mature communication, it can be straightened out.
Fig. 1.9: Diagonal Communication EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION Communication is an ongoing process. It not only occurs with people both within and outside the organisation. If a company plans to exist in a competitive environment, it has to implement the latter form of communication also. The image of the company is reliant on external communication. External communication can take on a number of forms: 28 Advertising Media interaction Public relations Presentations Negotiations Mails Managerial Skill Development
Telegrams Letters External communication could be oral or written. The first three forms of
communication mentioned above, i.e. advertising, media interaction and public relations are mainly included within the field of corporate communications. Establishing good relations, negotiating or conducting a deal, interacting with clients, issuing lenders, soliciting proposals, sending letters are conducted in external communication. This is a complex job since interaction varies between various people from myriad disciplines, with diverse personalities and varied expectations. When communication is persevered with external customers, nearly all skills required for proficient communication have to be brought to the forefront in order to avoid any humiliation or drop in performance. On certain occasions, in the course of internal level communications, individuals could seem lackadaisical. The same laid-back behaviour would not be considered appropriate in case of external communication. As employees are the face of the company, they have to, take into account the image of the organisation and generate a positive impression that has an enduring effect.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. 2. What is vertical communication? What is diagonal communication?
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Discussion
Discuss external communication.
1.8
Cross Cultural Communication

Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that scrutinizes how people from
varying cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves and how they endeavour to communicate across cultures. Cross-cultural communication tries to amalgamate such relatively unrelated areas as cultural anthropology and established areas of communication. Its core is to ascertaining and understanding how people from variant cultures communicate with each other. Its charge is producing some guiding principles that would simplify communication for different people with different background.
1.8.1 CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR

Nonverbal Communication differs widely between cultures. Everyone acquires meaning from both verbal and nonverbal messages, but some people in certain cultures rely more on verbal communication than nonverbal communication. In contrast, people in other cultures rely more on nonverbal communication than on verbal communication. Edward Hall believed that cultures vary in the trust people place on nonverbal signals or on verbal signals. He defined these extremes a low-context culture and high-context culture. These categories, of course, describe broad cultural characteristics, not necessarily individual behaviours. Low-context Culture refers to the dependency of people on direct verbal messages to communicate. These people prefer explicitly stated information. Directness is considered desirable. High-context Culture refers to the dependency of the people on indirect nonverbal messages to communicate. Directness is often considered rude. As shown in table 1.2, in low-context cultures, most transmitted information is present in the message itself. Alternatively, in high-context cultures, the interpretation is primarily determined by the communicators nonverbal signals that imply shared social and cultural knowledge of the 30 Managerial Skill Development
context. This distinction has important implication for communication in organisations. Communication in low-context cultures is more cumbersome, while communication in highcontext cultures is rich in meaning. Table 1.2: Views of Communication in High-Context and Low-Context Cultures High-Context Culture (Examples: Japan, United Arab Emirates) Indirectness, politeness, ambiguity Low Low-Context Culture (Examples: Germany, Canada, United States) Directness, confrontation, clarity High Low High Binding Not binding High
Preferred communication strategy Reliance on words to communicate Reliance on nonverbal signs High to communicate Importance of words Low Agreement made in writing Not binding Agreement made orally Binding Attention to detail Low Source: David A. Victor, International Business Communication.
Table 1.3 indicates the various motivational factors and how they are perceived in different cultures. These motivational factors fall under the nonverbal communication. On the other hand, oral communication requires cultural understanding. Table 1.3: Cultural Contrasts in Motivation United States Emotional Appeal Opportunity Japan Group Participation; Company success Arab Countries Religion; Nationalism; Admiration Recognition based on Individual Achievement Group Achievement Individual Status; Status of class/society Material Rewards Salary, Bonus, Profit sharing Annual Bonus; Social Service, Fringe Benefits Threats Loss of job Loss of Group Membership Managerial Skill Development Demotion; Loss of Reputation 31 Gifts for self/family; Salary
Values
Competition, Risk taking, Freedom
Group harmony; Belonging
Reputation; Family security; Religion
Source: Farid Elashmawi & Philip R. Harris, Multicultural Management 2000: Essential Cultural Insights for Global Business Success. Table 1.4 and 1.5 depict purpose and information exchanged in business introductions differs across cultures. Table 1.4: Cultural Contrasts in Business Introductions United States Purpose of Introduction Establish status and job identity; Network Image of individual Information Use of language Independent Related to business Informal, friendly; use first name Values Openness, directness, action Harmony; respect, listening Japan Establish position in group, build harmony Member of group Related to company Little talking Part of rich culture Personal Formal; Expression of admiration Religious harmony, hospitality, emotional support Source: Farid Elashmawi & Philip R. Harris, Multicultural Management 2000: Essential Cultural Insights for Global Business Success. Arab Countries Establish personal rapport
Table 1.5: Cultural Contrasts in Written Persuasive Documents United States Opening Request action or get readers attention Way to persuade Immediate gain or loss of opportunity Waiting Personal connection; future opportunity Style 32 Short sentences Modesty; minimise Elaborate Japan Offer thanks; apologise Arab Countries Offer personal greetings
own standing
expressions; many signatures
Closing
Specific request
Desire to maintain harmony
Future relationship; personal greetings Status; continuation
Values
Efficiency; directness; action
Politeness, indirectness, relationship
Source: Farid Elashmawi & Philip R. Harris, Multicultural Management 2000: Essential Cultural Insights for Global Business Success. In written communication directed to international audience, resort to titles and not first names as the Americans do. In context to writing for most cultures, buffer negative messages and make requests more indirect. The above table depicts the need for modifying style, structure and strategy when you write for international audiences. Watch out for phrases that could seem arrogant or uncaring. Cultural mistakes made orally float away on the air; those made in writing are permanently recorded. The following examples of nonverbal behaviour in the Arab world, Latin America and China divulge some of the cultural errors that a less-than-sensitive American organisation member could easily commit.
A. THE ARABS
Arabs are highly expressive in their body language. They talk with their hands and with profuse facial expressions. Raising the eyebrows and clicking the tongue signifies a negative response, while a sideways nod of the head conveys a positive one. When talking, Arabs stand much closer together and look more at one another, each focusing their gaze on the others face and eyes much more than persons from low contact cultures such as North America and northern Europe. Arabs touch much more than Westerners do. They gently rap the other-person or rest a hand on the others knee during conversation. Kissing on the cheeks is the common way for men to greet each other and male friends often hold hands when walking together. The right hand is for public matters and the left hand, considered the toilet hand, is to be kept private. Thus, nothing should be accepted from or given to anybody with the left hand and, as the American businessman failed to recognize, one should not eat with the left hand. Arabs usually do not make business decisions through correspondence or by telephone. A personal meeting is a prerequisite for reaching agreements.
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Greetings and leave-takings are highly ritualised. Refreshments are served and gifts and business cards are exchanged. Foreigners should be careful to present their business cards, printed in both Arabic and English, with the Arabic side face up. Westerners should accept offers of hospitality to visit an Arabs home and the invitation must be returned. No alcohol should be offered to Arab guests or consumed in their presence. Being on time for appointments is unusual in the Arab world. When Arabs schedule time, they will typically say, Insha Allah, if Allah wills, indicating that time is in Allahs hands, not their own. In addition, they continually and freely move timeframes forward and backward- a practice that may appal North Americans, who cannot change the planned time for an activity more than couple of times without violating a cultural norm.
B. LATIN AMERICA
Like Arabs, Latin Americans have a much greater tolerance for close interaction, including touch, than North Americans do. Traditional Latin Americans cannot talk comfortably unless they are so near that a North American would almost surely back away. Thus, it is easy for Latin Americans to perceive North Americans or Europeans as distant or unfriendly. Facial expressions mean essentially the same things to Latin Americans as to North Americans, but, like Arabs, Latin Americans focus their gaze intently on the eyes and face of their conversational partner. Formality is expected in introductions: each individual should receive a handshake as well as a slight bow. A casual greeting or leave-taking addressed to a group (Hi, everybody or See you all tomorrow) would be considered arrogant and discourteous. Conservative dress and calling cards in the local language are appropriate for business. Latin Americans think of and handle time very differently than North Americans do. Latin Americans who are sensitive to this often use the expression, "Hora Americana, horct mejicana?" (Our time or your time?) Hall describes a Latin American businessman who was careful to 'make allowances' for his visiting North American business associates. Eventually, the visitors spent approximately an hour in his office, rather than all day because traditional Latin American pace of conducting business is traditionally slow. The 'mariana' (it can wait until tomorrow) concept governs. The future is considered imprecise. Assurances are made to ensure things are ready at the stipulated time, but they are usually not kept. Latin Americans tend to feel that chance reins their destiny and outside forces are in direct command over ones life. The anarchism attitude is cultural characteristic that Latin Americans manifested through their nonverbal behaviour. A man is expected to demonstrate forcefulness, self34 Managerial Skill Development
confidence, visible courage and leadership with a flourish. Traditional Latin culture is authoritarian. Signs in a persons demeanour and tone of voice denote grades of superiority or inferiority. The owner-manager (caudillo), for example, behaves as master in his own domain, based on the supposition that his subordinates want a strongman who would command. However, the caudillo himself be startled jump when someone superior arrives.
C. THE CHINESE
Generally, Chinese do not like to be touched or even to shake hands. Business greetings, a slight bow and very brief handshake are considered apposite. Speaking distance between two people in a non-intimate relationship is greater than it is in the West. The Chinese are more retiring and shy than North Americans. Thus, Western businesspeople should avoid loud, boisterous or aggressive behaviour when dealing with the Chinese. In business interactions, one should not focus on an individual Chinese person, but rather on the group, which is striving towards a common goal. Chinese are embarrassed are being singled out. Being faced directly while seated on the opposite side of a desk may alienate a Chinese, who considers this like being under assessment. To evade humiliation, Chinese often favour negotiate through intermediaries. Typically, dealings with Chinese are lengthy than Westerners arc accustomed to. Perhaps because Chinese are wary of Western imperialism and supposed superiority, Western businesspeople should be equipped to allocating long hours for building trust. Visitors should behave in a non-condescending manner. Since establishing an attitude of friendship is an essential foundation for business transactions, any one transaction might require several visits to the PRC. Five sessions may be required to finalize negotiations that might take one or two meetings among Westerners. Habitually Chinese consider first meetings devoted to social conversation: pleasantries and serving tea. Businesspeople visiting China should be prepared to spend hours waiting a great deal of time simply waiting: in appointment may take days to obtain. However, their patience and persistence are to be rewarded since these are the attributes that Chinese expect foreigners to demonstrate. Chinese are punctual and expect others to arrive promptly for each meeting or even before time. The Chinese host will indicate the appropriate time for the visitor to depart.
1.8.2 TIPS FOR COMMUNICATING WITH PEOPLE CROSS-CULTURALLY

You may never completely overcome linguistic and cultural barriers or totally erase ethnocentric tendencies, but you can communicate effectively with people from other cultures if you strive towards it. Here are some tips for handling intercultural business communication more effectively (J.V. Thill & C.L. Bovee, Excellence in Business Managerial Skill Development 35
Communication). 1. Learning about a culture The finest way to of preparing yourself to do business with people from other cultures is scrutinizing their culture beforehand. If you aim to conduct business on a recurrent basis, it will be advisable to learn the language. Even if you undertake business transactions in English, you show consideration by striving to learn the local language. Concentrate on learning something about their history, religion, politics and customs, but do not ignore the practical side of life. Seasoned business travellers suggest the following: In Spain, let a handshake last for five or seven strokes; pulling away instantly may be misinterpreted as a sign of rejection. In France, however, the handshake is a single stroke. Never gift liquor in Arab countries. In England, placing pens or other objects in the front suit pocket is considered awkward or clumsy. In Africa, allow plenty of time to familiarise with the people you are dealing with. Africans are distrustful of people who are in a hurry. If you concentrate solely on the task, Africans will doubt you and shun doing business with you in future. In Arab countries, never decline food or drink as it is an insult to refuse hospitality of any kind. However, ensure you are not too quick to accept. A ritual refusal [I dont want to put you to any trouble or I dont want to be a bother] is expected before you finally accept. Stress the longevity [age, span of life] of your company when dealing with the Germans, Dutch and Swiss. If your company has been around for a while, the founding date should be printed on your business cards. 2. Handling Written Communication Intercultural business writing falls into the same general categories as other forms of business writing. Unless you are personally fluent in the language of the intended readers, all written communication should be in English or ensure it is translated by a professional translator. If both the reader and you speak different languages, be especially concerned with achieving clarity: a. Some tips for handling written communication : 36 Managerial Skill Development
Use short, precise words that say what they mean. Rely on specific terms to elucidating your points. Avoid abstractions altogether or illustrate them with concrete examples.
Stay away from slang, jargon and buzz words. Such words rarely translate well. Avoid idioms and figurative expressions, abbreviations and acronyms. These may lead to perplexity.
Construct shorter and simpler sentences that are utilized while writing to someone proficient in English.
Use short paragraphs. Each paragraph should stand by one point or topic and minimum eight to ten lines.
Help readers follow your drift by using transitional devices. Precede related points with expressions like in addition and first, second, third.
Use numbers, visual aids and pre-printed forms to clarify your message. These devices are generally comprehended in most cultures.
3. Handling Oral Communication Oral communication with people from other cultures is more difficult to cope with than written communication. Some transactions cannot be handled without face-to-face communication. When engaging in verbal communication, be attentive about the possibilities of confusions. Be conscious of the non-verbal messages that you may be sending or receiving. To overcome the language and cultural barriers, follow these suggestions: Keep an open mind. Do not stereotype the other person or react with preconceived ideas. Regard the person as an individual first, not as a representative of another culture. Be conscious of the other persons customs. Anticipate him or her to follow different values, beliefs, expectations and mannerisms. Try to be aware of unintentional meanings that may be read into your message. Clarify your true intent by repetition and examples. Listen carefully and patiently. If you are unable to understand a comment, ask the person to reiterate it. Be aware that the other persons body language may mislead you. Gestures and 37
expressions mean different things in different cultures. Rely more on words than on nonverbal communication to interpret the message. Adapt your style according to that of the other person.. If the other person seems direct and straightforward, follow suit. If not, alter your behaviour to match. At the end of the conversation, ensure both you and the other person agree on common grounds what has been said and decided. Clarify decisions or activities next in line. If appropriate, revert by writing a letter or memo summarizing the conversation and thanking the person for meeting with you.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. Explain the cultural differences in nonverbal communication.
2. Explain the nonverbal behaviour in the Arab world.
Discussion
Discuss the way of communicating with people cross-culturally.
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1.9 Summary
Meaning and Definition of Communication: Communication is a process, which involves organising, selecting and transmission of symbols in such a way as to help the listener perceive and recreate in his own mind the meaning contained in the mind of the communicator. Communication involves the creation of meaning in the listener, the transfer of information and thousands of potential stimuli. Communication enables us to do important things, to grow, to learn to be aware of ourselves and to accommodate to our environment. Communication is a two way process between two parties- the sender and the receiver. It involves an exchange and progression of thoughts, ideas, knowledge and information towards a mutually accepted goal or direction. Importance of Communication: Communication is an important aspect of management. Its importance cannot be overlooked. The main cause of misunderstanding is dearth of effective communication. In an inter-dependent company, the importance of communication in management cannot be overemphasized. Its importance has been widely recognized in recent years. Group activities in the case of common goals cannot be accomplished without communication. The entire organisation control, coordination and motivation cannot be discharged without communication. Reasons behind significance: Coordination Smooth Working Effective Decision-Making Managerial Efficiency Co-operation Effective Leadership Job Satisfaction Increase Productivity Morale Building Achieving Managerial Role Nature of Communication: The nature of communication can be explained by the following characteristics of communication: Two-way process 39
Knowledge of language Meeting of minds necessary The message must have substance Communication may be made through gestures as well Communication is all-pervasive Communication is a continuous process Communication may be formal or informal Principles of Communication: Whether one is speaking informally to a colleague,
addressing a conference or meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report, the following basic principles should be considered: Be direct and concise Be honest and genuine Be present and open Be confident but measured Process of Communication: The main components of communication process are as follows: Context Sender / Encoder Message Medium Recipient / Decoder Feedback
1.10 Self Assessment Test

Broad Questions 1. What do you mean by Communication? Explain in detail meaning, definition and nature of Communication. 2. What are the principles of good and effective Communication? What are components of Communication Process? 40 Managerial Skill Development
3. What is Communication Network? Explain the role and importance of Communication in an organisation. Short Notes a. Significance and Objective of Communication b. Theories of Communication c. Cross Cultural Communication d. Views of Communication in High-Context and Low-Context Cultures e. Nonverbal behaviour in the Arab world, Latin America and China
1.11 Further Reading

1. Business Communication from Process to Product, Bowman Joel P and Branchaw Bemadine, Dryden Press, 1987 2. Business Communications: Principles and Applications, Pearce C. Glenn etc. Ed. 2, 1988 3. Communicating in Business, Hatch Richard, Science Research Associates, 1977 4. Effective Business Communications, Murphy Herta A. and Peck Charries E. Ed. 2, Tata McGraw Hill 1976 5. Successful Business Communication, Treece Maira, Ed. 3,. Allyn and Bacon, 1987
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Assignment
Consider that you are an entrepreneur starting a new business. Define your business, product, marketing strategy, finance etc and make a presentation. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 42 Managerial Skill Development
Case Study
Read the below case study carefully. Case Study: The Logistic Company Most courier and cargo companies send their total consignments (load in their language) to a particular station, with prior intimation by way of E-mail (pre-alert message in their language). ABC Logistics was no exception to this procedure. Before they send their load by evening flight to Mumbai, they send a pre-alert to the Mumbai office that gives details of the load like flight number, total number of bags, total weight of the bags etc. Night-duty Airport Executive at Mumbai airport retrieves the load and confirms the receipt of the same to the Bangalore office. This arrangement worked fine for months and even years. The Airport Executive continued to get the pre-alert message and after retrieval of the load, he continued to confirm the receipt of the same.. However, one night Satish who was on night-duty at Mumbai airport observed that neither had any pre-alert been received from Bangalore nor had any load been delivered. Contacting the Bangalore office had been of no avail since it was well past midnight and the office was shut. Satish was told by the security guard on duty that the staff at the Bangalore office had already left. Satish tried contacting Ravi who he knew worked at night. However, this attempt was futile as Ravi's mobile was switched off. Satish had no other option except to call the Assistant Manager, Operations, Bangalore - Charles. Charles tried contacting Ravi but like Satish he found that Ravi's mobile was switched off. The situation was perplexing. Charles was concerned about what had happened. He tried calling other operations' staff to find out whether anybody knew where Ravi resided. However, he was unable to procure any information about Ravi's residence. Charles was disappointed. Although he had disturbed a couple of staff members in the dead of the night, he did not make any headway. Charles was faced with a dilemma. He wondered whether he should defer the matter till the morning or settle it right away. After a little deliberation, he chose the latter. As a last resort, Charles called Hari, the HR Executive. Charles explained the situation to him and told him to go to the office and find out Ravi's address from his personal documents. It was 01:30 in the morning and Hari was appalled by the fact that he was being disturbed at this hour of the night. Nevertheless, Hari went to the office, confirmed Ravi's address and forwarded it to Charles. Managerial Skill Development 43
Charles had no option but to commute 15 km to reach Ravi's residence. He reached Ravis home at 02:15 hours. Ravi found it strange that his manager was visiting him well past midnight. On being questioned as to why he had not sent the pre alert message he said, "Very simple, today there was excess booking by other logistic companies and there was no space, so cargo officials of all the airlines refused to accept our load. Since no load was connected, I did not send pre-alert as well. However, I have done booking for morning flight and load will be connected through morning flight. Charles was infuriated by his answer. Ravi's lack of communication had inconvenienced many people. After going through the above situation, can you identify the communication issues involved in it? What exactly went wrong and where did it go wrong? Who could have avoided or saved the situation and how?
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Unit 2
Communication Skills
Learning Outcome
After reading this unit, you will able to: Outline basics of effective communication Recall keys and guidelines for effective communication Identify essentials for business writing Point out blunders which can be avoided while writing for business Use tips for effective business writings Outline various kinds of communication

5.
Content Map
2.1 2.2 Introduction Barriers to Effective Communication 2.2.1 Physical Barriers 2.2.2 Psychological Barriers 2.2.3 Linguistic and Cultural Barriers Managerial Skill Development 45
2.2.4 Mechanical Barriers 2.3 Gateways of Effective Communication 2.3.1 Guidelines for Effective Communication 2.3.2 7 C's and 4 S's 2.3.3 Keys to more Effective Communication 2.4 Do's and Don'ts of Business Writing 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.5 Essentials of Business Writing Must Avoid Sentence Blunders for Business Writings Tips for Effective Business writing
Types of Communication 2.5.1 2.5.2 Oral V/s Written Communication Link between Non-Verbal Messages and Verbal Messages
2.6 2.7 2.8
Summary Self Assessment Test Further Reading
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2.1 Introduction
Effective communication is indispensible for any organisation. In the absence of effective communication, a message can be interpreted erroneously or it can breed misunderstandings. Ineffective communication skills have been known to make or break relationships. Miscommunication in a business can mushroom disastrous consequences as the reputation of the business, forecasts and other important goals are at stake. It thereby becomes imperative to lay emphasis on training in effective communication in order to keep failure at bay. Communication skills need to be honed and developed continuously. The success of sort of relationship, whether it is a business relation or personal relation is contingent upon on oral communication. Take for example the instance of an English speaking tourist in a foreign country. If the tourist carries out conversations only in English in a non English speaking country, he/she will fail to communicate effectively. Similarly communication skills need to constantly kept at par with the changing environment and need to be worked upon on a continuous basis.
2.2 Barriers to Effective Communication

Effective communication can face multiple barriers. In business communication, obstacles occur because of organisational barriers. The obstacles could be: Size of organisation Physical distance between employees Specialisation of jobs, activities Power struggles, status of relationships Defensiveness, distorted perceptions, guilt, distortions from past Misleading body language, tone or other non-verbal communication Interpersonal relationships (individual or groups) Prejudices The channels used to communicate
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2.2.1 PHYSICAL BARRIERS

There are four kinds of physical barriers. Competing stimulus: Another conversation (within hearing distance), loud music, traffic noise (in the background), crows cawing, plane overhead - can drown message. Environmental stress: High temperature plus humidity, poor ventilation, vibrations felt, strong glare can contribute to distractions (in sending and receiving messages). Subjective stress: Sleeplessness, ill health, effects of drugs, mood variations give rise to stress, leading to difficulty in listening and interpretation Ignorance of medium: The various media for communication are oral, written, audio, visual, audio-visual. Use of a medium, which the communicator is not familiar with could turn the medium itself into barrier (e.g. maps, charts used to instruct workers who have not been taught to read maps will alienate workers immediately).
2.2.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS

Each person has a frame of reference, a kind of window to view the world, people, events and situations. A frame of reference is a system of standards and values, usually implicit, underlying and to some extent controlling an action or the expression of any belief, attitude or idea. No two people will have same frame of reference. Our frame of reference is fashioned by our expressions, childhood experiences, cultural environment and heredity. With the passage of time, we develop diverse frames of references to meet our myriad needs - our own and that of the group we identify with. This is the reference group whose attitudes, religion, politics, education etc. we espouse as our own (without being fully aware that we are doing so). Self Image: Enmeshed in the frame of reference is the self-image or self- concept of a person. Owing to this self-image people establish their point of view, and interpret messages in accordance with their self concepts. They interpret 'reality' in the light of these pre-conceived notions. As a part of this system, people tend to listen and interpret favourably towards those messages, which give a further their self-image and reject those messages, which threaten that image. Resistance to change: The risk of being changed is one of the most frightening prospects many of us can face(On Becoming a Person by Carl Rogers, www.listeningway.com). It is a human tendency to resist change and new ideas. 48 Managerial Skill Development
However, the effective communicator does not wait for resistance to accumulate but takes people into confidence, even at planning stage, lends a ear to their point of view, involves them in change, converses about benefits, assures them security will not be affected and explains why change is necessary. Defensiveness and fear: This is strongly allied to the barrier raised by a resistance to change. One of mans most compelling needs is to justify himself. Fear is an effect of great potency in determining what the individual will perceive, think and do, said Izard and Tomkins. Together with connected emotions of nervousness, anxiety and tension, fear is the most restricting of all effects, resulting often in 'tunnel vision'. It also gives slow, narrow thinking, which selects and distorts communication. Appropriate examples of this are interviews and exams. Some psychologists propose that a little anxiety is good; it heightens attention, improves performance, releases certain hormones and facilitates learning by a greater nerve messages to brain. In other words, fear and anxiety can be turned into a source of energy and confidence.
2.2.3 LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL BARRIERS

Language is an expression of thoughts/expression of people in terms of cultural environment. When same language is used in different cultures, it takes another colour. Language can be appropriated to suit varied situations e.g. financial terms, medical terms, psychological terms etc. Language facilitates understanding, but it can also prove to be a barrier to communication. A language, whether verbal or non-verbal, is ambiguous in nature. Words are mere symbols. Symbols are comprehended differently by participants in communication. Cultural differences have an impact on language and meanings. Cultures provide people with ways of thinking, ways of seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world. Thus, the same words can possess myriad meanings for who speak the same language, but are native to different cultures. When languages are distinct, communication is carried out through translation, which increases the probability of misunderstandings.
2.2.4 MECHANICAL BARRIERS

Mechanical barriers are those raised by channels employed for interpersonal or mass communication. Channels become barriers when the message is impeded by disturbances. In such a case, it a)increases the difficulty in reception or b)prevents some elements of the message reaching its destination or both. Absence of communication facilities can also be mechanical barrier. Technically such barriers are clubbed as 'channel noise'. These include any disturbance, which interferes with Managerial Skill Development 49
the fidelity of physical transmission of a message. Some examples of mechanical barriers are static on radio, smeared ink on newspaper, a rolling screen on TV, a barely readable point size or a film projector, video/DVD that does not function properly. Barriers or channel noise can be associated with cultural or social issues, language, customs, beliefs, motives, aspirations, assumptions across geographic lines or simply illiteracy. A large number of sources of noise or interference can infiltrate the channel of communication. This may occur when people are not very familiar with each other and they do not understand the sources of error. This kind of interference is frequent in a work setting where the people have not known each other very long. This may lead to conflicting relationship, which can make the process of communication even more complex. There can be many sources of 'noise' at a workplace and some of them are as follows: Language: Language is symbolic representation of a phenomenon. There is always prospect for interpretation so the meaning can be construed in several ways and even distorted at times. The choice of words or language deeply impinges on the quality of communication. Moreover, the same message or the same words can have many implications since they can be interpreted variously by different people. Several factors affect how an individual attributes meaning to particular words. Some of these factors can be defensiveness, distorted perceptions, guilt, project, transference, distortions from the past, misreading of body language, tone and other non-verbal forms of communication. Other factors can be noisy transmission (unreadable messages, inconsistency), receiver distortion, ignoring non-verbal cues, selective hearing, selffulfilling assumptions and power struggles. People's perception of situations is also distinct from that of each other's. Perpetual Biases: People react to stimuli in very different ways. All of us construe shortcuts that we employ to organise data. These shortcuts introduce some or the other biases into the channel of communication. Some of these can be stereotyping, projection and self-fulfilling prophecies. Stereotyping comes into play when we assume that a person participating or belonging to a certain group will display those characteristics that are inherent to the group as a whole. Stereotyping occurs when these group characteristics are attributed to the person without validating the individual independently to find out whether he/she actually exhibits those characteristics or not.
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Impersonal relationships: Our perception is prejudiced by the past experience with the individual and the organisational relationship two people have which in turn affects our communication. E.g. Communication from a superior may be perceived differently than that from a subordinate or peer.
Cultural differences: Effective communication requires deciphering the basic motives, values, assumptions and aspirations that operate across geographical lines. Since, there is a dramatic difference in the approaches to time, space and privacy in a cross-cultural situation; the opportunities for miscommunication are abundant.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. 2. What types of obstacles does business communication face in an organization? Explain the linguistic and cultural barriers to communication.
Discussion
Discuss the mechanical barriers to communication.
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2.3 Gateways of Effective Communication

Over 70% of our time is spent in communicating with others and that interaction is compulsory. Everyone must communicate his or her needs and ideas. In case of an organisation, it is important for the organisation to communicate regarding its products and services. Unfortunately, many people have trouble in this area. Remember, you must have the professional impact that is needed to get ahead in the corporate world today. Communication is important as people judge us, our companies, our products, our services and our professionalism by the way we write, act, dress, talk and manage our responsibilities, in short, how well we communicate with others. Successful people know how to communicate effectively. They know how to communicate their ideas without hurting the sentiments or ego of the people they are dealing with. An appropriate communication style behoves a person dealing with peers, external groups, customers, employees and managers.
2.3.1 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication guidelines are vital for horizontal integration of the communication process. These guidelines may incorporate work procedures, which have been agreed upon, design regulations regarding logotypes and colours. Most companies have house style books that comprise such regulations and express the core values of the corporate identity. It should be noted that corporate communication and management of stakeholders are affected by other functions as well. Therefore, horizontal arrangements are required to be in place for the coordination of work process between communication experts e.g. finance and human resource. This might be in the form of a meeting between the senior managers of communications, human resource and finance. Work teams can be assigned to the management functions, which show more interdependencies and require horizontal arrangements.
2.3.2 7 C'S AND 4 S'S

In any business environment, adherence to the 7Cs and 4Ss helps the sender in transmitting his message with ease and accuracy. The 7Cs are as follows: 1. Conciseness: The message to be communicated should be as brief and concise as possible. Only simple and brief statements should be made. 52 Managerial Skill Development
2. Concreteness: Concrete and specified expressions should be used in favour of vague and abstract expressions. The facts should also be specified. The level of message of the sender should be according to the receivers level of knowledge, understanding and educational background. Such communication builds confidence between sender and receiver. Abstract statements can confuse the sender. For instance, if the sender instead of saying: There has been a tremendous escalation in the sales figure, states There has been an escalation in the sales figures by almost 50% as compared to last year, the receiver would listen and comprehend the details more easily. The message to be communicated should be as brief. Ornamental language definitely sounds impressive but does not lead people to concrete action. As far as possible, the language used should be simple and brief in nature. 3. Consistency: Communication approach must have consistency. Excessive vicissitudes might lead to confusion in the mind of the receiver. All the ideas and points must work in tandem and form an appropriate sequence. Such communication will minimise communication barriers. The sender should also make firm decisions. If the sender desires to bring about a change in his handling of the situation, he should ensure that the handling is gradual and easy for the receiver to comprehend. 4. Correctness: It is mandatory to send the message in a correct manner i.e. it must have supporting facts, figures, examples etc. This is done to ensure that if any idea has remained unclear to the receiver he may understand it more clearly, correctly and appropriately based on the supply of facts etc. The sender's ideas must be balanced. The most important aspects of the message should be emphasised for increased attention of the receiver. 5. Clarity: Clarity of thought should precede a conversation. The message constructed by the sender should be unambiguous should adhere to a simple sentence structure. This permits the receiver to understand the message with little effort. Complete clarity of ideas facilitates ease of comprehension. Ideas should be conveyed in a manner that they are understood with simplicity. At the time of encoding, the sender should take into account the level of knowledge, background and status of the decoder and encode the message accordingly. In case there is any discrepancy between the usages of terms, miscommunication can arise. The facts communicated by the sender as a back up should be accurate. Although a situation may arise when the listener is forced to Managerial Skill Development 53
refer to the facts, such a situation should be avoided as far as possible. Finally, the usage of terms should be non discriminatory. 6. Credibility: The above-mentioned points prove futile in the absence of the credibility factor because credibility depends on the trust factor between the sender and receiver. The sender should exude confidence that the receiver will receive the message being sent by him. Similarly, the receiver should maintain constant interaction with the sender and display trust in the sender's credibility. He should accept the sender's messages as the truth. 7. Courtesy: Courtesy follows credibility. Results beyond expectation can be achieved if tact, diplomacy and appreciation of people are woven in the message. Courtesy in expression is an effective and integral part of business world. Once the credibility of the sender has been established, attempts should be made at being courteous in expression. In the business world, being courteous can pave the way to success. Further, expressions that might hurt or impair the receiver psychologically should be ignored. Therefore, it is important to espouse the 'you' attitude and discard the 'I' attitude. Development of the 'you' point of view will enable the individual to see other's point of view as well. One should employ the 'you' attitude only for the pleasant or positive 'you-issues' and it should not be used as a corrective measure. If utilised as a corrective measure, the results might not be very positive or encouraging. The 4Ss are as follows: The 4Ss are as important as 7Cs. They also increase the possibility of effective communication. 1. Sincerity: Sincerity increases the level of trust between sender and receiver. The receiver also expects sincerity from the sender. If there is a slight sense of insincerity in the message and if the observer is keen about the message then it may affect the communication process. 2. Strength: The strength of the message depends upon the credibility of the sender. If the sender himself believes in the message then there is strength and conviction in whatever he states. Half hearted statements or utterances that the sender does not believe in pepper the 54 Managerial Skill Development
process of communication with falsehood. 3. Simplicity: Simplicity of language is a pivotal factor is communication. Lucidity of ideas, simple words give rise to an unequivocal message. 4. Shortness: The message must be precise and concise. Brief messages are transmitted and comprehended more clearly, more effortlessly and are more effective and economical. Brevity is the soul of wit'. The same holds true for communication. If the message can be trimmed down and redundant verbosity eradicated then it fastens the process of transmission and comprehension. Many people harbour a misconception that they can actually make an impression on the receiver with wordy and lengthy messages. Little do they realise that in adopting that approach they actually end up slowing down the process of comprehension. The major chunk of receiver's time is spent is just trying to decipher the meaning of the message due to this approach.
2.3.3 KEYS TO MORE EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication can be deemed a science as well a feeling. For instance, the chill in the wind, the smell of fresh flowers, the taste of hot chocolate, the sound of the background music of a horror movie all elicit actions or reactions. These actions or reactions do not engage words, yet these are all examples of effective communication. Communication is not bereft of risks. Success cannot be assured despite whatever Managerial Skill Development 55
plans we make and precautions we take. It has been seen that the meaning as intended by the sender is not understood by the receiver. The reason for this apparent discrepancy is that the message is what we hear and not what is said. However, in such a scenario a predetermined system or method to follow can condense the risk and at the same time improve the chances of being effective. Communication can exist if the exchange of ideas, values, beliefs, feelings is two way. Clarification of signals is also an chief part of communication. Adjust the climate Two factors should be taken into consideration while communicating. Firstly, all communications focuses on delivery of some content in the form of news, gossip, ideas, reports, evaluations, instructions etc. Secondly, all communication is irrevocably linked to what is known as the communication climate. This is the atmosphere or feeling, which accompanies what you say. Just as weather conditions mould our mood, the communication climate also shapes us. When the communication climate is positive, communication, problem solving, decisionmaking, expression of thoughts and feelings becomes facile. In short, it constructs an environment where working and dealing with people is more pleasant and productive. We have all been to restaurants, stores, offices, malls and homes where we feel comfortable; we have also been to places where we feel negative, where we feel uncomfortable, uneasy and less open. We do not normally enjoy communicating or doing business in a negative climate. Choose your channel A communication channel is the medium through which information transfers form sender to receiver; examples are lectures, written messages, telephone conversations, faceto-face dialogue and group meetings. It is essential to choose the channel of communication vigilantly because eventually it has a great impact on the quality of communication and thereby on the degree to which the receiver will respond to it. Therefore, only a channel that will be most effective in accomplishing your purpose should be chosen. Written communication should be used when communicating facts or information, such as engineering, legal or financial data, since communication breakdowns often result when complex material is presented orally. When you have to communicate with a large chunk of people and have to transmit a large amount of data or need to keep a record of the 56 Managerial Skill Development
communication, written communication is the best channel. Telephonic conversation is an apt method when you have to communicate simple facts to a few people. A telephonic conversation has more impact as compared to the written communication and it emanates a sense of urgency but not as much as a meeting. Face-to-face communication has more urgency than meetings and also has the advantage of speed, allows considerable two-way communication to take place and usually elicits a quick response. It appropriate to keep the communication face to face especially when the interaction is personal for instance while praising, counselling or taking disciplinary action. If the interaction has to be verbal among the members of a group then meeting is an appropriate option to communicate. Studies have revealed that supervisors and managers spend more than half of their potential productive time in meetings, discussions and conferences. Eliminate Static Elimination of communication 'static' or barriers is another helpful skill. If there is too much of static or noise, there is a garbled message. The problem is that each of us has different barriers and we are unaware of what kind of noise the other person is hearing. Sometimes we guess right and sometimes we guess wrong. Our natural tendencies to judge, evaluate, approve or disapprove the other person's statements also form a major barrier to communication. Tune in Another way to ensure effective communication is to 'tune in' to the other person and find out how they process and store the information they receive. The studies of Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) have proven that there are three sensory process types: visual, auditory and kinesthetic. Some people are visually oriented. They remember and imagine things by what they look like. They store pictures. Some people have a strong auditory memory. They recall sounds and make associations with them. Some people have kinesthetic memory. They recall sensations of touch. How do we discover a someone's processing system? The answer is by paying heed to their speech patterns. People evince patterns of their processing systems through their speech or their behaviour the way. People say, Do you see that? Do you get the picture? (visually oriented view) or Heres what is sounds to me. Do you hear what I mean? Managerial Skill Development 57
(auditory oriented) or Heres what it feels like. Do you grasp what Im saying? (Kinesthetic oriented). Know your non-verbals Body movements, eye contact, posture and clothing are also very important elements. In fact, studies prove that 93% of your message is non-verbal and symbolic. Employees learn to cue on the bosss moods, spouses learn to react in each others movements and children instinctively watch for signs from their parents. Studies have also shown us that our words say something and our body language may say something else. Hence, you need to be continually aware of the picture you present before others. Is it assertive and approachable? Conversely, is it unfriendly and uncaring? Do your clothes and posture reflect a person of high quality or one of sloppy habits? Albert Mehrabian widely acknowledged for his publications on the relative importance of verbal and nonverbal messages. His findings on inconsistent messages of feelings and attitudes have been quoted throughout human communication seminars worldwide, and have become known as the 7%-38%-55% rule. In his studies, Mehrabian comes to two conclusions. Firstly, that there are three elements in any face-to-face communication: Words Tone of voice Nonverbal behaviour (e.g. facial expression) Secondly, the non-verbal elements are particularly important for communicating feelings and attitude, especially when they are incongruent. If words disagree with the tone of voice and nonverbal behaviour, people tend to believe the tonality and nonverbal behaviour. It can be reiterated that non-verbal elements in all senses convey the bulk of the message, even though this is how conclusions are frequently misinterpreted. For instance, when delivering a lecture or presentation, the textual content of the lecture is delivered entirely verbally, but the non-verbal cues are very important in conveying the speaker's attitude towards what they are saying, notably their belief or conviction.
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Study Notes
Assessment
1. What is the importance of verbal and nonverbal messages according to Albert
Mehrabian?
2. Explain the importance of choosing the channel of communication.
Discussion
Discuss the 7cs and 4ss of communication.
2.4 Do's and Don'ts of Business Writing

2.4.1 ESSENTIALS OF BUSINESS WRITING
There are seven essential elements to successful written business communication: Structure Clarity Consistency Medium 59
Relevancy Primacy Psychological Rule of 72
1. Structure The structure of communication is fundamental to how easily it is absorbed and understood by the audience. Every good communication should incorporate three structural elements: an opening, a body and a close. This structural rule holds true no matter what your communication- a memo, a phone call, a voice mail message, a personal presentation, a speech, an email, a webpage or a multi-media presentation. Remember that your communication's audience can be anywhere from just one person, a small team to an auditorium full of people or a national, even global, group of millions. In this instance, size does not matter; the rules remain the same. Opening An opening permits the audience to comprehend the meaning entailed in the communication. Short, sharp and to the point, a good opening ensures that the audience quickly reaches a decision of whether or not to pay attention to your message. Time is a precious resource after all and the quicker you can 'get to the point' and the faster your audience can make that 'disregard/pay attention' decision, the more positively they will view you, which can be very important if you need or want to communicate with them in the future. Body The body of the message is where the crux of the content lies. The body of the message contains all of facts that would elicit a required response in the audience. Facts, figures and any graphs or charts you might present should precise and to the point in the body. Irrelevant material or charts with confusing, illegible numbers and colours should not be included..The simpler the presentation, better the chances are that you will be understood. Close The closing is where you sum up your communication, remind the audience of your key points and leave them with a clear understanding of what is required of them. The more powerfully the communication is ended, the more easily your audience will remember it.
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A sample invitation letter containing the opening, body and close is given below: December 1, 2008 Dear Alumni, Pune university MBA department (PUMBA) will be having a Grand Alumni Homecoming on December 7, 2010 at 2:00 pm at Manas Resort and Restaurant as the celebration of 30th Foundation Anniversary of PUMBA. In this regard, we are cordially inviting you to attend the said event to meet your old friends, classmates, acquaintances and teachers, reminiscing memorable experiences and sharing stories of success and most specially to renew our commitment to the noble ideals of our beloved Alma Mater. The registration charges are Rs 500 per person, which payable at the venue. These charges include Alumni T-shirt, Alumni ID, Alumni souvenir, dinner, live band and raffle draws. For further inquiries, please contact our Alumni Secretariat at (020) 237-2383 or text us at 09173445631. We look forward to your presence in this once a year celebration. Thank you very much. Truly yours, Anand Salunke Dean School of Management 2. Clarity Ambiguous messages that give a mixed or confusing signals to your audience leads to confusion and may even lead them to ignore the message. If you are giving a message about, say, overtime payments, do not add in messages about detailed budget issues or the upcoming staff picnic unless they absolutely fit in with your original message. It is far better and clearer for your audience if separate communication regarding these ancillary issues is carried out. 3. Consistency Avoid contradicting yourself even after some time gap. Your audience usually remembers what you said or commented on something earlier. Therefore, when you change your ideas slightly or greatly, they are bound to be noticed. As a result, the audience loses Managerial Skill Development 61
trust and may question your credibility. People who distrust you are very unlikely to take the action you wish them to take. They are also highly unlikely to pay any attention to your future messages. 4. Medium It has been seen that people tend to use the medium they are most familiar and comfortable with when they want to present or get across some message. However, repetitive use of the same medium can tedious, monotonous and can be inconsistent with the message and purpose at times. Therefore, choice of the medium of communication is an important factor. Choose the medium that communicates your message:

With the greatest accuracy With the largest likelihood of audience comprehension At the lowest fiscal cost At the lowest time cost Note: It must meet all of these criteria. There is absolutely no value in spending the
least amount of money if the medium you choose does fulfill any of the other criteria. Many media of communication are available. You have a choice from any one or combination of the following: Paper-based memo Letter One-to-one face-to-face presentation Seminar One-to-one phone presentation Meeting One-to-many personal presentation Plain text email One-to-many phone presentation Text and graphics email Voice email Webpage Webcast/web video Radio broadcast Television broadcast Press release 62 Managerial Skill Development
TV/film commercial CD-Rom/DVD Choosing the right medium or media is obviously critical, as the fiscal costs of some in the above list are high. An incorrect media mix may result in propelling time and money that delivers next-to-zero ROI (return on investment). 5. Relevancy If a person is not interested in the subject of the message, it is improbable that he/she will pay any attention to it. If your business communication needs to touch on several areas that might not be of interest to your entire audience, let them know of alternative resources that more fully address each of these additional areas. You can do this by, for example, providing them with an easily remembered and written link to a webpage where a greater depth of information can be stored. 6. Primacy and Recency It is essential to know that a receiver will retain memory of a business communication for one or both of two things:

The power and memorability of its opening The power and memorability of its close Psychologists term the effect of remembering the first few items presented as a
'primacy effect'. Similarly, they call the effect of remembering the last few items presented to you as a 'recency effect'. Since individuals hold opposing views regarding which effect is the most dominant for them, it is best to make an effort to have both a powerful and memorable opening and a powerful close. A powerful opening can entail anything that captures the audience's attention- a quote, a joke, a loud noise or a preposterous statement. Ensure that the opening remains consistent with and relates to the subject of the communication. Equally, a powerful close that bears no resemblance to the main body of the communication would just confuse and disappoint an audience brought up to expect something more. Humour will not save you because business communication is a serious business and very few people have the skill to be able to deliver a humorous message that the audience will retain and act on. If you are determined to use humour in your presentation, then follow Toogood's recommendation: Managerial Skill Development 63
"Tell the story as if it were true. The punch line is a lot funnier if we are not expecting it. Tell the story to make a business point. If you do not make a point, you have no business telling a joke. Make sure you tell the story correctly, do not mess up the punch line and make sure it is appropriate". The opening and closing of your business communication are the two most easily remembered and therefore essential elements. Make sure you give your audience something to remember. 7. The Psychological Rule of 72 (seven plus or minus two) Psychologists have acknowledged that the human brain has a finite capacity to hold information in short-term memory or 'working' memory. Equally, the brain is also structured to retain information in 'clusters' or groups of items. These clusters or groups average, across the whole of humankind, at seven items, plus or minus two, which means that your audience is only able to hold on to between five and nine pieces of information at any one time. Similarly, the audience will group a business communication message with four to eight other messages in their long-term memory. Keeping this in mind, the clarity of message and a distinctive and memorable opening and close becomes important. If the key points are to be committed to memory even five minutes later, it is essential that business communication should be limited to five to nine key points. Similarly, if the key action points are to be remembered five weeks later, ensure that your communication is amongst the five to nine most impressive messages the audience has received in the last five weeks. The human brain 'chunks' information together, therefore, a long document or communication that you want to deliver, especially on paper should be structured such that there exist: 72 chapters or sections 72 sub-sections in each section If there are 10 or 11 sub-headings in a chapter or sub-sections in a section, see if two or three sub-sections can be consolidated as create a new main section out of them.
2.4.2 MUST AVOID SENTENCE BLUNDERS FOR BUSINESS WRITINGS

Ten types of sentence blunders to refrain from are as follows: Run-On Sentences: These drag on and pack a paragraph's worth of details into a single sentence. Short sentences are easier to understand than long ones; they provide 64 Managerial Skill Development
information in bits and pieces instead of a deluge. In most business writing, aim for an average sentence length of 20 or fewer words. This is an average; good writing contains both long and short sentences to keep it interesting. Pompous Sentences: Many business writers use a phrase or a whole clause when a wellchosen verb would be much clearer. They do so to appear more knowledgeable or articulate than they actually are. Ornamentation or trite expressions should be kept at way-keep your writing at the level of your reader. Overloaded Sentences: Such sentences are bloated with excess words. The passive voice is a common culprit, adding unnecessarily to the word count. Redundancies are also to blame. Verbose phrases can usually be replaced with one or two words, making sentences concise and meaningful. Undue Enthusiasm: An occasional intensifier lends emphasis but using too many can ruin writing and give the impression that sender of the message is not being genuine. Crowded-Together Sentences: Attempts at connecting a series of related sentences with conjunctions such as 'and' instead of ending each with a period should be circumvented. In many cases, these sentences can be improved and shortened by using only one subject. Hedging Sentences: It is tempting to insert 'it seems that' or 'there appears to be' in your sentences in order to evade stating a judgment as a fact. However, when you have too many such hedges, particularly in the same sentence, you are not really saying anything. More often than not, your reader will know the difference between a fact and an inference. Slow Starters: Opening a sentence with 'it is' or 'there are' simply delays getting to your point. Compare: 'It would be appreciated if you could send the files immediately' and 'Please send the files immediately'. Nonparallel Sentences: Two or more similar (parallel) ideas should be presented in the same pattern, whether within sentences or between sentences. Lack of parallelism generates an awkward style. For example, the clauses in this sentence are not parallel: 'Mr. Reynolds dictated the letter and next he signed it and left the office'. Compare this to 'Mr. Reynolds dictated the letter, signed it and left the office'. Awkward Pointers: To economise the usage of words, business writers often direct the readers' attention backward with expressions like 'as mentioned above', 'the aforementioned', 'the former', 'the latter', and so on. However, this is a distraction to the Managerial Skill Development 65
reader and is usually unnecessary. If a reference does need to be made, it is better to name or restate the specific thing to which you are referring.
2.4.3 TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING

Following are the tips for effective business writing: Be assertive and forthright: Be assertive and forthright in business writing. Customers and prospects become distrustful of evasive writers. Bring about cordiality: When writing to business colleagues, use phrases like 'team effort', 'your valued opinion', 'work together' and so on. This ushers in cordiality among co-workers. Qualities of Business letters: Keep business letters concise, factual and focused. Do not attempt at exceeding one page generally 350 to 450 words. Margins in writing layout: Employ left justified margins and ragged right margins in your writing layout. Fully justified text leaves uneven spaces between words, causing the eyes to readjust constantly. Avoid gender bias: Avoid gender-biased nouns and pronouns in your business writing. It is more appropriate and politically correct to use gender-neutral words instead. For example: Replace 'chairman' with 'chairperson'; use 'humanity' in lieu of 'mankind', 'he/she' instead of 'he' when referring to both genders or change to plural form 'they'. Gender-neutral nouns and pronouns make everyone feel included. Avoid using 'weasel' words: Steer clear of 'weasel' words such as 'seems', 'perhaps', 'apparently', 'usually', in business writing. They perpetuate an impression of insecurity or insincerity. For example, It seems that perhaps we may be able to have our meeting on Monday may better be written as, We will have our meeting on Monday. Format business e-mails in plain text: When composing a business e-mail, format it in plain text rather than HTML. Not all e-mail clients can read HTML. Dateline in business correspondence: Write the dateline in your business correspondence in full, not abbreviated or in figures. For example: August 1, 2006, not Aug. 1, 2006, August 1st, 2006 or 8-1-06. Business letter with cc: If sending copies of a business letter to other individuals, indicate by typing 'cc' and the name(s) of the individual(s), left justified, two lines below the signature and title. Contractions in business writing: Do not use contractions in business writing. For 66 Managerial Skill Development
example, 'can't', 'you're' should be replaced by their complete forms. Contractions are used only in informal writing or in tables in instances of limited space. Foreign words and phrases: Foreign words and phrases should be set in italics (e.g. faux pas, ipso facto, prima facie), unless they are very familiar and have been anglicised (e.g. ad hoc, post mortem, status quo). Keep business letters formal and factual: Maintain a formal and factual tone and content of business letters. Feelings and emotions have no place in business letters. Avoid use of jargon and buzzwords: Shun use of jargon (highly specialised technical writing) or buzzwords (stylish and trendy words used primarily to impress laypersons) in your business writing. They create a barrier and messages fail to get across, as most people do not understand them. Correspondence with foreign clients: Business correspondence with foreign clients needs a great deal of care. Not everyone speaks the same language, so messages should be expressed in short, simple and concise terms. Fonts in business writing: Eschew fancy fonts in business writing. They may appear innovative but they also give an unprofessional look. Emphasis in academic writing: In academic writing, emphasis is articulated only through words. Italics, boldface, all-capitals or other devices cause the writing to appear flashy or loud. Make your proposals persuasive: Make your proposals persuasive by presenting your evidence in quantifiable terms. Make good use of statistics and published results. Selecting the right tone: The 'tone' of the business correspondence should be appropriate. The manner of writing is as vital as the content of the message. The tone of writing is synonymous to how one 'talks' to the reader. An inappropriate tone may annoy the reader and may elicit an unfavourable reaction. For example, a)We have implemented a change in the policy and you are required to . b) Taking certain points into consideration, the management has decided to make changes in the policy. It is, therefore, requested that you ... Sentence (a) sounds authoritative, like the issuing of an order. This tone may cause the reader to either ignore the message or close the deal off altogether. Though this is not the intention, however the tone is giving that effect. On the other hand, if the second approach is taken, the reader will take the request seriously. Personal information in resumes: Abstain from divulging personal information in the 67
resume. Do include date of birth, marital status, height etc. in the resume. Attachments in e-mails: Refrain from sending attachments in business e-mails. It is best to copy and paste text into body of e-mail. The reasons being: Recipients can read it immediately. (Attachments take time to download) Recipients may not have the right program to open the file. (For example Word 2007 or PaintShop) Attachments may transmit viruses. Italics and underlines: Italics and underlines connote the same thing. They are both used to make the reader take notice of certain words. Underlining is usually done when the text is hand written and italics while typing or using a computer as a typographical device. However, either italics or underlines should be used at a time and not used together. E-mail subject line: Keep the subject line of the e-mail short, simple and pertinent to the topic. Besides being meaningful, it makes searching for a specific message easy. Subject line should not be left blank. It may be perceived as junk and deleted. Do not commence writing the message in the subject line and continue in the body of the e-mail. It is bad email etiquette. Emoticons in business e-mails: Avoid the use of emoticons in business e-mails. They make your e-mails look unprofessional. Keep it simple and short (KISS): Most people find it difficult to get their message across. One reason is that they use more words than required. 1. Clarity: If you only use what is needed then there will be less room and risk for misunderstandings. 2. Emotional punch: When the message is focused and clearly directed instead of muddled and lost in too many words it becomes more emphatic. 3. Less risk of boredom: People's perception of what is interesting is variously defined. Even if the speaker thinks that what he/she says is interesting the audience may not feel so. 4. Simplicity, spurns the message sender's attempt to stroke his/her ego. The habit of complicating matters reinforces this negative habit. The message sender will not focus too much on him/herself and may not obsess about his/her self-image. 5. Simple and precise messages keep the remaining communication more focused and aligned. A single determined focus on the message to be conveyed is more efficient in 68 Managerial Skill Development
capturing the attention of the audience as compared to situations where the message sender rambles on. When the mind is focused on these two things the rest of your body also works in tandem. Body language and voice tonality comprises 93 percent of the communication.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. Explain the essentials of business writing. 2. Explain the Must avoid sentence blunders.
Discussion
Discuss the tips for effective business writing.
2.5 Types of Communication

Communication can be categorised as follows: 1. Oral/ verbal Communication: a. Words b. Articulation
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2. Written Communication: a. Reports b. Illustrations c. Memos d. Telegrams e. Facsimiles (FAX) f. E-mails g. Tenders h. Letters i. Others
3. Non- verbal a. Body language b. Signs and symbols c. Territory/zone d. Object language 1. Verbal/Oral Communication: Anything spoken by mouth is called oral communication. Whatever is uttered from the mouth comprises words and the manners of pronouncing words. The manner of pronouncing words is called articulation. 2. Written Communication: Written communication acquires a number of forms. It is the most formal of all types of communication. Its manner and style may alter according to the characteristic manner of a company. It is also bound by the dictates of the organisation. 3. Non Verbal Communication: This is an essential part of communication. The medium of communication other than oral and written communication is called as non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes the way an individual positions himself, holds his hands, tilts his head etc. A receiver observes non-verbal communication 55% of the time. Effective and synchronized use of oral and non-verbal communication is the most effective method of communication. Non-verbal communication may include gestures, postures, signs, signals etc.
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2.5.1 ORAL V/S WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Although, both oral and written communications are components of one discipline yet there are major differences between them. This characteristic makes an oral communicator adopt them independently on diverse occasions. Oral communication is interactive, while written communication is non-interactive. In the former, interaction between the sender and the receiver through words is what characterises and differentiates it from written communication. It is extremely fluid and knows no limits. If the sender feels that his goal is not being met, he can resort to a change in strategy. However, the same is not true for written communication. If it is incomplete, it is reworked. Complex issues are best sorted out through written communication. On the contrary, oral communication looks only at basic issues. The minute they start getting convoluted, the normal reaction is to request the recipient to pen down the ideas for greater clarity. As it takes a comparatively long time to formulate ideas and put them down, written communication normally enjoys a longer time frame than oral communication which is aimed at being brief and succinct. Oral communication has a distinct advantage of being conducted at almost any place where the two participants meet. The same does not hold true for written communication. The places where they are received are highly restrictive. Despite this disadvantage coupled with the factor that is rather high when compared to oral communication, written communication is still preferred to in many situations. Probably one of the reasons for this is that written messages have a greater impact. The same things when stated orally may not create the same impression. Finally, there is the difference in terms of feedback. In the case of oral communication, feedback is usually immediate. On the other hand, for written communication it is not immediate. If the time span in providing feedback exceeds the normal period, conclusions such as the company is not interested, references are being worked at, people are influencing and swerving the direction of the feedback are drawn. It is because of these differences that oral and written communication is used on different occasions and situations. Both have their advantages and disadvantages. However, none can take the position of the other. Both are essential and needed.
2.5.2 LINK BETWEEN NON-VERBAL MESSAGE AND VERBAL MESSAGE

Verbal and non-verbal messages are inter-related or act together in the construction of meaning. Both types of messages support each other. Following points will show the relation between them. 1. Complement: When the speaker speaks, he alters his facial expression, brings change in Managerial Skill Development 71
tone of voice, moves hands to explain his feelings, emotions and thoughts with the help of words. It builds confidence and trust in the receiver. For example, in a telephonic conversation, one may not feel at ease, as there is an absence of facial expressions, movements, gestures that generally accompany words. A non-verbal sign of smile gives an indication of friendliness and happiness. A sad face gives an impression of grief. In this manner, non-verbal messages complement verbal messages. 2. Emphasise: In written communication, we underline some words, put them in italics bold or capital letters. In oral communication, a congruent effect is achieved by employing pauses, volume, tone, eyebrows raised, pointing finger etc. The rise and fall in tone gives importance to specific words in a sentence. For instance, laying stress on different words in the same sentence can change the meaning of the sentence. You can experiment with the following sentence and see how the meaning modifies when you place the stress on various underlined words. I cannot see a great deal from here. By changing stress on different words in the sentence, the meaning of the sentence changes. 3. Repetition: If a teacher asks the student to leave the classroom, he will point towards the door with the words. Similarly, when we agree to any statement we say yes and nod our head. Nodding of head is the repetition of saying yes. 4. Substitute: Joining hands for prayers is an example of substitution. If someone is across the road we wave our hands so that he/she can recognise us. Therefore, non-verbal messages can be used as substitutes for verbal messages. 5. Contradiction: If non-verbal messages are not used properly, they can contradict verbal messages. E.g. i) Wish happy birthday to your friend with sad face ii) Laugh while saying sorry for your mistake iii) Congratulate your subordinate with angry face and vulgarity. These examples show that non-verbal messages can contradict the words associated with them.
Study Notes
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Assessment
1. Explain the essentials of business writing. 2. Explain the link between Verbal and non-verbal messages.
Discussion
Discuss the differences between oral and written communication.
2.6 Summary
Barriers of Effective Communication: Following are the barriers of effective communication. Physical Barriers Psychological Barriers Linguistic and Cultural Barriers Mechanical Barriers Guidelines for Effective Communication: Communication guidelines are important for horizontal integration of the communication process. These guidelines may include work procedures, which have been agreed upon, design regulations regarding logotypes and colours. The 7Cs are as follows: 1. Conciseness 2. Concreteness 3. Consistency Managerial Skill Development 73
4. Correctness 5. Clarity 6. Credibility 7. Courtesy The 4Ss are as follows 1. Sincerity 2. Strength 3. Simplicity 4. Shortness KEYS TO MORE EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Adjust the Climate Choose your Channel Eliminate Static Tune in Know your Non-Verbals Essentials for Effective Business Writing: There are seven essential elements to successful business communication through writing: Structure Clarity Consistency Medium Relevancy Primacy Psychological Rule of 72 Must -Avoid Blunders: Here are ten types of sentence blunders to avoid if you want your reader to get what you mean and not have to stumble through what you write. Run-On Sentences
Pompous Sentences 74
Overloaded Sentences Undue Enthusiasm Crowded-Together Sentences Hedging Sentences Slow Starters Nonparallel Sentences Awkward Pointers Misassembled Sentences
Tips for Business Writing: Following are the tips for effective business writing Be assertive and forthright Bring about cordiality Business letters Margins in writing layout Avoid gender bias Avoid using 'weasel' words Format business e-mails in plain text Dateline in business correspondence Business letter with cc Contractions in business writing Foreign words and phrases Keep business letters formal and factual Avoid use of jargon and buzzwords Correspondence with foreign clients Fonts in business writing Emphasis in academic writing Make your proposals persuasive Selecting the right tone 75
Personal information in resumes Attachments in e-mails Italics and underlines E-mail subject line Emoticons in business e-mails Types of Communication: We can categorise communication under three heads as
follows: Oral/ verbal communication Written communication Non- verbal

Broad Questions 1. What are the barriers to effective communication? Explain in detail, what are the gateways/guidelines to effective communication. 2. What are the types of communication? Explain each in detail. Short Notes a. Do's and do not's of Business Writings b. Oral v/s written communication c. Link between verbal and non-verbal messages d. Tips for effective business writing e. 7 C's and 4 S's for effective communication
2.8 Further Reading

1. Business Communication from Process to Product, Bowman, Joel P and Branchaw, Bemadine, 1987 Dryden Press, Chicago 2. Business Communications: Principles and Applications, 2nd edition, Pearce. C. Glenn etc. 1988, John Wiley, New York 3. Communicating in Business, Hatch Richard, 1977 Science Research Associates, Chicago 4. Effective Business Communications, Murphy, Herta A and Peck, Charries E, 2nd ed, 1976, 76 Managerial Skill Development
Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi 5. Successful Business Communication, 3rd ed., Treece Maira,1 987, Allyn and Bacon, Boston
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Assignment
Collect samples of at least ten different business writings of different organisations and observe their writing styles. Write business letters to the electricity board for excessive billing, a distributor for recovery of outstanding payment, a supplier for timely delivery of your order, a congratulatory letter to the sales team for achieving their target. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 78 Managerial Skill Development
Unit 3
Written Communication
Learning Outcome
After reading this unit, you will be able to: Prepare commercial letters Identify various kind of letters and their writing styles Outline written communication, its advantages, disadvantages, principles and stages Use 3x3 process of writing and importance of writing Write business reports, outline steps, essentials and kinds of business reports

5.
Content Map
3.1 3.2 Introduction Commercial Letter Types 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.3 Types of Commercial Letters Formats of some Commercial Letters
Written Communication 3.3.1 Meaning of Written Communication
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3.3.2 Advantages of Written Communication 3.3.3 Disadvantages of Written Communication 3.3.4 Principles of Better Writing 3.3.5 3X3 Writing Process 3.3.6 Features of Written Communication 3.3.7 Stages of Writing Process 3.3.8 Importance of Written Communication 3.4 Writing Business Reports 3.4.1 What is Report Writing?
3.4.2 Steps of Writing a Report 3.4.3 Essentials of a Good Report 3.4.4 Kinds of Reports in Inter-Departmental Communication 3.5 3.6 3.7 Summary Self Assessment Test Further Reading
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3.1 Introduction
Letter writing is an art. Even though letters have transformed into e-mails and SMS, it is still venerated as an art; only the medium has changed. Letters can be broadly classified in two categories- formal letters and informal letters. Formal letters comprise official letters, business letters, letters of complaints, applications, letters to editors etc. while informal letters take account of personal letters, letters that are written to our friends and family. While writing formal letters a certain format has to be adhered to but while writing informal letters, one can be flexible. However, letter writing is a skill that needs to be honed over time with practice. Certain ground rules need to be followed while writing formal letters: Write your full name, address and date before you begin the letter The name and the designation of the person you are writing to should be correct. Start the letter with 'Sir/Madam' or 'Dear sir/Madam' and then mention the name and the address. State the purpose of the letter in one line titled 'Subject' before beginning to write the letter. Your letter should be very crisp and precise, giving only the information, which is required. Your letter should clearly state action/information required/supplied or requesting action to be taken. While closing, end your letter politely by using phrases like 'thanking you' and undersigning your letter using 'Yours faithfully/sincerely' (Name). Although this is the basic structure of a letter, it can be appropriated to suit the purpose for which it is written and the person to whom it is addressed. For example, a job application should have a resume enclosed or attached, and this should be mentioned in the application.
3.2 Commercial Letters Types

A business letter is a formal letter of correspondence and is often used to convey official messages. It is usually written by one company to another, to clients, to customers and to any other third party. A well-written business letter helps in enhancing the chances of achieving good friends and good business ventures. Business letters should be written in the correct format. Even before the reader actually reads the letter, the format catches Managerial Skill Development 81
his eyes. Focus on the key points, which grasp the readers attention like the reason for the letter, qualification, experience, date, time, venues etc. It should be written in a warm and polite tone but not too personal. Always address a person rather than a department or in general, the supervisor as it gives a personal touch to the letter and grabs the readers attention. The body of the letter is very important. Clearly mention what and why you are writing about and what action you expect on the letter. Give the details for the request, e.g. attach a resume, invoice receipt etc. Always keep the letter short and precise. Do not write lengthy letters, be specific and to the point as the reader might not like to spend too much time reading the letter. Business letter should have a reference that gives the reader knowledge about contents of the letter . End the letter by restating the reasons for writing the letter and thanking the reader for their time and effort. AIDA form of letter writing Attention (or Attract) Interest Desire Action
These four steps are needed to grab the interest of the audience and get your message across. Attention/Attract: To grab the attention of the reader, potent words, or pictures can be used. The e-mails should have subject lines that encourage recipients to open them and read the contents. E.g. People can be encouraged to attend a company training session on giving feedback by incorporating the email headline, How effective is your feedback?, which is more likely to grab attention than the purely factual one of, This week's seminar on feedback. Interest: The reader should be able to pick out the messages that are pertinent to them quickly. Bullets, subheadings and breaking up the text make the central points of the text stand out. Desire: As you build the reader's interest, you also need to help them understand that what you are offering can help them in a real way. The main way of doing this is by appealing to their personal needs and wants. 82 Managerial Skill Development
Action: Finally, be very clear about what action you want your readers to take rather than just leaving people to work out what to do for themselves. E.g. order a product, send a report etc.
Format of a Business Letter When creating business letters, employ 8 " by 11" unlined paper. Although 24pound paper with 100+ brightness is a little more expensive, it will make a superior impression than mundane copy paper. Use 1" margins on all four sides. Use a serif font such as Times Roman (12 point), Arial (12 point) or Georgia (11 point). A business letter should be single-spaced and if possible, typed on a computer. Print the letter on only one side of the paper. Fold the letter horizontally into thirds. Mail the letter in a No. 10 security envelope (4 1/8" by 9 "). There are several business letter formats, but all of them can be subdivided into two basic groups: the block format and various indented formats. Although the block format is somewhat more common, (perhaps because it is easier), either one is acceptable. All conventional formats contain the same features: 1. Return address of the letter writer. A2/33, Dreams residency, Kalyani Nagar, Pune 22 2. The date of the letter This is usually typed in one of two ways: (Begin with the day, no comma) 15 January 2008 or (Begin with the month; use a comma) December 1, 2008 3. Complete name, title and address of the recipient Use Mr. for a male recipient. If you do not know how a female recipient prefers to be addressed, it is best to use Ms.. Ms. Rohini Apte, Chair Department of Linguistics University of Pune Ganeshkhind Road Managerial Skill Development 83
Pune 411007 4. Salutation with a colon Dear Ms. Rohini: 5. Body of the letter It is ideal to create a short initial business letter. In todays hectic schedule, people do not possess the time to read long letters. In a one-page letter, you will usually only need three or four paragraphs that are single-spaced. Use a double space in between paragraphs. There are two approaches to writing a bad news letter: Direct approach: presents the bad news first Indirect approach: says something positive first and then presents the bad news. The approach should be finalised after the analysing the situation and audience personality. The direct approach is frequently used in situations where the bad news is being presented orally. For all other situations, the indirect approach is usually most effective. If the bad news is first, many readers will not continue reading the letter and the chance to make a positive impression and explain your rationale has been lost. Thus, the indirect approach encourages readers to read the whole letter, making it more likely that the positives and the rationale will be conveyed emphatically to your readers. 6. Closing The most common closing is "Sincerely." Follow this with a comma. Skip four single lines after the closing and type your name. Sign your name in the space above your name. Sincerely,
Jonathan Wilson 7. Enclosures If you are enclosing additional information with your letter such as a resume or curriculum vitae, skip two single lines after your typed name and type "Enclosure" or "Enclosures." If you use the plural, you have the option of stating the number of enclosures in parentheses. Enclosures (2) 84 Managerial Skill Development
3.2.1 TYPES OF COMMERCIAL LETTERS

There are various kinds of business letters for different purposes. They are divided into two types: the business to business type and the business to client type. A. Business-to-business types are intended for company to company communication. Examples are: Appreciation letter is a letter of gratitude and appreciation for help extended or a good business deal Thank you is a letter of gratitude Congratulations is a letter that praises the recipient for a job well- done Letter of recognition is a written statement of recognised efforts similar to an appreciation letter Letter of reference is a character reference letter. It is a letter building up the character of a person to be accepted in a job. Recommendation is an endorsement letter to hire a certain person Sympathy letter is a letter of condolences to a person or family Invitation letter is a letter persuading a person or a company to join an event or an occasion Letter of credit is a way of endorsing a certain business to be considered for a credit loan Letter of interest is a reply to an invitation that confirms presence on the event/occasion Business memorandum is notices that are distributed to the staff. They are reminders of company activities or imminent changes in the company. Business introduction is done to introduce a new business to the readers Business letter is a letter that talks about the plans for the business Donation letter is a letter asking for donations Termination letter is more popularly known as a resignation letter. It signifies someone's desire to leave a job permanently. B. Business-to-Client letters are: Welcome letter welcomes the client and thanks him for choosing the company. 85
Letter of appreciation thanks the client for having business with the company. Apology letter asks the client for reconsideration and apologises for failing to deliver. Collection letter gives a notice of outstanding payments due . Invoice letter template asks the clients to state the invoice number of their transaction. Letter of invitation invites a client to join a certain gathering. Marketing letter states the newest products that the company will provide soon or is presently providing.
Rejection letter states the rejection of the client's request. Business letters are more formal in writing. Follow the formats strictly. Be concise,
clear and direct to the point.
3.2.2 FORMATS OF SOME COMMERCIAL LETTERS

Formats of some commercial letters are as follows: A) LETTER RELATED TO PURCHASES Purchase order letter is utilised to order material that is in shortage and will be needed soon. The letter is a legal document showing the purchase made. This is a letter to inform the list of items or products required to the vendor. The letter should noticeably specify what items are required and how much is required, if necessary a time frame can be given when you expect the goods to be delivered. This kind of a letter is parallel to a business letter intended to communicate to the reader your requirements and what you expect the person to do for you. It should be clear and to the point. It is always advisable to provide all necessary details as this would speed up the process of delivery of products. Explicate clearly how the payments would be made and provide the address if the person of company to contact for any further clarification. While complaining about a delay in the order, give details of the product and date of the order. Ask for the reason for delay or else ask to refund the money if the order cannot be fulfilled. If you are changing an order, specify the reason behind decision to change the order. Identify the original order by date and product name and give proper details. Adjust the payment, include an apology, and express appreciation of the change. Decline an order tactfully and politely and give the reason why the order has been declined. This retains the goodwill of the reader. 86 Managerial Skill Development
The objective of the order letter is to afford the reader with details of the merchandise for fulfilling the order. Commence the order letter by stating that you are placing an order. Always provide complete details to ensure that the reader fulfils the order properly. Include catalogue and reference numbers whenever necessary and proffer the instructions about where and how to deliver the product. In any kind of order letter, it is advisable to thank the reader for his or her time and consideration and appreciate the reader for taking appropriate action. Format of a Purchase Letter
Your address: Street City, State Zip code Date 4 spaces heading/ date line
Ms. Usha Rane, Director of Employment Tops employment exchange Jamianagar New Delhi 4588890 inside address
3 spaces
Attention: Ms. Jennifer Smith [only use if no name is with the inside address]
3 spaces Subject: Purchase Order #4987 [use if you need to call attention to the letter's main point] 2 spaces Dear Ms. Smith: [salutation: follow with a colon] Managerial Skill Development 87
Here are some clichs that are redundant and obsolete and should be avoided: attached please find enclosed please find herewith, forthwith, herein ... it is requested that permit me to say as per your request we are in receipt of your request we beg to advise you that
payment for same (just write 'We request payment for the item'). Short paragraphs should be used that deal with one topic. Clarity and compactness is important but at the same time, overly formal diction and inflated or pompous language should be avoided. The you attitude should be developed. Try using you more often than I or avoid beginning every sentence with I. The idea behind this is that you should empathise with the reader. You should consider what they know, what they want and what is in for them in the whole thing. Being polite even in the case of a dispute is a practice to be followed. End the letter with a call to action, i.e. what reaction you want from the reader's side. 2 spaces Sincerely, (Sincerely Yours, , . . .) 4 spaces Signature Lezzy McGuire Senior Instructor Name Title Complimentary close
Enclosure / Encl: Resume / Enclosures (2) enclosure line cc: Ms. Geoffrey Archer copy line: who else received a copy of the letter
Notes: 88 Managerial Skill Development
B) LETTER RELATED TO SALES An appropriate sales prospecting letter serves to introduce your product and convinces the prospect to buy it. It is always advisable to undertake research about the prospect before writing the letter. Grab your prospect's attention by providing convincing reasons. Let your reasons be imposing enough that the prospect develops interested in your letter. Do not emphasize on the product you are selling but the benefits that the reader would be getting from this product. The reader always looks at what is the advantage he would get from the deal or product. The sales letter should be formulated such that it seizes the readers attention. The content should be impressive; the start of the letter should make an impact on the reader. Meticulous care should be taken while using words that convince the reader to buy the product. The start of the letter should be creative, clear and to the point so that the person understands what is being conveyed. Let the letter be short because people do not like to read lengthy letters. The letter should communicate the main features of the product in a short message. The sales letter should describe the product clearly, the advantages of buying the product and how it is different from the other products available in the market. It is always good to be honest rather than making false promises about the product. Always convey the facts and keep a professional touch to the letter. Sales letter format Name of Client, Title of Client, Address of Company or Client, Date, Dear (name of the client) Paragraph 1: The introduction of the letter should draw the attention of the reader. You may mention the problems that the client may be having and which your product or service will resolve. Introduce the company and its specialisation. Paragraph 2: Introduce the product or service you intend to sell to the client. Demonstrate ways in which they will benefit from investing in your product or service. Make the offer enticing without promising the impossible.
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Paragraph 3: Give your contact information to the client to find out more information on the product or service. Sincerely, .................... C) INTERVIEW LETTER It is always a good idea to add an interview letter with your Resume since it provides additional information not given in the resume. The interview letter should grab the attention of the interviewer so that you get a chance for an interview. In an interview letter, every word counts, so carefully select the words that you want to use when writing an interview letter. Before you are called for the interview, a good interview letter or the cover letter is the first communication you have with the prospective employer, so you should spend a good time on preparing it. Be very polite in your approach and show enthusiasm to work with the company. Begin the letter by stating the position you are applying for and why you are interested in that position. Explain why you think you are the best for the position. Try to avoid the contents written in the resume. Focus on your accomplishments, skills and personality, which must match with the job. Let the employer know that you are ready for the interview. Provide your contact details.. After completing the letter, read it once again for any kind of spelling mistakes or grammatical mistakes. Even one small mistake creates a bad impression on the interviewer. FORMAT OF AN INTERVIEW LETTER Your Name Street Address (including Apartment No) City, State and Zip code Country (if other than the USA) Telephone, Fax Number and Email (recommended) Company's Name Employer's Name Employer's Title Employer's Division Company's Street Address (and Suite No.) Managerial Skill Development
Company's City, State and Zip code 90
Company's Country (if other than the USA) Date (Title) Employer's Name:
First Paragraph: State the reason for writing the letter. Name the position or type of work you seek. Mention how you heard about the opening.
Second Paragraph: Explain why you are interested in the position and/or working for that company or employer. Request an employment application (if still needed). Explicate how you are ready for the challenge, perfect for the position or in what way you can be beneficial to the employer. Third Paragraph: Convey that you have enclosed a copy of your resume (and a completed employment application, if appropriate). Ensure that you will follow-up for an agreeable meeting time to discuss your qualifications and their company's needs. Include your address and number should they need any additional information. Explain that you expect to hear from them soon. Thank them for their time and consideration. Sign your name by hand (over a typed signature) and use Sincerely. Suggested Enclosure(s): Resume, Completed Employment Application (if applicable) and writing or other work samples (again if appropriate). D) APPOINTMENT LETTER An appointment letter gives an assurance to a prospective employee of a position in the new company. A letter of appointment is a significant aspect of every person's career. So before issuing an appointment letter, carefully check every detail and information, so as not to miss on any important point in the letter. Managerial Skill Development 91
An appointment order must carry the following details: Date of appointment Designation Job profile Job timings Compensation package Transfer or travel details Notice period and company rules and regulations
FORMAT OF AN ORDER OF APPOINTMENT Dear Mr./Ms. <Name>, <company name>. I am pleased to offer you employment in the position of <designation> with <company name> I am eager to have you as part of our team. I foresee your potential skills as a valuable contribution to our company and clients. Your appointment as <designation> will commence on <date> As <designation>, you will be entitled to a monthly starting remuneration of Rs 00,000/- (Rupees. only) which indicates cost to company. You will be on a probation period of six months. Regular performance review will be conducted to assess your performance and suitability. Your continued employment at <company name> is dependent on your successful completion of the probationary period. Your salary will be reviewed after a period of 6 months and thereafter every 12 months. You will be entitled to all allowances ad benefits whatsoever decided by the management. You shall receive your payment before 5th of every month. Leave and other company policies are available at <website link>. These policies are reviewed and posted at our website from time to time by the management of <company name> for your benefit. Your signing this appointment letter confirms your acceptance of the terms and conditions and that you would be joining <company name> on the given date. I am looking forward to working with you. Sincerely, 92 Managerial Skill Development
<Name>, <Designation> <Company name> <Date: dd/mm/yyyy>
Study Notes
Assessment
1. Explain the ground rules of letter writing. 2. What are the types of commercial letters.
Discussion
Discuss the AIDA form of letter writing.
3.3 Written Communication

3.3.1 MEANING OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written communication is of immense consequence in todays business world. It is an innovative activity of the mind. Effective written communication is indispensable for preparing worthy promotional materials for business development. Speech came before Managerial Skill Development 93
writing. However, writing is exclusive and more formal than speech. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organisation in correct order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. In addition, writing is binding and reliable as compared to speech. While speech is spontaneous, writing causes delay and takes time as feedback is not immediate.
3.3.2 ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Written communication helps in instituting apparent principles, policies and rules for running an organisation. It is a permanent means of communication. Thus, it is useful where permanent record maintenance is obligatory. It assists in proper delegation of responsibilities. Written communication is more precise and explicit. Effective written communication progresses and enhances an organisation's image. It provides ready records and references. Legal defenses can depend upon written communication as it provides valid records.
3.3.3 DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Written communication is not very economical. The expenses are huge in terms of stationery and the work force employed in writing/typing and delivering letters. Further, if the receivers of the written message are separated by distance and if they need to clarify their doubts, the response is not spontaneous. Written communication is time-consuming as the feedback is not immediate. The encoding and sending of message takes time. Effective written communication requires great skills and competencies in language and vocabulary use. Poor writing skills and quality have a negative impact on the organisations reputation. Too much paper work and e-mails burden is involved.
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Employees' Poor Writing Skills Can Lead to Lost Profit

Employees' writing skills - or the lack of them - substantially affect the bottom line in ways you may never have considered. Here are just a few. * Badly written instructions can lead to incorrect procedures, lost time, damaged equipment, lost customers - and lost profit. * Ineffective letters, which often took too long to write in the first place, can create a poor company image, wasted time, bad customer or supplier relations, lost customers - and lost profit. * Interdepartmental miscommunication - often through incomprehensible e-mail exchanges - can result in fragmentation of the workforce, loss of corporate loyalty, missed collaboration and innovation opportunities, possibly lost employees resulting in more recruitment and training costs - and lost profit. * Cold, impersonal boilerplate letters in response to customers' problems or complaints can lead to loss of those customers, bad news spread to their friends and colleagues, loss of present and future income - and lost profit. Mangled syntax can cause expensive confusion, inconvenience or even danger. Here are just a few examples: 1. A consultant's proposal on a new benefits package for his corporate client read, "By paying a 5% premium on wages, all employees will be enrolled in the company insurance program". Who was supposed to pay the 5%? According to this sentence, the employees would be liable to pay - but in reality the company is suppose to pay. It should have read, 'By paying a premium of 5% of wages, the company can enrol all employees in its insurance program'. There is a gaping difference between both. 2. A passenger broke into the flight deck on a commercial airplane. Subsequent investigation revealed that written regulations said, "The doors to the flight deck must be locked only on takeoff and landing". What exactly does that mean? Must they be unlocked at other times or are they simply permitted to be unlocked at other times? Misinterpretation of this ambiguous message almost resulted in disaster. 3. An airport terminal sign read, "No smoking areas available". Does that mean there are no areas for people to smoke or does it mean there are areas set aside for non-smokers. 4. A company tried to cancel a contract, believing the contract allowed it to do so under current conditions. However, because of the incorrect placement of a comma in the agreement, the other party contested the cancellation and successfully sued the company for $1.2 million. The comma proved to be very expensive.
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3.3.4 PRINCIPLES OF BETTER WRITING

According to F.L. Lucas (1894-1967) "To write really well is a gift inborn; those who have it teach themselves". However, he maintained, "One can sometimes teach them to write rather better". In his book Style (Cassell, 1955), Lucas offered the following basic principles to "shorten that painful process" of learning how to write better. Brevity: It is bad manners to waste [the reader's] time. Therefore, brevity comes first. Clarity: It is bad manners to give [readers] needless trouble. Therefore, clarity is to be achieved mainly by taking trouble and by writing to serve people rather than to impress them. Communication: The social purpose of language is communication- to inform, misinform or otherwise influence our fellows. Communication is more difficult than we may think. Emphasis: Just as the art of war largely consists of deploying the strongest forces at the most important points, so the art of writing depends a good deal on putting the strongest words in the most important places Honesty: Anything you say may be used as evidence against you. You must be honest at all times for all purposes. Passion and Control: This, indeed, is one of the eternal paradoxes of both life and literature--that without passion little gets done; yet, without control of that passion, its effects are largely ill or null. Reading: One learns to write by reading good books, as one learns to talk by hearing good talkers. Revision: Exposure to writing different types of letters over a period of time gives the writer confidence to write a good letter. Sophistication and Simplicity: The sophisticated do not necessarily express themselves better than the simple-in fact, they may often have much to learn from the simple people. Sound and Rhythm: Apart from a few simple principles, the sound and rhythm of English prose are where both writers and readers should trust their ears rather than rules.
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3.3.5 3X3 WRITING PROCESS

1. Prewriting: Prewriting is the first stage of the writing process. Elements of prewriting may include planning, research, outlining, diagramming, storyboarding or clustering. Writers usually begin with a clear idea of audience, content and the importance of their communication. Analyse: The purpose that has is to be served through writing should be clear. The reaction that you want from the receiver's end and the sort of communication channel you intend to follow for the same should be decided well in advance. Anticipate: The background of the audience and their knowledge regarding a particular subject should be anticipated. One should predict whether the receiver's response will be neutral, positive or negative. Adapt: It is advisable to ponder over the kinds of techniques you can use to adapt your message to its audiences and anticipated reaction 2. Writing Research: Facts should be founded on accurate data. Extensive research should be done using the Internet or correspondence etc. to know all that you need to know to write this message. Organise: Similar facts need to be grouped together and the information should be well organised. You can outline your plan and prepare some notes. Compose: Prepare a first draft, usually writing quickly.
3. Revising Revise: Message editing should be done to ensure the clarity of the message. The message should be concise, conversational and readable. Proofread: Look out if there are any grammatical errors or spelling mistakes. Errors of names, numbers, formats and punctuations should be avoided. Evaluate: Evaluate whether the message suffices the purpose. Is the message appropriate and appealing? Will it be able to put across the main idea correctly and efficiently in front of the audience?
3.3.6 FEATURES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Academic writing in English is linear, which implies it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or Managerial Skill Development 97
repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. Eight main features of academic writing are often discussed. Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged and responsible. Complexity: Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has longer words, it is lexically denser and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has greater grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives as compared to spoken words. Formality: Academic writing is relatively formal. In general, this means that you should avoid colloquial words and expressions. Precision: In academic writing, meticulous care is take should be taken that facts are stated precisely. Objectivity: Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than on you. For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs). Explicitness: Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words. Accuracy: Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between 'phonetics' and 'phonemics'; while English as a language does not. Hedging: In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways. A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a hedge. Responsibility: In academic writing, you must be responsible for and must be able to provide evidence and justification for any claims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use.
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3.3.7 STAGES OF WRITING PROCESS

Gardner and Johnson (1997) describe the stages of the writing process: "Writing is a fluid process created by writers as they work. Accomplished writers move back and forth between the stages of the process, both consciously and unconsciously". Young writers, however, benefit from the structure and security of following the writing process in their writing. Prewriting: Students generate ideas for writing: brainstorming; reading literature; creating life maps, webs and story charts; developing word banks; deciding on form, audience, voice and purpose as well as through teacher motivation. Rough draft: Students get their ideas on paper. They write without concern for conventions. Written work does not have to be neat; it is a 'sloppy copy.' Reread: Students proofread their own work by reading aloud and reading for sensibility. Share with a peer reviser: Students share and make suggestions for improvement: asking who, what, when, where, why and how questions about parts of the story the peer does not understand; looking for better words; and talking about how to make the work better. Revise: Improve what the narrative says and how it says it: write additions, imagery and details. Take out unnecessary work or verbiage. Use peer suggestions to improve. Clarify. Editing: Work together on editing for mechanics and spelling. Make sure the work is 'goof proof.' Final Draft: Students construct their final copy to discuss with the teacher and write a final draft. Publishing: Students publish their written pieces: sending their work to publishers, reading their finished story aloud, making books. In actuality, the writing process is not a highly organised linear process, but rather a continual movement between the different steps of the writing model.
3.3.8 IMPORTANCE OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Writing is the primary basis upon which your work, your learning and your intellect will be judgedin college, in the workplace and in the community. Writing expresses who you are as a person. Writing is portable and permanent. It makes your thinking visible. 99
Writing helps, you move easily among facts, inferences and opinions without getting confused and without confusing your reader.
Writing promotes your ability to pose worthwhile questions. Writing fosters your ability to explain a complex position to readers and to yourself. Writing helps, others give you feedback. Writing helps you refine your ideas when you give others feedback. Writing requires that you anticipate your readers needs. Your ability to do so demonstrates your intellectual flexibility and maturity.
Writing ideas down preserves them so that you can reflect upon them later. Writing out your ideas permits you to evaluate the adequacy of your argument. Writing stimulates you to extend a line of thought beyond your first impressions or gut responses.
Writing helps, you understand how truth is established in a given discipline. Writing equips you with the communication and thinking skills you need to participate effectively in democracy.
Writing is an essential job skill.
Study Notes
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Assessment
1. What is 3x3 writing? 2. What are the stages of the writing process.
Discussion
Discuss the importance of written communication in an organisation.
3.4 Writing Business Reports

3.4.1 WHAT IS REPORT WRITING?
A report can be delineated as a testimonial or account of some happening. It is purely based on observation and analysis. A report explains any circumstance. In todays corporate world, reports play an essential role. They are a strong base for planning and control in an organisation i.e. reports give information, which can be utilised by the management team in an organisation for charting plans and for solving complex issues in the organisation. A report discusses a particular problem in detail. It brings significant and reliable information to the attention of top management in an organisation. Hence, based on such information, the management can make strong decisions. Reports are required for judging the performances of various departments in an organisation.
3.4.2 STEPS OF WRITING A REPORT

An effective report can be written going through the following steps Determine the objective of the report i.e. identify the problem. Collect the required material (facts) for the report. Study and examine the facts gathered. Plan the facts for the report. Prepare an outline for the report, i.e. draft the report. Edit the drafted report. 101
Distribute the draft report to the advisory team and ask for feedback and recommendations.
3.4.3 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD REPORT

The essentials of good/effective report writing are as follows Know your objective, i.e. be focused. Analyse the niche audience i.e. make an analysis of the target audience, the purpose for which audience requires the report, kind of data audience is looking for in the report, the implications of report reading, etc. Decide the length of report. Disclose correct and true information in a report. Discuss all sides of the problem reasonably and impartially. Include all relevant facts in a report. Concentrate on the report structure and matter. Pre-decide the report writing style. Use vivid structure of sentences. The report should be neatly presented and should be carefully documented. Highlight and recap the main message in a report. Encourage feedback on the report from the critics. The feedback, if negative, might be useful if properly supported with reasons by the critics. The report can be modified based on such feedback. Use graphs, pie charts, etc to show the numerical data records over years. Decide on the margins on a report. Ideally, the top and the side margins should be the same (minimum 1-inch broad) but the lower/bottom margins can be one and a half times as broad as others can. Attempt to generate readers interest by making appropriate paragraphs, giving bold headings for each paragraph, using bullets wherever required, etc.
3.4.4 KINDS OF REPORTS IN INTER-DEPARTMENTAL COMMUNICATION

There are various kind of reports used in day-to-day business and routine functions of departments. Some of them are as follows: 1. Progress Reports: When a long-term project or work is undertaken, the administration keeps itself informed through progress reports. The project may be the construction of a 102 Managerial Skill Development
bridge or a building, the layout of a residential colony, the installation of equipment in a factory or the investigation of some problem. These reports also assist the officers and workers immediately responsible for the job to take stock of what has already been done and to relate it to the total amount of time and money available. The frequency of progress reports depends upon the practice followed in an organisation. These may be written and circulated at the end of each phase or a specified period or completion of the stage of work. If they are prepared at regular intervals, they are sometimes called periodical reports. The performa for preparation of such reports is specified by each organisation but they contain the following information: Name of the work or project Total work to be completed Date Work completed to date Work to be completed Possible date for completion Remarks, if any Signature and designation of the reporting officer
2. Laboratory Reports: A laboratory report is an account of various steps, findings and conclusions put together in a logic order. In fact, no scientific experiment can be considered valid unless it is presented in terms intelligible to other scientists. Thus, writing laboratory reports is considered an essential part of scientific investigation and experimentation. These reports contain the following elements: Heading Experiment No. Date Statement of objects Apparatus used Method or produce followed Observations Conclusions 103
Signature
3. Inspection Reports: Inspection reports are of two types: It is a report, which incorporates the result of the inspection of a piece of equipment to ascertain whether it is functioning properly or requires any repairs or replacement. This may be done as a matter of routine or on receipt of a complaint. It is a report, which indicates the result of inspection of a product as a part of quality control. Most manufacturing organisations have a quality control section or department whose duty is to inspect every product with a view to ensure that it fulfils the required specifications. 4. Inventory Reports: It is customary for every organisation to take stock of equipment, furniture, stationery, etc. at regular intervals. The person who checks the stock fills in his findings in a prescribed form. 5. Annual Confidential Reports on Employees: Most organisations formulate a periodic evaluation of the performance and general conduct of their employees. The assessment thus made is used at appropriate times for rewards such as increments, promotion, transfer to more responsible job.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. What are the steps in writing a good report? 2. What are the essentials of good a report.
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Discussion
Discuss the kinds of reports in inter departmental communication.
3.5 Summary
Letter Writing: Letters can be broadly classified in two categories- formal letters and informal letters. Formal letters include official letters, business letters, complaints, applications, letters to editors etc. while informal letters include personal letters, letters that are written to our friends and family. Letter writing is a skill that needs to be honed over time with practice. It is a pleasurable task once you know the basic rules. Commercial Letters: A business letter is a formal letter of correspondence and is often used to convey official messages. It is usually written by one company to another, to clients, to customers and to any other third party. It should be written in a warm and polite tone but not too personal. The body of the letter is very important. Always keep the letter short and to the point. Kinds of Commercial Letters: There are different kinds of business letters, used for different purposes. They are divided into two types: A. Business-to-business types are intended for company-to-company communication. Examples are: Appreciation Letter Thank you Congratulations Letter of Recognition Letter of Reference Recommendation Sympathy letter Invitation letter Letter of credit Letter of interest Business memorandum Managerial Skill Development 105
Business introduction Business letter Donation letter Termination letter B. Business-to-Client letters are: Welcome Letter Letter of Appreciation Apology Letter Collection Letter Invoice Letter Template Letter of Invitation Marketing Letter Rejection Letter Written communication: Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional materials for business development. Effective writing involves careful choice of words, their organisation in a correct order in sentences formation as well as cohesive composition of sentences. PRINCIPLES OF GOOD WRITING 106 Brevity Clarity Communication Emphasis Honesty Passion and Control Reading Revision Sophistication and Simplicity Sound and Rhythm Managerial Skill Development
3X3 Writing Process: It involves three stages: 1. Prewriting, 2. Writing, 3. Revising. FEATURES OF WRITING Complexity Formality Precision Objectivity Explicitness Accuracy Hedging Responsibility STAGES OF WRITING PROCESS Prewriting Rough draft Reread Share with a peer reviser Revise Editing Final draft Publishing Report Writing: A report can be defined as a testimonial or account of some happening. It is purely based on observation and analysis. A report sheds light upon any circumstance. In todays corporate world, reports play a crucial role. Kinds of Reports: There are various kind of reports used in day-to-day business and routine functions of departments. Some of them are as follows: Progress reports, laboratory reports, inspection reports, inventory reports, annual confidential reports on employees.
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Broad Questions 1. What do you understand by letter writing? Explain different kinds of commercial letters. 2. What is business report writing? What are the steps and essentials of good report? Short Notes a. Advantages and disadvantages of written communication b. Kinds of reports in inter-departmental communication c. Principles of better writing d. 3X3 Writing Process and stages in writing e. Types of commercial letters
3.7 Further Reading

1. Business Communication from Process to Product, Bowman, Joel P and Branchaw, Bemadine, 1987 Dryden Press, Chicago 2. Business Communications: Principles and Applications, 2nd edition, Pearce C Glenn etc. 1988, John Wiley, New York 3. Communicating in Business, Hatch Richard, 1977 Science Research Associates, Chicago 4. Effective Business Communications, Murphy, Herta A and Peck, Charries E, 2nd ed, 1976, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi 5. Successful Business Communication, 3rd ed., Treece Maira, 1987, Allyn and Bacon, Boston
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Assignment
Write a sales letter to a company, promoting a specific featured mobile phone, which your company manufactures. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ Managerial Skill Development 109
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 110 Managerial Skill Development
Unit 4
Verbal Communication
Learning Outcome
After reading this unit, you will be able to: Outline tenets of oral communication Explain features, advantages, disadvantages, principles and essentials or oral communication Prepare a good business report Prepare public speeches and identify do's and don'ts for delivering them. Use presentation skills

5.
Content Map
4.1 4.2 Introduction Oral Communication 4.2.1 Meaning of Oral Communication 4.2.2 Basic Features of Oral Communication 4.2.3 Advantages of Oral Communication
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4.2.4 Disadvantages of Oral Communication 4.2.5 Principles of Oral Communication 4.2.6 Effective Oral Communication 4.3 Presentation of Reports-Introduction 4.3.1 Characteristics of Good/Effective Presentation 4.3.2 Presentation Skills 4.3.3 Factors for Effective Presentation 4.4 Public Speaking and Negotiations 4.4.1 Public Speaking 4.4.2 Step-by-step Approach to Public Speaking 4.4.3 Negotiations 4.5 4.6 4.7 Summary Self Assessment Test Further Reading
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4.1 Introduction
Modern age has had a significant impact on the manner in which we communicate. Information technologies such as electronic mail, cellular phones, video-conferencing and fax machines have enhanced communication. Communication has increased the dependency of business on technology and this has made decision-making process faster. In spite of all these developments, face-to-face communication is still important. In addition, in the business world, face-to-face presentation is still the most effective way to reach the intended audience. Presentation is a form of face-to-face communication and plays an important role in sharing information and guiding actions within organisations. Presentation is a more formal type of communication and hence requires a definite strategy- such as goal setting, situational knowledge, communication competence and anxiety management. All these require adequate preparation to ensure effective performance. Making a presentation is quite different from speaking with others in a two-party or small-group context. Ensuring audience comprehension is more difficult because feedback is less direct and less spontaneous. During a presentation, the speaker must be able to read the audiences non-verbal behaviour and infer the moods and reactions of the audience to the message being presented. In the communication process, oral or verbal communication is the most important factor for the sender and the receiver of the message. In business communication, more than 75% of the executives time is spent on talking to others. At the highest-level of management, the talking process exceeds more than 90 %. There are three basic stages in oral communication: The technical problems for achieving accuracy in communicating the message The problem of ensuring that the message carries the desired meaning The received meaning affects behavior in the desired way
4.2 Oral Communication

4.2.1 MEANING OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication implies communication through speech. It comprises individuals conversing with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonic conversation e.g. speeches, presentations. Oral communication is generally recommended when the communication matter is of an impermanent kind or where a direct interaction is required. Managerial Skill Development 113
Face to face, communication (meetings, lectures, conferences, interviews, etc.) is significant to build rapport and trust.
4.2.2 BASIC FEATURES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

Speaking and listening activities can create overall impact if used effectively. Let us understand the basic features of communication: Idea: In this preliminary step speakers decide the issue to be communicated. There are many ideas in the speakers mind. He/she may choose the ideas, which suits the occasion as well as receiver. Message: Message construction depends upon various factors such as: The language must be easily understood by the receiver The thought idea in the language must easily convey the meaning to elicit a positive feedback from the receiver. All/most care must be taken by the speaker not to harm the interests of receiver. Queries of the receiver must be anticipated in advance by the speaker for greater impact on receiver Paragraph/Pauses: Pauses must be appropriately timed to give the receiver some time to absorb whatever he has listened to earlier. This is just for few seconds, but its impact is long and meaningful. In written communication pauses can be translated into paragraphs. Receiver: The receiver plays an important role in communication. The speaker must always take care to retain the interest of the receiver in communication because if he loses interest the whole communication process stops. The speaker should always address himself to the needs and expectation of the receiver. Empathy: Greater the empathy between the sender and receiver, higher the level of understanding and more is the receptivity to message and ideas. In brief, we can say that the receiver must get completely involved with the ideas and thoughts of the speaker from speakers point of view, without any prior conceptions for better results or communication. Sender: Sender or the speaker takes the first step towards sharing of ideas, thoughts concepts with receiver. The success and failure of interaction totally depends upon the methods used by him to convey his message across by recurring attention of the receiver. 114 Managerial Skill Development
4.2.3 ADVANTAGES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

There is a high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it is interpersonal. There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing changes in the decisions previously taken. The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made quickly without any delay. Oral communication is economical not only in terms of time but also in terms of money and efforts. Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and many issues/differences can be put to an end by talking them so over. Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy. Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organisational employees. Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential information/matter.
4.2.4 DISADVANTAGES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

Relying only on oral communication may not be adequate, as business communication is formal and very organised. Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as it is informal and not as organised as written communication. Oral communication is timesaving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in case of meetings, long speeches consume a lot of time and are unproductive at times. Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are vacillating. There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack essentials. It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience. Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in investigation work.
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4.2.5 PRINCIPLES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION

Following are some of the principles you can follow as guidelines for planning the design of your sermons. Keeping these principles in mind while communicating would help getting your design closer to the goal of making real communication contact. Design a dynamic format rather than a static one: Dynamic means active, forceful and ever changing whereas static means fixed, complete and still. The design of your speech should be alive and in motion when you interact with the audience. Not everything should be pre-planned. Some room for spontaneity should be left. Each word of the sermon should not be planned. It is important to remember that a sermon is an oral presentation that does not come into existence until it is preached. Keep your outline clear and simple: The words used to frame the sermon play a very important role. Therefore, it becomes essential to make sure that the main ideas are clear in concept and wording. What you write may look good on paper. However, these statements should be read aloud and they following criteria should be paid heed to: How do they sound? Are they immediately understandable? Is there a rhythm and symmetry to their wording? Do they roll off the tongue without a stutter? Oral design should be oriented to time rather than space: The time spent on speaking about a particular topic is directly proportional to the emphasis and importance of the topic. It takes only two or three minutes to state your bridging sentences or read the text or division statements and the rest of the time is development or support material. Take care to orient your design to time rather than space, to plan carefully but remain flexible. Moreover, if you jot down only a word or two to indicate a long illustration, argument or application the notes can be misleading. Emphasise main ideas by placement and reiteration: The audience remembers the main idea only because of the way you say it because they cannot see that bold or italics print or the underlining. Therefore, important or key statements should be placed in prominent positions. Place the most important statements in the starting or towards the end of the speech. What you say first and last is remembered. As you repeat your division statements in the same words, the hearer will grasp their significance. Announcing and numbering them using the keyword is a great technique. 116 Managerial Skill Development
Use carefully worded transitions as you move through the presentation: Using natural analogy in the beginning is a good idea but only if it is well related with the sermon idea. This will smoothen the way to the next segment. The transition from the need element to the text has to be planned vigilantly. In addition, one can use bridging sentences and then let the transition sentences with the key word usher your audience into the divisions. The process of wrapping up a division should include two things. One is the summary
of all previous points and the second is an introduction of the upcoming points. Plan carefully for a combination of inductive and deductive movement: Inductive thinking begins with particulars. The sermon can be started inductively to grab the attention of the audience by starting with something that is familiar to the audience and that parallels the main subject. Then you can move to the main idea of the sermon. The whole idea is that the movement from general to specific should be done and it should not look artificial. Use deductive moment when you give the division statement and then move to particulars of development. Use language best suited to the ear not the eye: The accurate selection of words is very important to a speech. Therefore, it should be noted that the language should be kept simple and direct even if you repeat the main ideas. Usage of very flowery language should be avoided so that the ideas are easily comprehendible. Grammatical errors and the errors of pronunciation should be avoided. If you mention some historical or biblical references in your speech do not forget to explain them assuming that the people will know about it. Avoid using technical or theological terminology without defining them. Plan the introductory segments carefully: The introduction is the most important part but unfortunately, most preachers just stand up and wander into their subject. A good start always leaves a good impression on the audience. There are five purposes of the introduction; each of them calls for careful planning: To arrest the attention of the hearer To awaken interest in your subject To introduce your subject To introduce the text To make a smooth transition into the body of the sermon Plan the closing design of the segment carefully: The conclusion is as important as the 117
introduction. The conclusion outlines the visualisation and action steps. This is the development, which returns to your central sermon idea. For the visualisation step, use illustrations and applications to picture the experience of the sermon idea to the hearer. The action step calls for the specific changes that are needed to apply the sermon idea. This step allows the hearer to respond to the message as it leads into a time of prayer, reflection or invitation. Plan the whole design from the audience's point of view: The focus should also be on the audience's point of view and not only on your expository material and how to organise it. Who will be there? How do they think? What do they understand? What do they need to know? If you do not communicate your material effectively, it is of no value to your hearer.
4.2.6 EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION

A number of generalisations can be made about ones role for successful and effective oral communication. At least two parties are involved in the communication process- the speaker and the receiver or listener. Given below are some of the features of a speaker. Contents: If possible, one should do groundwork before the final presentation. The speaker must be certain about all the information gathered and planned for presentation in his capacity. Speaker must anticipate and note down the questions, which the audience may ask. He should note down the question that he has planned to ask the audience. Audience: The speaker must have the information about the mentality and psychology of the audience. If the background is known, it becomes easy for the speaker to interact or communicate with the audience and vice versa. 118 Managerial Skill Development
Adaptation: The speaker must adapt himself according to the audience. If the crowd is small the speaker must be flexible. In a one to one communication, he can finely tune his message to knowledge, abilities and needs of the receiver and vice versa is the case with huge masses.
Clarification: All the points of doubt must be made clear before final speech. If doubts remain unsolved, they may create misunderstanding.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. What are the advantages of oral communication? 2. What are the principles of oral communication.
Discussion
Discuss the basic features of oral communication.
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4.3 Presentation of Reports- Introduction

Presentation can be distinguished as a formal event characterised by teamwork and use of audio-visual aids. The main purpose of presentation is to confer information, to persuade the audience to act and to engender goodwill. A good presentation should have good subject matter, should match with the objective, should best fit the audience and should be well organised.
Fig. 4.1: A Poor Presentation (Illegible)
Fig. 4.2: A Good Presentation(Clear to read and understand) 120 Managerial Skill Development
4.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD/EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

The presentation ideas should be well adapted to your audience. Relate your presentation message/idea to the interests of the audience. A detailed audience analysis must be made before the presentation i.e. an analysis of the needs, age, educational background, language and culture of the target audience. Their body language instantly gives the speaker the required feedback. A good presentation should be concise and should be focused on the topic. It should not move off-track. A good presentation should have the propensity to convey the required information. The fear should be transformed into positive energy during the presentation. Be calm and relaxed while giving a presentation. Before beginning, wait and develop eye contact with the audience. Focus on conveying your message well and use a positive body language. To communicate the desired information, the speaker should employ more visual aids such as transparencies, diagrams, pictures, charts, etc. Each transparency/slide should enclose limited and essential information only. No slide should be kept on for a longer time. Try facing the audience, rather than the screen. The speaker should not block the view. The room lights should be turned on or else the audience might fall asleep and loose interest. Organise all the visuals for making a logical and sound presentation. A good presentation must be planned. The speaker must plan how to begin the presentation, what to speak in the middle of presentation and how to end the presentation without losing audience interests at any point of time. Rehearse and practice the presentation. This will help the speaker to be more confident and self-assured. The more the speaker rehearses the better the presentation turns to be. The speaker should encourage more questions from the audience. He should be honest enough to answer those questions. If any biased question is put forth by the audience, rearticulate it before answering. Summarise the presentation at the end. Give final comments. Leave a positive impact upon the audience. The speaker must have a presentable appearance while giving a presentation. The speaker should stand with feet far apart maintaining a good balance. He must use confident gestures. He must use short and simple words. Managerial Skill Development 121
Try to gain and maintain audience interest by using positive quotes, humour or remarkable fact.
The speaker must be affirmative and optimistic before giving presentation. He should ensure all tools and equipments to be used in presentation are working well.
The speaker must state the objectives of the presentation at beginning of the presentation.
4.3.2 PRESENTATION SKILLS

Organisations today are increasingly interested in hiring people with speaking skills. "As organisations are downsizing, we need more well rounded people", says Hollis Church, communications specialist. "They may not only be the technical expert, but the spokesperson for a product". At some point, everyone in business has to market an idea and such persuasion is often done in person. Speaking skills play a vital role in a successful career. You may need to explicate your company's expansion plans to your banker or you might need to persuade management to support your proposed marketing strategy. You might have to make a sales pitch before customers or speak to a professional gathering. This section will help you develop speaking skills in making oral presentations and in using the telephone and voice mail to advantage. You will also learn to plan and participate in efficient business meetings. Presentation skill is an art, which must be mastered by the people belonging to various fields related to oral communication such as instructors, trainers, administrators, executives etc. These people modify their skills with respect to their presentation before target audience groups. The speaker must select the topic for presentation bearing in mind the interest and level of understanding of the audience. The material should be assembled in a systematic manner with facts and figures for confidence building of the speaker and better understanding of the audience for effective result. Adequate time should be given for questions and discussions.
4.3.3 FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

The important factors for effective presentations skill are planning, preparing, practicing and presenting.
A) GATHERING INFORMATION FOR YOUR PRESENTATION
Most presentations of any significance will entail some research to extend or update your knowledge. Research, does not mean rigorous, scientifically based investigation. In this context, research refers to any systematic study that extends beyond your present 122 Managerial Skill Development
knowledge of the subject matter. Information is gathered in five ways: personal observation, questionnaires, interviews, experiments, secondary sources of information. Personal observation: This is the simplest form of obtaining information and sometimes the most neglected. Personal observation and introspection can come of use when one is a dilemma. Personal observation may also supplement other ways of getting information. After exploring a situation for yourself, you may decide that next you need to follow up with interviews or an assessment of secondary sources of information. Questionnaires: Questionnaires are a straightforward way of finding out people's perception of a topic. Here it is enough to say that questionnaires can be deliberated in a very structured format, requiring every respondent to answer the same questions or to a free format, allowing your sample to raise aspects of the topic of concern to them. In the latter case, you are likely to receive a much greater breadth of information. Interviews: For procuring information from a broad spectrum of respondents, questionnaires are of great importance. To get below the surface in assessing people's opinions and discovering their ideas, there is no substitute for the interview. However, interviews take a lot of time to organise, run and evaluate later. For these reasons, it is usually not possible to set up in-depth interviews with more than a few Individuals. Yet the particular strength of the interview is that it enables the researcher to explore what other people think or feel about a topic in as much depth as the person and time allow, Experiment: Observations, questionnaires and interviews permit finding out what seems to be happening now. Experiments enable you to anticipate what might happen and you can test a different way of doing things. As in scientific research, you start with an informed conjecture about how things may develop in your investigation. Next you try to prove or disprove your guess. Perhaps you intend to find out what the effect would be if you introduced a new system of asking counter staff to attend to customer enquiries in your organisation. You begin by simply making a change in way your procedure currently works. Simultaneously you try to keep other things constant so that you are able to observe how the change made things different. Once you are sure you understand the effect of that change, you may wish to introduce another change, monitor that and then compare how the two different approaches seemed to work. Secondary sources: Observation, questionnaires, interviews and experiments all constitute primary sources of information in that they give you first-hand information. Often Managerial Skill Development 123
this kind of data is not sufficient and you will have to consult secondary sources. These include all sources of formation that are not first-hand. Examples are books, journals, yearbooks, annual reports, computer based information systems, business directories, almanacs, trade publications, library catalogues and organisational records. In recent years, business information has become highly accessible by means of computer terminal. A number of university and other libraries in New Zealand now offer online access to literally hundreds of data banks throughout the world. Specially trained librarians assist business people and researchers to determine the key words on which information will be sought. Then they select the most suitable data banks for the kind of All forms of investigation take time and Murphy's second law nearly always applies: everything takes longer than you think. As well as the time taken to search in libraries, files, records, directories and so on, there is the time of waiting for the information you requested to arrive. The solution you identify should be long enough to do justice to the problem you have been discussing but short enough to ensure that the audience's interest is maintained.
B) PREPARING A PRESENTATION
PREPARING AN EFFECTIVE ORAL PRESENTATION It is natural to experience a certain amount of fear before making an oral presentation. However, you can capitalise on the adrenaline that is coursing through your body by converting it to excitement and enthusiasm for your performance. People who do not prepare suffer the most anxiety and give the worst performances. You can learn to make effective oral presentations by focusing on four areas: preparation, organisation, visual aids and delivery. KNOWING YOUR PURPOSE The most essential part of your preparation is deciding what you want to accomplish. Do you want to sell a health care program to a prospective client? Do you want to persuade management to increase the marketing budget? Do you want to inform customer service reps of three important ways to prevent miscommunication? Whether your goal is to persuade or to inform, you must have a clear idea of where you are going. At the end of your presentation, what do you want your listeners to remember or do? Consider the purpose of the presentation, the time available and primarily the subject matter.
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PURPOSE A presentation is made by keeping basic purpose in mind End result of the presentation Benefits acquired by the audience after the presentation Speakers ideas, concepts with which he wants to convince the audience Impartment of knowledge, development of skills and values from action Sale of concept, ideas or product Entertainment of the audience Dissemination of information Suggestions regarding new concepts Creation of an image or strategy TIME AVAILABLE 5 to 10% of time should be partitioned for subject introduction. 15 to 20% time must be devoted to the main topic and terms related to it. 60 to 70% time must be granted for developing; describing and making the audience understand various aspects related to main topic and subtopics. 5 to 10% time should be committed to integrating the main purpose or idea in short for better results. Minimum 2 to 5% time should be utilised for summary or conclusions. SUBJECT MATTER The introduction of the subject matter must be brief and to the point. Introductory part must be designed in such a manner so that interest and curiosity of the audience starts from the beginning. The body of the talk should be designed logically so the audience can understand and remember the main points easily. Visual aids should be used, real life examples should be discussed, etc. Conclusion of subject matter largely depends upon the objective. The achievement of speakers objectives may depend upon the quality of conclusion in a presentation.
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KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE A second key component in preparation is analysing your audience, anticipating its reactions and making appropriate adaptations. Many factors influence a presentation. A large audience, for example, usually requires a more formal and less personalised approach. Other audience characteristics, such as age, gender, education, experience and attitude toward the subject, will affect your style and message content. Analyse these factors to determine your strategy, vocabulary, illustrations and level of detail. Keeping in mind the following points with respect to audience will help the speaker to plan his presentation in a better way. Educational background of the audience Audience knowledge level The number of audience attending Professional areas to which the audience belong e.g. managers, teachers, doctors, students etc Audiences listening interest to presentation Audience knowledge about subject of presentation Audience attitude i.e. whether they are friendly in different or hostile etc. Likes and dislikes Cultural features of audience
Here are specific questions to consider while you plan the presentation: How will this topic appeal to this audience? How can I relate this information to their needs? How can I earn respect so that they accept my message? Which of the following would be most effective in making my point? Statistics, graphic illustrations, demonstrations, case histories, analogies and cost figures What measures must I take to ensure that this audience remembers my main points? DRAFTING A PRESENTATION Once you have determined your objectives, selected a topic, analysed your audience and gathered sufficient facts, the next stage is to draft your presentation using an 126 Managerial Skill Development
appropriate internal pattern for the body of the presentation. A typical structure for a briefing (or public speech) may consist of the three parts of introduction, body and conclusion: Introduction Obtain the audience's interest Develop rapport with the group Indicate the main point or objective of the talk Body 1. Major Point 2. Major Point 3. Major Point a. Minor Point a. Minor Point a. Minor Point b. Minor Point b. Minor Point b. Minor Point
(The combination of major and minor points in the body of your speech makes up its internal pattern.) Conclusion Sum up the major points Tell the group what you want them to do as a result When designing an internal pattern you may select from any of the following possibilities or you might prefer to adapt or combine them to fit your own needs. An internal pattern is not meant to be a straitjacket to confine your speech. It is a means by which you can display the logic of a point of view or the force of an argument and thereby win over your listeners. ORGANIZING THE CONTENT Once you have determined your purpose and analysed the audience, you are ready to collect information and organise it logically. Good organisation and conscious repetition are the two most powerful keys to audience comprehension and retention. In fact, many speech experts recommend the following admittedly repetitive but effective plan: Step 1: Tell them what you are going to say. Step 2: Say it. Step 3: Tell them what you have just said. In other words, repeat your main points in the introduction, body and conclusion of your presentation. Although it sounds deadly, this strategy works surprisingly well. Let us examine how to construct the three parts of a presentation and add appropriate verbal signposts to ensure that listeners understand and remember.
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INTRODUCTION The opening of your presentation should strive to accomplish three specific goals: Capture listeners' attention and get them involved. Identify yourself and establish your credibility. Preview your main points. If you are able to appeal to listeners and involve them in your presentation right from the start, you are more likely to hold their attention until the finish. Consider some of the same techniques that you used to open sales letters: a question, a startling fact, a joke, a story or a quotation. Some speakers achieve involvement by opening with a question or command that requires audience members to raise their hands or stand up. To establish your credibility, you need to describe your position, knowledge and experience- whatever qualifies you to speak. Try also to connect with your audience. Listeners are particularly drawn to speakers who reveal something of themselves and identify with them. After capturing attention and establishing yourself, you will want to preview the main points of your topic, perhaps with a visual aid. You may wish to put off actually writing your introduction, however, until after you have organised the rest of the presentation and crystallised your principal ideas. BODY The biggest problem with most oral presentations is a failure to focus on a few principal ideas. Thus, the body of your short presentation (20 or fewer minutes) should embrace a limited number of main points, say, two to four. Develop each main point with adequate but without an undue, explanation and details. Since, too many details can obscure the main message; keep your presentation uncomplicated and logical. Remember, listeners have no pages to leaf back through should they become confused. How to organise and sequence main ideas may not be immediately obvious when you begin working on a presentation you could structure your ideas by the following elements: Time-Example: A presentation describing the history of a problem, organised from the first sign of trouble to the present Component-Example: A sales report organised by divisions or products
Importance-Example: A report describing operating problems arranged from the most 128 Managerial Skill Development
important to the least important Criteria-Example: A presentation evaluating equipment by comparing each model against a set of specifications Conventional groupings-Example: A report comparing asset size, fees
charged and yields of mutual funds arranged by these existing categories In organising any presentation, prepare a little more material than you think you will actually need. Perceptive speakers always have something useful in reserve (such as an extra handout, transparency or idea)just in case they finish early. CONCLUSION You should prepare the conclusion carefully because this is your last chance to drive home your main points. Do not end flaccidly with comments such as "I guess that is about all I have to say". Skilled speakers use the conclusion to review the main themes of the presentation and focus on a goal. They concentrate on what they want the audience to do, think or remember. Even though they were mentioned earlier, important ideas must be repeated. When they finish, most speakers encourage questions. If silence ensues, you can take initiative with "One question that I'm frequently asked is . . . ." You can also remark that you will be happy to answer questions individually after the presentation is completed. VERBAL SIGNPOSTS Speakers must bear in mind that listeners, unlike readers of a report, cannot control the rate of presentation or flip back through pages to review main points. As a result, listeners get lost easily. Knowledgeable speakers help the audience recognise the organisation and main points in an oral message with verbal signposts. They keep listeners on track by including helpful previews, summaries and transitions, such as these: To Preview The next segment of my talk presents three reasons for... Let us now consider the causes of... To Summarise Let me review with you the major problems I have just discussed... You see, then, that the most significant factors are... Thus far, we have talked solely about...; now let us move to... Managerial Skill Development 129
I have argued that... and..., but an alternate view holds that.... You can further improve any oral presentation by including appropriate transitional expressions such as first, second, next, flier, therefore, moreover, on the other hand, on the contrary and in conclusion. These expressions lend emphasis and tell listeners where you are headed. Notice in Eric Evans's outline, in Figure, the specific transitional elements designed to help listeners recognise each new principal point. Oral presentation outline:
Prewriting Analyse: The purpose of this report is to inform listeners of three critical elements in securing the business loans. Anticipate: The audience members are aspiring business people who are probably unfamiliar with loan operations Adapt: Because the audience will be receptive but informed, explain terms and provide examples. Repeat the main ideas to ensure comprehension. Writing Research: Analyse previous loan applications, interview other loan officers, gather critical data. Organise: Organise the data into three major categories. Support with statistics, details and examples, plan visual aid. Compose: Prepare a sentence outline. Consider using preparation software to outline your talk. Revising Revise: Develop translations between topics. Prepare note cards or speakers notes. Practice: Rehearse the entire talk and time it. Practice enunciating words and projecting your voice. Practice using visual aids. Develop natural hand motions. Evaluate: Tape record or video tape a practice session to evaluate your movements, voice tone, enunciating, and timing.
PLANNING VISUAL AIDS AND HANDOUTS There is a wise Chinese proverb: "Tell me, I forget. Show me, I remember. Involve me, I understand". It would be valuable to consider this proverb while making any business presentation as the goal of the speaker is to make his audience listen, understand and remember at the same time. To do this one can add visual aids to the presentation to make it more interesting and encourage audience involvement. Some studies suggest that 85% of our knowledge is acquired visually. Therefore, an oral presentation is likely to make less impact on the audience as compared to an audio-visual presentation. Visual aids in a presentation serve various purposes. Visual aids are particularly supportive in case some points need to be clarified or emphasised. They also improve comprehension and retention. Visual aids increase the audience interest. It also makes the presenter look more professional, more prepared and more persuasive. Even for inexperienced presenters video aid is useful because the audience concentrates on the visual presentation and not only the presenter. Good visuals also serve to jog the memory of a speaker, thus improving self-confidence, poise and delivery. 130 Managerial Skill Development
These days there is a huge variety available in the visual media to enhance a presentation. For instance overhead projectors, flipcharts, blackboards, slide projectors, powerpoint etc Three of the most popular visuals are overhead transparencies, computer visuals and handouts. Overhead Transparencies: It is useful for both students as well as professional speakers. Most of the meetings are also equipped with projectors and screens. There are many reasons why there is a huge reliance on overhead projectors. Acetate transparencies for the overhead are cheap, easily prepared on a computer or copier and simple to use. Moreover, the rooms need not be darkened. A speaker using transparencies can maintain eye contact with the audience. Remember while using transparencies to stand on the side of the projector so that you do not block the audience's view. However, transparencies are not preferred by the business people because they can give the impression that the speaker is not up to date as these transparencies are considered 'low-tech'. Handouts: Presentations can be enhanced by means of visual aid but it should be noted that the pictures, charts, brochures, articles, outlines, summaries or other supplements used for this purpose should complement the presentation. Speakers who make use of computer presentation programs often arrange a set of their slides along with notes to hand out to viewers. However, timing the distribution of handouts is tricky. If the handouts are distributed during the presentation then they tend to distract the attention of the audiences. Therefore, the content of the handouts should be explained or discussed during the presentation and the handouts can be handed over to the audience later i.e. after the completion of the presentation. Computer Visuals: Software programs such as Power Point, Freelance Graphics and Corel presentations help to create dynamic, colourful presentations with your PC. The output from these programs is generally shown on a PC monitor, a TV monitor, an LCD (liquid crystal display) panel or a screen. Also with a little expertise and advanced equipment, you can create a multimedia presentation that includes stereo sound, videos and hyperlinks.
A) POLISHING YOUR DELIVERY
Once you have organised your presentation and prepared visuals, you are ready to practice delivering it. Here are suggestions for selecting a delivery method, along with specific techniques to use before, during and after your presentation. STAGE FRIGHT Stage fright is a phenomenon that you must learn to transcend if you want to excel at Managerial Skill Development 131
public speaking. Actually, stage fright is an inaccurate term for the nervousness that occurs when considering a speaking engagement. In fact, most of the fear occurs before you step on-stage. Once you are up there, it usually goes away. Try to think of stage fright in a positive way. Fear is your friend. It sharpens your reflexes. It heightens your energy, adds a sparkle to your eye and colour to your cheeks. When you are nervous about speaking, you are more conscious of your posture and breathing. With all those good side effects, you will actually look healthier and more physically attractive. There are certain techniques, which can be used to reduce this fear of stage. Capitalise on your public speaking talent. Pretend you are just chatting with a group of friends. Close your eyes and imagine the audience listening, laughing and applauding. Remember happy moments from your past.
Strategies in advance of program Be extremely well prepared. Get individual or group public speaking coaching. Listen to music. Read a poem. Anticipate hard and easy questions. Organise your speaking notes. Absolutely memorise your opening statement so you can recite it on autopilot if you have to. DELIVERY TECHNIQUES Inexperienced speakers often feel that they must memorise an entire presentation to be effective. Unless you are an experienced performer, you will sound wooden and unnatural. Moreover, forgetting some of the middle words is always a risk. That is why memorising an entire oral presentation is not recommended. However, memorising significant parts-the introduction, the conclusion and perhaps a meaningful quotation can be dramatic and imposing. If memorising does not work, do not attempt at reading the presentation. Reading to an audience is boring and ineffective. Because reading suggests that you do not know your topic very well, the audience loses confidence in your expertise. Reading also prevents you 132 Managerial Skill Development
from maintaining eye contact. You cannot see audience reactions; consequently, you cannot benefit from feedback. Neither the memorising nor the reading method creates very convincing presentations. The unsurpassed plan, by far, is a 'notes' method. Map your presentation carefully and talk from note cards or an outline containing key sentences and major ideas. By preparing and then practicing with your notes, you can talk to your audience in a conversational manner. Your notes should be neither entire paragraphs nor single words. Instead, they should contain a complete sentence or two to introduce each major idea, below the topic sentence(s), outline sub-points and illustrations. Note cards will keep you on track and prompt your memory, but only if you have rehearsed the presentation thoroughly. BEFORE YOUR PRESENTATION Instead of worrying about everything that could go wrong during your presentation, get ready by doing the following: Prepare thoroughly: One of the most effective strategies for indurating yourself from stage fright is to your subject thoroughly. Research your topic diligently and arrange a careful sentence outline. Those who try to 'wing it' usually suffer the worst butterflies and make the worst presentations. Rehearse repeatedly: Repeated rehearsals and thorough practice of the entire presentation can help in reducing the stage fright. Place your outline sentences on separate cards. Use these cards as you practice and include your visual aids in your rehearsal. You can also record your rehearsal to evaluate how effective is the presentation. Time yourself: Keep your presentation short and to the point and try to complete it in no more than 20 minutes. You can also set a timer during the rehearsals to keep a track of time. Most audience tends to get restless during longer talks. Thus, try to complete your presentation in no more than 20 minutes. Set a timer during your rehearsal to measure you are speaking time. Request a podium. Request for a high desk or podium to deliver a presentation. It serves as a note holder and a convenient place to rest wandering hands and arms. In case of beginners, it is really helpful. Check the room: Prior to starting with the presentation, ensure you have all the equipments you need to make the presentation and that all equipments are functioning properly. For instance, you might use a sound equipment or a projector. Also, check the Managerial Skill Development 133
electrical outlets in which they are to be plugged and the positioning of the viewing screen. Ensure that the seating arrangement is appropriate to your needs. Practice stress reduction: Exercise stress reduction techniques to reduce stage fear or any kind of stress or anxiety. You can use stress reduction techniques like taking deep breaths etc. DURING YOUR PRESENTATION The following techniques can help you make a good impression during your presentation: Developing the pitch: Start with your main point of view and a handful of take-away. Then build a storyboard around that, one slide per thought. Keep the number of slides down and allow a few minutes per slide. The icebreaker: Commence with something to break the tension (yours and theirs): a welcome gesture, engaging or humorous anecdote, graphic, video, or some combination. Keep it relevant and appropriate. Do not tell a joke. The old advice, but it works: First tell the audience what you are going to tell them, then tell them, then tell them what you told them. Do not read what is on the slide: Know the pitch cold (without having to look except for a brief cue) and speak in your own words. If you (rarely) want the audience to read what is on a slide, look at it and read silently along with them. Engage the audience: Ask questions. If they do not respond, try offering an answer and asking for a show of hands or ask easier questions. Make the audience part of the experience. Be accessible: Do cower behind a podium. Use a wireless mic if needed. Get close to the audience and move from place to place while maintaining eye contact, but only from time to time. Pause for effect and emphasis: Practice being comfortable with silence for two or three seconds. It is the most dramatic way to make a point. Abstain from using non-sense syllables as and other fillers of uncomfortable silence; they are annoying and detract from your presence. Make eye contact: Use eye contact for only a few seconds per person. Too short and you will fail to engage; too long and it becomes uncomfortable. Shifting eye contact can create a mirage that the speaker is not confident. 134 Managerial Skill Development
Use hand gestures: They are engaging and interesting. However, when you are not, keep your hands at your sides. Do not fidget, hold onto things or put your hands in front of you, behind you or in your pockets. Avoid nervous habits.
Do not block the audiences view: Do not step in front of the screen or block it from view, except for the occasional walk-across. Gesture with your hand, but do not touch the screen. Do not use a pointer unless you must. AFTER YOUR PRESENTATION Most presentations involve interaction with the audience once the speaker finishes.
Use this time to do the following: Distribute handouts: If there are, some notes or data to be shared pass it to the audience in form of handouts once you are through with the presentation.
Encourage questions: There can also be a question answer session subsequent to the presentation. This is also an ideal time to interact with the audience. The speaker can also set a time limit for the session.
Repeat questions: While answering the questions the speaker should begin each answer with a repetition of the question. Although the speaker may hear the question, audience members often do not. The answer should be directed towards the entire audience.
Reinforce your main points: You can use your answers to reiterate your primary ideas. In answering questions, avoid becoming defensive or debating the questioner.
Keep control: Refrain from focussing on one individual and do not let him take over. It can give a feeling of being left out to the rest of the audience. Do not Keep the entire audience involved.
End with a summary and appreciation: Before ending the session try to summarise the main points while answering the last question. Then thank the audience for being patient and appreciate the opportunity to talk with them.
Handle Questions: Anticipate questions, which you think your audience will ask and try to answer them. Be ready for questions. Make questioners feel that their questions are welcome. Answer a question truthfully. Admitting ignorance is better than giving wrong answer. Monopolise question time; you have to learn to handle that too by indicating that every questioner has to be given a fair chance.
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PREPARING AN OUTLINE An outline is deemed a mechanical framework where bits and pieces of your presentation material are built-in; it serves as a guide to show you the right path for your presentation. So spending lime in developing an outline never goes waste. In fact, you should use an outline as your script. However, you should stand guard in case you have to deviate in response to audience feedback. Suppose you are the project leader of a team, which has taken up a project of developing a new product for the company. You have to present before a committee the new product, which will be launched in the market. This may be a 10-minute presentation about the facilities the product offers, its functioning etc. Your outline can be in the form of words, phrases or sentences: Introduction Product appearance Various parts Functioning Facilities Conclusions You may have to work out the sub-headings under each or some of these main topics. However, as already said, you should be ready to skip or add some topics if your audience wants you to do so.
B) UNDERSTANDING NUANCES OF DELIVERY
Even a dull and drab topic will accrue interest if presented well, whereas an appealing topic may emerge dull owing to poor delivery. It is clear that just having something to say is not enough; you must also know how to say it. Superior delivery does not call attention to itself. It conveys your ideas coherently, interestingly and without distracting the audience. Most audiences prefer delivery that combines a certain degree of formality with the best attributes of good conversation -directness, spontaneity, animation, vocal and facial expressiveness and a lively sense of communication.
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Study Notes
Assessment
1. What are the characteristics of effective presentation? 2. Explain the importance of presentation skills for an employee.
Discussion
Discuss the factors of effective presentation.
4.4 Public Speaking and Negotiations

4.4.1 PUBLIC SPEAKING
Speaking is an important method for communicating knowledge and expressing ideas. Effective and excellent communication skill is an advantage for work in school, business as well as your personal life. Delivering an effective presentation to 20 or to 200 people is difficult. Since, listeners have better access to information owing to advent of the Internet audiences expect more content from speakers today. In addition, because of the entertainment slant of most media today, audiences want a presentation delivered with animation, humour and excitement. Managerial Skill Development 137
4.4.2 STEP-BY-STEP APPROACH TO PUBLIC SPEAKING

A) PREPARING FOR YOUR SPEECH
The rationale of public speech is allied with the occasion and it is identified while selecting the topic. It may be: To inform To persuade To encourage To feel confident you need to be familiar with your material. Hesitancy and constant note-reading do not a good speech make. Become familiar with the signposts' of your speech and fully acquaint yourself with your content so that you can trust yourself to remember. Many good presenters use mind mapping to prepare and memorise speech notes. It is quick and really aids memory and recall. Rehearse aloud until you feel 'conversationally comfortable' about your material, as well as secure in the knowledge that it is all there'. Remember that rehearsing aloud can feel artificial. It is actually much more natural to present to an audience. Self-management also plays a pivotal role. If you feel overly nervous or have undergone unpleasant experiences presenting before, consider getting an audio program, which helps you relax properly and prepare mentally for your presentation. Once the back part' of your mind has a good template for how you want things to go, it is much easier to present well.
B) USE OF HUMOUR
The use of humour in presentations can help fix an idea in peoples' minds as well as make them comprehend unexpected perspectives. However, it has to be done in an (apparently) spontaneous way. If people remain silent in response to your attempt at humour, you may comment on the silence itself, which often elicits laughter. If you appear terrified when cracking a joke, the audience may not respond as they would when you are relaxed because you are sending mixed signals. Your words say I am being creative and funny" but your voice tone, body posture and other unconscious signals say I am terrified. People rely much more on these unconscious elements of your communication. Overall, indulging in humour is worth the risk because it makes a presentation more interesting. 138 Managerial Skill Development
C) RESEARCHING AND PLANNING THE SPEECH
Planning and researching involves mental and logical searching for supporting experience or perhaps for idea development. Sometimes the speakers primary research is conducted in a library or in company records. The speaker may need to consult colleagues or people from other companies. In short, he has to take all necessary steps to assimilate information that will form the basis of his presentation. Although variations are sometimes appropriate, the time-honoured order of a speech is: introduction, body and conclusion. A few aspects are enumerated below: The greeting should fit the audience. Ladies and gentlemen is appropriate for a mixed audience; Gentlemen fits for all male audience and My fellow Rotarians fits an audience of Rotary Club members. Some speakers eliminate the greeting and begin directly with the speech after a formal address to the chairman. This is practiced especially in informal and technical presentations. However, in a normal course of action, one should acknowledge everybody in his or her greetings. Unless the speaker can arouse interest at the beginning, his presentation is likely to fail. There should be a close tie between the opening interest gaining remarks and the subject of the speech. Following the interest gaining opening remarks, it is appropriate to state the subject (theme) of his speech. Once the speaker decides on a topic for presentation, he can determine the main points that will serve as the basis of his speech. The following brief structure should be borne in mind while making a speech: To establish rapport by using: Showing pleasure and happiness Occasion of meeting Previous speakers words Chairmans remarks Focusing attention: Raising possible questions, facts, figures, story, reference of known personalities and proverb or quotations related to the topic or the occasion Body structured according to: Purpose, audience, begin with easy to difficult begin with acceptable to newer ones, incidents should be narrated at a faster pace. Managerial Skill Development 139
Conclusion It should be attention focusing. The concluding remarks should not be dragged. The concluding observations are related to Thank the audience Repeat thanks for invitation Relate the occasion Statement of the proposition Introduction Short history of the issue/topic The main arguments will be brief and precise Importance of the issue or topic Body (this is the longest, most detailed portion) State again each argument for the affirmative. After each argument, list the specific evidence that supports it. Also, cite the source for each item of evidence. State again each argument for the negative. After each argument, list the specific evidence that supports it. Cite again the source for each item of evidence. Conclusion Summarise the position and arguments of the affirmative side as well as the negative side.
D) ORGANISING THE SPEECH
For organising the body of speech, the speaker is more likely to use factors as the basis of division than time, place or quantity. The threefold division for presentation is: The introduction: introduce them to what you are going to tell them. The body: content of speech The conclusion: summarise what you told them. The reason is that in most speeches, the presentation will probably envelop issues and questions that are sub topics of the subject. Even so, subdivisions like time, place and quantity are possibilities. The speaker thinks while he speaks and speaks while he thinks. Three methods of presentation are given below: 1. Memorised presentation: Speakers actually memorise an entire speech 140 Managerial Skill Development
2. A method of presentation by reading: Unfortunately, most of us do not read aloud well. We tend to read in a dull monotonous voice, producing a most uninteresting effect. We rumble over words that lose our place, miss punctuation marks and such other lapses. Of course, many speakers overcome this problem and with effort this can be eliminated. However, it will be advisable to attempt to read a speech until proficiency is reached. 3. Extemporaneous presentation: It is the most popular and effective method of presentation.
E) WORDING THE SPEECH
Wording includes non-verbal content. A few aspects relating to wording the speech are as follows: Use of voice of the speaker: The voice should not detract attention from the message. Voices that cause such difficulties generally fall into four areas of fault: Lack of vocal emphasis: A secret of good speaking is to give words their due emphasis by varying the manner of speaking. This can be achieved by (a) varying the pitch of his voice (b) varying the pace of his presentation and (c) varying the volume of his voice. Incorrect use of pauses: When properly used, they emphasise the upcoming subject matter and are effective in gaining attention. Pauses convey meaning to the listeners. Further, it helps the speakers to take rest between sentences or words. However, frequent and arbitrary pause are irritating and break the listeners concentration. Lack of variation in speaking speed: As a general rule, the speaker should present the easy parts of the message at fairly brisk rate and hard-to-understand information at a slower pace. The reason for varying the speed of presentation should be apparent. Lack of pitch variation: Speakers who talk in monotones are unlikely to hold their listeners interest for long. Without variations in pitch, the speaker may not be impressive most voices are capable of wide variations in pitch and the problem usually can be corrected. Most often the failure to vary pitch of the voice is a matter of habit of vocal patterns, which are developed over years of talking without being aware of their effects. Others: a) Latin and French words, technical terms, socially unpleasant words, b) cheap, hollow and slang terms, c) difficult words, d) repetitive phrases - you see, you know, e) gestures of the speaker, f) facial expression of the speaker Walking of the speaker Managerial Skill Development 141
Posture of the speaker Personal appearance of the speaker The communication environment of the speaker Appearance and bodily actions of the speaker
F) FEARS, ANXIETY AND MISTAKES
FEARS How do we cull the fear of public speaking? Firstly, let us accept that we need fear. Without the ability to become very fearful no human beings would be here today - our ancestors relied on fear to survive bigger, stronger and faster predators. When we become highly fearful, the unconscious mind takes over and we become primarily set up for physical action. In order to survive a physical threat we respond automatically for the sake a quick reaction. In certain situations, this can be a life-saver. During this 'fight or flight' response, breathing speeds up in preparation for physical exertion, we may sweat to cool the body or feel as if we cannot think'. Survival in very primitive conditions is primarily about action rather than thinking. ANXIETY When presenting, we need a little anxiety as this will improve recall, boost energy levels and make for a more focused, dynamic speech. An overly laid-back speaker can become a source of boredom. Therefore, we do not want too much anxiety and we do not want too much relaxation. We need enough tension to give us energy and enough calmness for clear thinking and recall. We need the right balance. MISTAKES When you first begin speaking to audiences, you will be extremely sensitive to the way audience members looked. During the presentation you should try to read their mood. Were they frowning? Did they have blank expressions? Did this mean they were hostile? If no-one was smiling this may really bother you and if one person appeared 142 Managerial Skill Development
friendlier than the rest you tend to focus on them during your talk, to the exclusion of the others. Learn to relax and enjoy public speaking and your perceptions will begin to change. An expert in public speaking observed, What I had seen as hostile, I started to see as nervousness in the audience members. Rather than looking at them to put yourself at ease you can begin to try to put them at their ease. You will also see that this approach will help you.
G) REGULATING SPEECH
The vocal elements of communication are namely, pitch, volume, rate, quality, animation and pause. Pitch is the tone of sounds depending upon the rate of vibration of the vocal chords. Volume refers to the power of the sound and it ranges from very loud to very soft. Rate is the degree of speed at which you speak words. The characteristic tone of a voice is its quality. Sometimes a voice may be termed as creaky or jarring to the ears or it may be labelled pleasant, free. Liveliness of speech is known as animation. Pause refers to junctures in speech. Except the quality of the voice you can control and regulate all vocal elements by careful perception and repeated practice. A well-prepared presentation can be lost if you speak in a monotone, i.e. when you use a constant pitch, volume and rate. Similarly, lack of animation and inappropriate pauses can cause Communication breakdown.
4.4.3 NEGOTIATIONS
Business negotiation is the process by which typically two or more parties come together to try to create a mutually agreeable contractual decision. Each party will have competing interests and thus, negotiations can be quite intricate and lengthy. Negotiations end when all parties have come to a final decision and have agreed to contractual guidelines. Aside from the technical definition, negotiation is an intricate process that entails more than just numbers, details and information collecting. Skillful negotiation deals with every aspect of negotiation you can think of from running in depth cost analyses to learning how to deal with a specific party at its level and its comfort level. For example, just like people, we all have different customs and ways we are used to doing business. If a one party is used to more formal business meetings and another is not, regardless of the more casual companys quality of business, this can directly affect the more formal business opinion of the former. Skillful negotiation considers such factors. Negotiation is the concerted effort that is placed to give your company the cutting edge it needs for business survival, growth and empowerment. Negotiation will help your Managerial Skill Development 143
company make the best financial and inter-company decisions possible. Negotiation is for your companys protection. Negotiation is valuable time spent to make sure that profitable, cost effective relationships are made with other important businesses that can further promote your companys good name as well. The more fruitful and positive relationships your company is able to create and maintain the more positive advertisement and acknowledgement your company enjoy. Contacts like these are invaluable and help to sustain and keep your company growing and able to remain competitive. Negotiation is not settling for anything less than getting the very best contractual agreements for your company. If you want your company to continue to grow and thrive, you will not let your company fall prey to unwise contractual agreements. Negotiation will make sure that the best possible deals are made keeping your companys assets safe and well protected. Negotiation is a strategic business endeavour or tool that protects companies from spending their money unwisely or venturing into a business contract too quickly without taking the time to really weigh the varying pro and con factors. It is a tool that ensures that the company lands the best deals possible. NEGOTIATIONS SKILLS Negotiation skills are essential to the successful outcome of a contractual agreement. While any party can conduct negotiation meetings, it takes an experienced negotiating consultant to bring specialised negotiation skills to the table that will create positive, money saving contractual agreements. LEARNING THE BASICS Some basic negotiation skills that experienced negotiating consultants are equipped with and are important to know about follow: In negotiations, it is important to focus on company needs and not individual positions. When needs are the focus, the negotiation process can remain objective and fair for all parties involved. Be open and creative about potential options available to you. This makes for the potential for more positive outcomes possible. Focus on coming to a common agreement point between the parties involved. The more everyone is on the same page, the better for everyone. 144 Managerial Skill Development
Make contractual agreements as clear and decipherable as possible so as to avoid any miscommunication or misunderstandings.
Focus hard on any specific problems, but handle the people involved with the utmost care. People want to work with people they like.
Prepare as much as you can in advance. Think about your company needs as well as the other companys needs.
Try to state requests within the negotiation process as positively as possible. It makes a big difference in how it is perceived.
When you are in contractual negotiating deals, they can become emotional. Do not let them. This will only damage the negotiating process. Thinking with your head is important and will allow you to not miss any important details.
Be open and when you suspect or discover unfair tactics, name them and speak openly about them. If it is more comfortable to talk about them in smaller groups, make this change. Ensure that any negative element is eliminated from the process.
When a problem like the one addressed in step number nine occurs, once it has been resolved, take the time to re-address what will be the fairest decisions for both parties involved. Regain trust and rebuild the negotiation process. Negotiation skills involve taking a deeper, analytical look that entire negotiation
process, from beginning to end. Negotiation skills are meant to give your company the best advantage possible when working to get your contractual needs met and often exceeded. Great negotiation skills will help keep your company ahead of the game and protected from potential needless overspending. THE NEGOTIATION PROCESS There can be no doubt that the process is a contest where each negotiator can take nothing for granted and can never relax. Even if it is possible to establish mutual interests and move into the principled negotiation mode, prudence demands risk analysis and control. The more consequential the issue, the more important risk management is. The key to a successful negotiation process is preparation. The Negotiation Process Discover what the other side knows Educate the other side on your position 145
Create doubt about the other side's position Make the other side advocates for your position Determine enforcement means Enhance implementation through good relationship Until the other side establishes trustworthiness by credible performance, one must
learn as much about the other side's position as possible, while revealing as little as possible about one's own: First, one should have completed preliminary work, to scope out what the other side's position and strategy will be, so you aren't hearing it in negotiations for the first time. Second, you should have selected your team with an eye toward enhancing your ability to figure out the other side -- its strengths and its weaknesses. The team should be highly disciplined in order to establish a good relationship. It should also be understood who talks for the team. The second principle is to get the other side to lose confidence in its position while gaining confidence in yours. This is where education plays a crucial role. The process of selectively revealing information that strengthens your case while questioning that of the other side. It sounds like a breach of ethics to reveal information selectively to strengthen your case while weakening your opponent's case. However, until trust is established, negotiation is a contest. You would not use your weak arm to arm-wrestle with a stranger. Ethics in negotiation has to do with being principled and fair and neither demands complete disclosure. The decision in negotiation is whatever the negotiators agree on and can convince their ratifiers to accept. This, incidentally, is another reason for intense preparation prior to the actual negotiation. If you are not going to reveal weaknesses, you can be sure your opponent will not. You will need to discover them through meticulous spadework before the act. Careful attention should be paid to body language, tone and what your opponent does not say. This leads to the third principle: creating doubt about the other side's position. As you educate the other side to see the advantages of your position, you want to undermine their confidence in their own position. These two principles, educating the other side on your position and creating doubt about their own position, are a cyclical process. 146 The fourth principle is to make the other side an advocate for your own position. Neither you nor they will have the power to decide. Those who sent you to negotiate for them Managerial Skill Development
withhold that power. They are your ratifiers, your closers. You are a better negotiator than they are or you would not have been sent to do that job for them. So, a part of your strategy is to manage the other side's access to your ratifiers. You do not want someone as good as you are to have access to your own decision makers. The fifth principle is to enhance both enforcement and implementation by building in objectively verifiable means. Even with principled negotiation and trust, future doubt or suspicion can be avoided by including in the agreement some objective means for checking that the agreement is honoured by both sides and for enforcing compliance. Sales contracts, for example, have clauses that address the potential for default. A house loan is secured by a deed of trust. Equally, negotiated agreements should be written with some consideration of how non-compliance would be treated. The sixth principle is that it is essential to maintain a good relationship with the other side. A good relationship enhances the operation of the preceding principles and indeed may be essential to some of them. Further, if initial initiatives toward principled negotiation elicit no response from the other side, maintaining a good relationship in spite of it all may produce a change of heart with your opponent. Principled negotiation can emerge at almost any time, so long as one negotiator has been behaving in a principled manner all along. The other side must be treated with courtesy and respect.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. What does preparing of a speech involve? 2. What is the process of business negotiation?
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Discussion
Discuss the step by step approach to public speaking.
4.5 Summary
Oral Communication: Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It includes individuals conversing with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonic conversation e.g. speeches, presentations. Oral communication is generally recommended when the communication matter is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction is required. Principles of Oral Communication: Following are some of the principles you can follow as guidelines for planning the design of your sermons: Design a dynamic format rather than a static one. Keep your outline clear and simple. Oral design should be oriented to time rather than space. Emphasise main ideas by placement and reiteration. Use carefully worded transitions as you move through the presentation. Plan carefully and incorporate a combination of inductive and deductive movement. Use language best suited to the ear not the eye. Plan the introductory segments carefully. Plan the closing design of the segment carefully. Plan the whole design from the audience's point of view. Presentation: Presentation can be defined as a formal event characterised by teamwork and use of audio-visual aids. The main purpose of presentation is to give information, to persuade the audience to act and to create a goodwill. Presentation Skills: Presentation skill is an art, which must be mastered by the people belonging to various fields related to oral communication such as instructors, trainers, administrators, executives etc. Factors of Effective Presentation Skills: The important factors for effective 148 Managerial Skill Development
presentations skill are planning, preparing, practicing and presenting. STEP-BY-STEP APPROACH TO PUBLIC SPEAKING Preparing for your Speech Use of humour Researching and planning the speech Organizing the speech Wording the speech Fears, anxiety and mistakes Regulating speech Business Negotiations: Business negotiation is the process by which typically two or more parties come together to try to create a mutually agreeable contractual decision. Each party will have competing interests and thus, negotiations can be quite intricate and lengthy. The Negotiation Process: The Negotiation process is as follows: Discover what the other side knows Educate the other side on your position Create doubt about the other side's position Make the other side advocates for your position Determine enforcement means Enhance implementation through good relationship

Broad Questions 1. What is oral communication? What are the features, advantages and disadvantages of oral communication? 2. What do you mean by presentation skills? What are the characteristics and factors of effective presentation? Short Notes a. Negotiations b. Public speaking Managerial Skill Development 149
c. Principles of oral communication d. Presentation of reports e. Step-by-step approach to public speaking
4.7 Further Reading

1. Business Communication from Process to Product, Bowman, Joel P and Branchaw, Bemadine, 1987 Dryden Press, Chicago 2. Business Communications: Principles and Applications, 2nd edition, Pearce C Glenn etc. 1988, John Wiley, New York 3. Communicating in Business, Hatch Richard, 1977 Science Research Associates, Chicago 4. Effective Business Communications, Murphy, Herta A and Peck, Charries E, 2nd ed, 1976, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi 5. Successful Business Communication, 3rd ed., Treece Maira, 1987, Allyn and Bacon, Boston
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Assignment
What are the various kinds of reports used in organization, which you have visited last. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ Managerial Skill Development 151
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 152 Managerial Skill Development
Unit 5
Non -Verbal Communication

Learning Outcome
After reading this unit, you will be able to: Outline basics of Non-Verbal Communication Identify the types of Non-Verbal Communication Explain the role played by body Language in Non-Verbal Communication Outline Kinesics

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1st Reading: It will need 3 Hrs for reading a unit 2nd Reading with understanding: It will need 4 Hrs for reading and understanding a unit Self Assessment: It will need 3 Hrs for reading and understanding a unit Assignment: It will need 2 Hrs for completing an assignment Revision and Further Reading: It is a continuous process
Content Map
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Introduction What is Communicating Non-Verbally? Types of Non-Verbal Communication Body Language What is Kinesics? Summary Self Assessment Test Further Reading
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5.1 Introduction
Everything we do, say, do not do, or say, may be taken as a form of communication by some other person. This is especially true of non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is the oldest form of social interaction used by the human race. Numerous centuries ago, our remote ancestors succeeded in the complex task of creating symbols in the form of words to convey the needs, intentions and ideas. However, even before this, they employed a rich repertoire of non-verbal signals by which they could share meaning. Yet it is only comparatively recently that scholars of human communication have begun to examine by systematic and scientific means the ways in which we communicate without using words. Non-verbal communication entails those interpersonal forms of communication that do not rely on either written or spoken words. There is a distinction between communication without words and interpersonal interaction (non-verbal communication) when using print media. We may of course communicate a good deal without using words when we produce a written document such as a memo or a report (e.g., by the appearance of the document, the quality of paper used, the amount of white space we allow and so on). This kind of non-verbal information transfer is known, however, as Meta-communication. Meta-communication means the additional elements beyond the apparent message content that are contained in a message or a communicative situation. These additional elements help us to achieve supplementary insights into what we should construe from the message or what else the message sender may have in mind. Often meta-communication is considered a special reference to communication of a print or non-interpersonal nature.
5.2 What is Communicating Non-Verbally?

In business communication as well as routine communication, non-verbal communication plays an key role. It is human nature to see, to hear, to think and then to react i.e. we see or hear a thing first; then the mind analyses it and then we react according to the situation. More than 90% of the total impact of any message is created through nonverbal communication. In an organisation, higher-level authorities have 50 to 60 % impact by facial expression, body position and gestures. They use 5 to 10 % words for impact and 30 to 40 % impact is given by their verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is an integral part of us and facilitates effective communication. The way an individual stands, holds his hands, tilts his head, all transmit volumes about the individual. One of the most important solutions to understanding communication is to realise that much of it is never expressed verbally. A non-verbal 154 Managerial Skill Development
message can be transmitted by a nod of the head, a frown, an enthusiastic tone of voice, leaving ones office door open or closed, wearing a dirty shirt or arriving late for an appointment. Actions often do speak louder than words, as the following examples show: nodding head sideways for negative and up and down for affirmative. Non-verbal communication affects decisions, shapes, careers and in many other ways moulds the quality of working life in organisations. This chapter is an introduction to the rich variety of dimensions by which we transmit and receive meanings non-verbally. Non-verbal communication is the term commonly used to refer to all communication that occurs by other means than spoken and written words. Such communication takes place along many dimensions: Non-verbal communication consists of four main elements: body language (face, eyes, touch, gestures), artifacts (clothing, appearance, office design), voice (pitch, loudness, rate, vocal variety, vocal emphasis) and time.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. What is non-verbal communication?
Discussion
Discuss the types of non-verbal gestures which you use every day.
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5.3 Types of Non Verbal Communication

A) POSTURE AND GESTURE
It is the most common type of non-verbal communication. It is also called as kinesics. Postures and gestures are reflexive of tension, relaxation, power, happiness, sorrow etc. At times, they have the ability to add meanings to verbal message. Gestures serve a controlling function when in some way they regulate behaviour. On a building site, the person in charge of the crane is dependent on controlling gestures from people on the ground for instructions on when to lift and where to put materials etc. The conductor of an orchestra uses controlling gestures to communicate with the players; the conductor will additionally employ gestures to emphasise and to convey emotion. A more subtle form of control through gestures may occur in an organisation where a manager uses a very dominant style to control subordinates. In this kind of context, it is very likely that the subordinates will pay close attention to the gestures used by their superior, putting a lot of weight on whether the boss nods or shakes his or her head or looks pleased or displeased with a particular suggestion. Display refers to a physical show of emotion or feelings, such as an expansive gesture with the hands to display happiness, wiping the forehead in relief, clenching fists in anger, opening arms in a welcoming gesture and so on. The nature and amount of display gestures we use vary by culture and by personality. Some countries, like Italy and France, are rich in display gestures with many Non-verbal signals accompanying interpersonal speech, while people of British descent tend to use positively fewer such gestures. An emblem is a gesture that substitutes for a verbal equivalent Examples are the sign language used by the deaf, thumbs up means "yes" or "go ahead," V for victory or the poll man's extended vertical palm as a stop sign.
Fig. 5.1: Thumbs up, Victory, stop hand signs
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Gestures used as emblems are always deliberate in nature but most others are involuntary. Because they are involuntary in nature, they can serve to alert an observer as to how listeners react to emblem gestures. The trained observer therefore knows to study the gestures and body positioning of the other person to see what 'leaks' of actual response are occurring. The study of how posture and body movement together combine to suggest meaning is called kinesics. Posture is another form of body language by which we send (usually involuntary) messages. The way we stand shows how confident we feel, how we sit suggests whether we feel relaxed, in charge or intimidated. When sitting with another person, posture can indicate how we feel about that person. If the body is turned to show close attention to the other, this implies attraction or that we think this person has high status. When two individuals are in close agreement with one another or wish to exclude others, frequently they will unconsciously mirror the other's body language. For example, one person might cross their legs and very shortly after the other person will as well. Turning away indicates fear, boredom or rejection of what the other is saying. Crossed arms may convey opposition to what the speaker is saying and hands on hips may suggest either self-confidence or a readiness to argue with what is being said. A person leaning back in a chair with arms behind the head can be seen as signaling dominance or complacency. Posture is an aspect of non-verbal behaviour particularly likely to cause problems of cross-cultural communication. A recent publication of the Accident Compensation Commission and the Vocational Training Council describes some of the differences between Polynesian and Pakeha New Zealand culture. In Polynesian culture, head down and avoidance of eye contact signifies respect. This same body language, however, in Pakeha society signifies disinterest. Sitting down in a chair before you are asked to displays respect in Polynesian society but it suggests poor manners in a Pakeha setting. Many other forms of movement also communicate. The speed with which we do our work indicates our level of interest in it and if we are a formal or informal leader in a work group, either our rate of work is an important message to our followers as to how fast or slowly they should work also. If a leader becomes uninterested in the work, this usually communicates itself by body language. It may be expected that shortly thereafter, the performance of others will decline also. Conversely, enthusiasm also communicates itself and people respond positively when an influential other person displays pleasure in their work. Managerial Skill Development 157
B) FACE AND OCCULESICS(EYES)
There is tremendous complexity in understanding these non-verbal messages. Messages sent by eyes and faces are first to be noticed. Complexity arises because there are so many ways in which eyes, eyebrows, forehead, lips and jaws can move. The movements are so fast that various emotions can be made in very less time. However, researchers have shown that people in general are accurate at judging the meaning of facial expression.
C) HAPTICS (TOUCH)
From ancient times, we have been using the touch method for communication. Touch is a symbol of love, affection, praise, warmth etc. We shake hands to show warmth and affection to others. We hug our friends to show love and affection. Babies and children are touched in order to grow and flourish. Touch improves mental functioning. Touch improves physical health problem. Respect for parents is shown by touching their feet. Elders bless younger ones by touching their head. Yet touch is also surrounded by strong cultural and social taboos. Touch that is acceptable between people of the same sex or within the same family may be much less acceptable between individuals of opposite sexes or different families. The extent of touching found allowable varies according to one's culture, age group, sex and social situation. Like other non-verbal interaction, there are no formal guidelines on what is and is not acceptable touching behaviour. However, usually people are in little doubt about the extent of touch acceptable in their particular setting. In some societies, it is usual for men to kiss each other on meeting or hold hands while walking together and not to do so would be regarded as cold and unfriendly. Other societies find this either comical or threatening. In Maori culture, it is customary for visitors to be greeted by a hug, kiss or both and in this context a kiss between a man and a woman who have not met each other before is normal behaviour. In the culture of some countries, a kiss between two adults of the opposite sex who have not met each other before would be considered unusual. It is very easy for misunderstandings to develop between people of different cultural backgrounds. Either or both individuals may fail to understand the normal cultural context of the other person. 158 Managerial Skill Development
In addition to cultural background, the extent of touch is also influenced by personality factors. Some people incorporate a lot of touch as part of their personal style. They find it easy to give, and perhaps accept, touch in the form of a pat on the back or shoulder or a touch on the arm. Often we are able to sense the difference between touch as a natural expression of warmth or concern by another person or as lacking in sincerity. All of us have a large collection of non-verbal signs by which we can signal to the other person whether or not their touch is welcomed by us. The major form of touch used in organisations is the handshake. It is also our most common form of social physical contact. The handshake is virtually required behaviour for men who meet each other for the first time. It is an important symbol of welcoming and acceptance. Refusing or neglecting to shake hands with someone is considered insulting; it is considered very poor manners if men shake hands when wearing gloves. In most societies, it is even appropriate to remove the right glove before shaking hands. Unlike women in many western European countries, New Zealand women do not shake hands with men when being introduced. This historical detail will surely change with time. Younger women, for example, generally seem to find shaking hands acceptable. The entry of more women into managerial and other senior positions in organisations has left many people confused about what is and is not appropriate behaviour when men and women meet in a business context. Recent observation seems to suggest that it is becoming normal for women to shake hands with men. This can be a useful way of implying that there need be no distinctions at work based on sex. It is best if women initiate a handshake when meeting a man as the male is likely to be unsure if the woman wants this form of contact. A handshake often serves as our first source of information about the other person when we meet them. Wesson (1992) calls the handshake one of the most direct statements of a person's self image and how they want to be perceived. The folklore of handshakes suggests that a very limp grasp implies the person is insecure or depressed, an individual with an excessively strong grip is trying to dominate you, someone who pumps your arm in a very vigorous, machine-like fashion is lacking in flexibility and sensitivity to others and someone who shakes hands compulsively with everyone he meets has a high need for acceptance. Apart from the handshake, in organisational settings touch is an infrequently used means of communication. Touch can suggest that one person is signaling that he or she is of a higher organisational rank than the other. It is normally more acceptable for a person of Managerial Skill Development 159
higher status to pat a subordinate on the shoulder, for example, than vice versa.
D) CLOTHING
Clothing must be always suitable to the occasion. Two candidates were called for an interview for the post of Marketing Executive. The first one wore jeans pant and T-shirt without press and carried a hand written resume. The second person wore a pressed shirt, necktie and typed resume. They answered same questions and even their answers were almost same. However, chances are that the second person will be preferred due to his professional appearance.
E) PROXEMICS (SPACE)
Distance plays an important role in Communication. For normal non-verbal Communication distance varies from country to country, culture to culture and people to people. Messages are created by the space we occupy and consider as "ours". Proxemics is the term used by Hall (1969) to indicate our use of space and specifically the distancing behaviour we employ. Each of us has a set of personal zones that we employ when communicating with other people. Those we are psychologically closest to, we allow closest to us in a physical sense. We avoid those whom we do not know, fear or dislike and try to ensure there is a considerable space between us. Hall studied the distancing behaviour of Americans and proposed they have four personal space zones:
Fig. 5.2: Proxemics 160 Managerial Skill Development
Intimate zone: 0 to 45 cm. Hall suggested this is the distance of making love, wrestling, offering comfort and protection. To this, we should add the dimensions of controlling and aggression; when a person wishes to dominate another, often a strategy is to invade their intimate zone. Personal zone: 45 cm to 1.2 metres. This is a friendship distance, usually not available to strangers or passing acquaintances. Touch is not usual but the distance is close enough to enable conversation to be carried out in a quiet voice. Social zone: 1.2 metres to 3.7 metres. In this zone, we carry out much of our casual conversations or business of an impersonal nature. People in this zone have some minor transaction to conduct with us but when it is completed, we normally break eye contact. Public zone: over 3.7 metres. At this distance, we no longer communicate on a conversational level; this is the appropriate distance for a public address or briefing. Part of the art of public speaking is to convey the impression that we are conversing one to one in a natural and conversational way, even though both the speaker and the listeners are well aware that the speaker is completely outside the normal distance for conversational discourse. People's zones will differ according to the cultural group in which they were brought up. Study these distances and assess how relevant they are to people you know. Do you think there are differences between younger and older people? What is the influence of sex differences on zones? When communicating with a person from another culture, it is important to realize that their preference may be for either closer or more distant communication than yours.
F) CHRONEMICS (TIME)
It is rightly said that time is money. The way one uses his/her time shows or gives intentional or unintentional message about the importance and valuation of an individual. It is also called as chronemics. On the research front, non-verbal Communication is divided into three major parts i.e. voice, quality, body language and Communication through space.
G) ARTIFACTS
Our offices and our homes tend to contain many indications of our status and our self-image. Sometimes this is known as object language; the artifacts with which we surround ourselves carry messages about the way we see ourselves and the positions we occupy within our organisation. Managerial Skill Development 161
The number, quality and cost of the office furnishings signal organisational rank and personal taste. An office filled with paintings, ornaments and other adornments signals that the occupant places much store by aesthetic surroundings. A bare and simple environment suggests that the inhabitant has a very business-like and functional approach to his or her work. There may also be company requirements about what may or may not be displayed in people's offices. Over the past twenty years or so, some companies (especially larger ones) have begun collecting art, both old and recent. Usually this is less as an investment (though the astute collector can justify the costs of an art collection on economic grounds) than as a statement that they like to be recognised as supporting the arts. Other companies have no interest in building an art collection, preferring a more utilitarian approach to doing business. The manner in which we arrange the furniture within our office can say a lot about how we view relationships with others. If we position the desk so it forms a barrier between ourselves and the door, this signals that we wish to maintain a certain reserve between ourselves and people entering. The desk used as barrier gives the occupant of the room a non-verbal advantage. If the desk is positioned up against the wall, so you sit at it facing the wall, then turn around to greet whoever enters, this indicates that you do not consider it necessary to place barriers between yourself and the visitor. Similarly, the height of the seating in an office can serve as a status barrier. If the office incumbent has a chair higher than that of the visitor, this gives the former the advantage of looking down on the other person. This can easily inhibit good communication, particularly if the visitor already feels some reserve about being in the other's office space. Some managers feel insecure about their own ability to handle an interview. Either consciously or unwittingly they put on a show of authority to impress their visitor. Such a manager needs to realize that when people arrive at their office, they are well aware that the person they have come to see has the status conferred by their organisation. Therefore, further demonstrations of rank should not be necessary. If you want to show openness in an interview, by far the best strategy is to come out from behind your desk and sit with the other person in as equal a relationship as possible. This has the effect of helping him or her to relax and participate fully in the interview and the occasion is much more likely to be successful.
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Study Notes
Assessment
1. Explain the posture and gesture form of non-verbal communication 2. Explain the Haptics (touch) form of non-verbal communication.
Discussion
Discuss the types of non-verbal gestures which you use every day.
5.4 Body Language

The body sends a continuous flow of hints and cues. As Erving Goffman observes, even if a person stops talking, he cannot stop communicating through body idiom; he must say either the right thing or the wrong thing. He cannot say nothing. Presidents are not the only people who can communicate a lot while saying little. We all use body English. We lean; we point; we look away. Our hands move to punctuate our sentences. We frown, smile, fold our arms, move forward, then move away. We express our liking of another person, for example, by looking at them attentively, asking questions and leaning forward, while with someone we dislike we remain silent, look away and lean back. We tell somebody about our social or organisational status by walking tall or hunching Managerial Skill Development 163
down, relaxing or being tense, gazing steadily or blinking frequently. We may gain an introduction to the communicative functions of the body by recognizing the importance of six physical aspects: body shape and appearance, posture, gestures, touching, facial expressions and eye contact and gaze.
A) BODY SHAPE AND APPEARANCE
The body conveys meaning even when it is not in motion. For example, although no proven connection exists between physique and behaviour, people tend to expect such connections and base decisions on them, whether they realize it or not. Tall people are likely to be considered more credible than shorter people; accordingly, one study found that taller employees tend to receive higher salaries; even when their qualifications are equivalent to those of shorter employees. Skin colour and gender also affect Communication. For example, members of upperclass, predominantly white communities, perceive whites as more credible than African Americans. Men also tend to be seen as more credible than women, even by women. Although such findings vary according to cultural norms, they show that physical attributes can have a significant impact on peoples attempts at Communication. Dress is also a form of non-verbal communication. It would be impossible to list all the things that we can communicate through our clothing; the list would vary greatly with time, place and situation. We can only say that skillful communicators attend to their apparel. When a speaker presents himself, we see him before we start hearing him. Immediately, we begin developing impressions of his abilities and attitudes based on the non-verbal signals he sends. This is why body language is so critical in oral communication Body language includes every aspect of your appearance, from what you wear, how you stand, look and move, to your facial expressions and physical habits such as nodding your head, jingling change in your pocket or pulling your necktie. Your use of space and gestures are other key concerns.
B) PERSONAL APPEARANCE
Personal appearance plays a significant role; people see you before they hear you. As you adapt your language to an audience, you should also dress accordingly. Appearance includes clothes, hair, jewellery, cosmetics and so on. In todays society, the purpose of clothing has changed from fulfilling a basic need to making a personalised statement. Clothes accent the bodys movements. You should expect appearance to be a part of the message you communicate. Plan 164 Managerial Skill Development
your appearance in such a way that it communicates effectively to others. Even before the speaker utters his first syllable, you begin to form an opinion about him and visualize the way he is going to talk. Ones appearance may put the audience into a resistant or hostile attitude or induce in them a receptive mood. You should be clean and well groomed, conforming to the need of the occasion. Appearances communicate how we feel about ourselves and how we want to be viewed. EYE CONTACT It is rightly said that one who has the ability to read the eyes can read the thoughts. Eye contact is one of the most important and powerful parts of facial expression. Direct eye contact builds trust and confidence between speaker and receiver. It builds emotional relationship. Prolonged eye contact signals admiration, belief and can build anxiety. Averted eyes show anger, hurt feelings etc. Eye gaze shows power and dominance. As mentioned above, eye behaviour communicates in many ways. It shows
emotions, establishes conversational regulators, it monitors feedback, serves as a reminder. They supply and receive information. In this way, major aspects of communication are conveyed through eyes. Eyes are considered the window to the soul. You look at the eyes of a speaker to help find out the truthfulness of his speech, his intelligence, attitudes and feelings. Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-verbal communication. You use your eyes to collect information. Looking directly at listeners builds rapport. It tells the audience that you are sincere in what you say and you want them to pay attention. Prolonging the eye contact for three to five seconds, however, gives the impression of staring. Eye contact is especially important when you start the presentation and at the beginning of each new section. Your upper eyelids and eyebrows help you to convey an intricate array of non-verbal messages. Arabs, Latin Americans and South Europeans look directly into eyes. Asians and Africans maintain far less eye contact. In the professional world, you should make personal and pleasant eye contact with the listeners. It is not only that you should look at the audience, how you look at them also counts. Do not look outside the windows, towards the roof or floor or at one particular section; instead try to establish eye contact-with all. Your eye contact shows your intensity and elicits a feeling of trust. A direct look conveys candour Managerial Skill Development 165
and openness. This direct and powerful form is a signal for confidence or sincerity; therefore, experienced speakers maintain longer eye contact. Your eyes should convey the message, I am pleased to talk with you; believe deeply in what I am saying. Eye contact and eye movement help you tremendously in the filtering process or in getting the desired response or feedback. However, be wary of cultural differences when addressing a foreign audience as signals vary from one culture to another. Eye contact takes place when two people look at each others eyes. It tends to occur when we are seeking feedback about anothers reactions, when we wish to signal that the communication channel is open and when we want to signal our desire for inclusion. We may also use especially prolonged or intense eye contact to put another under stress. Eye contact diminishes when we have something to hide or are in competitive settings; where there is dislike, tension or fear of deception; when we are physically close to those with whom we are communicating; during long utterances or when we wish to break social contact. The more people like each other, they tend to establish eye contact more often and for longer periods. Of course, the long, icy stare can also convey antagonism. The gaze is a non-verbal cue that both signals and helps to maintain status differences. Ralph Exline and his colleagues have identified a pattern they call visual dominance behaviour, which they find to be characteristic of people in high power positions. Their studies show that people of high status look more at another person when they speak than when they listen. Thus, high-status people who wish to bridge the status gap might try to look more at others when those others are speaking. It is also typical of high-status people to look less at other communicators than lower-status people do. To measure how high their status truly is, managers, supervisors or staff experts in organisations might find it revealing to observe the amount of eye contact they receive.
C) GESTURE
Gestures play an important role in non-verbal communication. The language of gestures is associated with hand and arms movement with entire body capable of showing gestures. Symbols: With relatively fixed verbal translation, a large number of body movements act as symbols. E.g. First finger on the lips indicates, To keep quiet. Yawning indicates I am bored or 'I am angry' or I have no interest. Nodding the head up and down indicates Yes or agree. 166 Managerial Skill Development
Showing first and Second finger in V shape indicates victory. Tapping finger against skull indicates I am thinking. ILLUSTRATORS The movements of hands and arms go simultaneously with the words of speaker. e.g. when we say the national anthem, we end it with Jai Hind and at the same moment, we raise our right hand in air. REGULATORS Regulators control oral communication by alerting the sender to the need to hurry up, go slow, turn left or right etc. Regulators include smiles, head movement, shift in eye contact, shoulder slaps etc. DISPLAYS It indicates emotional states such as anger or embarrassment usually occurring in facial expression. ADAPTORS These body gestures vary from person to person. These body gestures are automatic and are not planned. Gesture is the movement made by hands, arms, shoulders, head and torso. Skillful gestures can add to the impact of a speech. A well-timed gesture not only drives a point home but also enhances the impact and adds greater value to what is being said. Similarly, an ungainly gesture (like playing with your key chain or button) can mar the effectiveness of the message. Gestures clarify your ideas or reinforce them and should be well suited to the audience and occasion. Gestures are more in number than any forms of non-verbal communication and the meanings attached to them are diverse. It has been observed that there are as many as 700,000 varied hand gestures alone. Some facial expressions are common to all cultures. Even if you have never met a person from a particular culture, you can recognise certain feelings or attitudes. These are love, happiness and mirth, surprise, anger and determination, contempt and disgust, fear and suffering. Gestures should not divert the attention of the listener and distract from your message. Your gesture should be quite natural and spontaneous. Be aware of and avoid irritating gestures like playing with a ring, twisting a key chain, clasping the hands tightly or cracking your knuckles. Gestures can roughly be divided into the following types: Enumerative- numbers 167
Descriptive- size of the objects Symbolic- abstract concepts Locative- location of an object Emphatic- emphasis
D)POSTURE
A persons general posture indicates some meaning without any specific gestures. Body posture conveys variety of messages. Postures means the position of body or body parts i.e. The way you sit, the way you walk the way in which you stretch your legs. In organisational life postures and gestures play an important role. In corporate sectors persons postures and gestures can tell much about how effectively the person will perform in an organisation. Postures include side-to-side movement, forward and backward movements and vertical movements of arms, hands and body. Posture generally refers to the way we hold ourselves when we stand, sit or walk. Novice speakers are unsure of what to do with their body. Certain mannerisms creep in, usually out of nervousness pacing constantly, bobbing the shoulders, fidgeting with notes, jingling coins, either constantly moving or remaining static. These mannerisms show his nervousness to the listeners and reduce the final effect of his speech or presentation on them. You need to analyse the effects of body shape and posture to understand their role in non-verbal communication. When you are with your friends you are probably spontaneous. You are unaware of your posture, being fluid in all of your physical movements. However, when you encounter an unfamiliar situation, you become more conscious of your posture. Stiff, unnatural positions such as the big leaf (hands crossed below the waist with the back of the hand toward the audience) send the message that you are unsure of yourself and your message. Instead, lower your hands to your sides in a natural, relaxed and resting posture. Standing, sitting or walking in a relaxed way is a positive posture, which will encourage questions and discussion. Squarely facing an audience, being comfortably upright and evenly distributing your weight are all aspects of posture that communicate professionalism, confidence, attention to detail and organisation. Be and appear at ease; neither remains static nor fidget. Move occasionally to hold attention, suggest transitions and increase emphasis. The way you sit, stand or walk reveals a lot about you:
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Slumped posture- indicates low spirits Erect posture- indicates high spirits, energy and confidence Lean forward- indicates open, honest and interested Lean backward- indicates defensive or disinterested Crossed arms- indicates defensive and not ready to listen Uncrossed arms- indicates willingness to listen
E)
BODY MOVEMENTS
On the regular basis, people should know what other people need to understand and what other people are communicating with their posture and gestures. a) Attitude b) Status c) States and Moods The movement of legs and shoulders conveys the attitude of communicators. Status influences body movement. One can make out easily the status of manager and worker by observing their body language. States of moods depends upon the emotional level of an individual; anger, happiness, sorrow etc. can easily be made out from an individuals body language.
F) FACIAL EXPRESSION
Along with posture and gesture, facial expressions also play an important pan. The face is the most expressive part of your body. A smile stands for friendliness, a frown for discontent, raised eyebrows for disbelief, tightened jaw muscles for antagonism, etc. Facial expressions are subtle. You can use them in a variety of ways: to aid, inhibit, or complement your communication. The face rarely sends a single message at a time. Instead, it sends a series of messages - your facial expressions may show anxiety, recognition, hesitation and pleasure in quick succession, racial expression is difficult to interpret. Though there are only five basic expressions, you can have 33 blends. (Fearce, C. Glenn reveal only those expressions required at a particular movement at times. The five basic expressions are: Inhibited-restricted and stolid Uninhibited-spontaneous and impetuous 169 1988, Business Communication: Principles and Application) People tend to hide their true feelings and
Substitute-happy with a long face Frozen-no change in expression Blank-no expression at all The face is probably the single most important source of non-verbal Communication.
The muscles within the face allow it to convey several emotions simultaneously. Faces arc sometimes hard to read, as in the case of the Mona Lisa, but fascination with her ambiguous smile shows we are accustomed to getting our readings from facial expressions. Research by Paul Ekman shows there is a set of facial expressions that most people can interpret with great accuracy. From his observation of specified facial Ekman has developed a coding system for six emotions: happiness, sadness, rise, anger, disgust and fear. His results indicate: Happiness is conveyed by the lower face and eye area. Sadness is revealed most by the eyes. The eye area and lower face communicate surprise. The lower face, eyes and forehead reveal anger. The lower face is most revealing. Fear is conveyed most by the eye area. Attention to facial expressions can help people in organisations to communicate more effectively. Although the face can communicate a great deal, its expressions also seem to be the type of non-verbal behaviour that people are best able to control. People best express with their faces and since the face is so dominant in Communication, it is difficult for a casual observer to determine whether or nor a communicator is sincere. One experiment has indicated that only observers who concentrate on parts of the body other than the face can detect the leakage of feelings that a person does not intend to reveal. We qualify our emotional expressions according to sets of display. The face is probably the single most important source of non-verbal Communication. While faces usually suggest clear meanings, we should interpret their expressions cautiously and in context.
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Example: Ever since the birth of television we have been living in an increasingly image conscious world. As a result, the way we look and the way we act, are often more important than the words we say. This is known as non- verbal communication, and is one of the main communication skills you must master to become an effective communicator. Importance of good non-verbal communication skills A good example of the importance of non-verbal communication skills can be found with research done after 1960s Kennedy Vs Nixon Debate.
When people were asked who had won the debate, those listening via radio awarded the victory to Nixon. However, those watching the debate on television awarded Kennedy the victory. This example clearly Showed how having good non verbal skills (body language) and the way you look, has a big influence on the overall message you convey to your listeners.
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While Nixon may have been a good persuasive speaker over the radio, his shifty and uncomfortable body language made television viewers suspicious and distrustful. Consequently, his message was far less persuasive on TV than it was on radio, simply because of his poor non verbal communication skills. On the other hand, Kennedy displayed excellent non-verbal communication skills with a confident body language that matched what he was saying. This made his message more believable and therefore more persuasive.
Study Notes
Assessment
1. Explain the significance of body shape and appearance in body language. 2. Explain the significance of eye contact in body language.
Discussion
Discuss the various postures and identify the positive and negative postures.
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5.5 What is Kinesics?

Kinesics is a major form of non-verbal communication. Kinesics is defined as The study of non linguistic bodily movements such as facial expression and gestures. Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial expressions and gestures or, more formally, non-verbal behaviour related to movement, either of any part of the body or the body as a whole. Just being there, nodding your head, blinking your eyes, shrugging shoulders, waving the hands and other such physical activities are all forms of communication. Some kinesics behaviour is deliberately intended to communicate, as when you nod your head for acceptance. Understanding non-verbal cues will develop your ability to use them more effectively during your presentations. Face: The most expressive means of body language are face and eyes. Various meanings communicated by facial expression are happiness, sadness, disgust, contempt, interest, bewilderment, determination, fear, anger, surprise. the feedback positively as well as negatively. While speaking, listening, reading or writing, we consciously use words to receive or send ideas. We use words because they are the primary symbolic forms that convey our thoughts. On paper, words remain static; punctuation marks are used to convey pauses, expressions, emotions, etc. However, in face-to-face communication, the message is conveyed on two levels simultaneously. One is verbal and the other is non-verbal. For example, you are congratulating two of your friends on their success in their interviews. If you extend your hand to them with a big smile on your face along with your utterance, congrats, your appreciation has more impact on them than the word in isolation. Your smile and the handshake are non-verbal means of communication, which enhance the impact of your verbal communication. The non-verbal part of an oral presentation is not as deliberate and conscious as verbal communication. Rather, it is subtle and instinctive. Non-verbal communication refers to all communication that occurs without the use of words either spoken or written. Nonverbal communication is concerned with body movements (Kinesics), space (proxemics) and vocal features (paralinguistic features). It is important that we know more about these features of body language because the verbal components of oral communication carry less than 35 % of the social meaning of the situation, while more than 65 % is buried on the nonverbal band. People react strongly to what they see. Interpretation of facial meaning plays an important role in communication, because facial expressions can affect
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Study Notes
Assessment
1. What is Kinesics? 2. Explain the importance of a face in Kinesics.
Discussion
Non-verbal part of an oral presentation is subtle and instinctive. Discuss.
5.6 Summary
Non-Verbal Communication: Verbal communication is the term commonly used to refer to all communication that occurs by other means than spoken and written words. It is an integral part of us and helps in communicating effectively. The way an individual positions him, holds his hands, tilts his head, all transmit volumes about the individual. Nonverbal communication is the term commonly used to refer to all communication that occurs by means other than spoken and written words. Elements of Non-Verbal Communication: Non-verbal communication consists of four main elements: body language (face, eyes, touch, gestures), artifacts (clothing, appearance, office design), voice (pitch, loudness, rate, vocal variety, vocal emphasis) and time. 174 Managerial Skill Development
Body Language: The body sends a continuous flow of cues that tell us about the speakers' mindset and emotions. Physical Aspects to recognise Body Language: We may gain an introduction to the communicative functions of the body by recognizing the importance of six physical aspects: body shape and appearance, posture, gestures, touching, facial expressions and eye contact and gaze. Kinesics: Kinesics is defined as The study of non linguistic bodily movements such as facial expression and gestures. Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial expressions and gestures or, more formally, non-verbal behaviour related to movement, either of any part of the body or the body as a whole.

Broad Questions 1. What do you mean by non-verbal communication? Explain physical aspects which can be recognised while communicating non-verbally. 2. What are the various types of non-verbal communication? Explain all in detail. Short Notes a. Body Language b. Kinesis c. Posture d. Gesture e. Personal appearance
5.8 Further Reading

1. Business Communication from Process to Product, Bowman, Joel P and Branchaw, Bemadine, 1987 Dryden Press, Chicago 2. Business Communications: Principles and Applications, 2nd edition, Pearce C Glenn etc. 1988, John Wiley, New York 3. Communicating in Business, Hatch Richard, 1977 Science Research Associates, Chicago 4. Effective Business Communications, Murphy, Herta A and Peck, Charries E, 2nd ed, 1976, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi 5. Successful Business Communication, 3rd ed., Treece Maira, 1987, Allyn and Bacon, Boston Managerial Skill Development 175
Assignment
Observe non-verbal communication aspects of some of your friends and rate aspects on the scale of 1 to 10. Body Language Gesture Posture Facial Expressions Appearance Presentation Eye Contact Confidence Attitude
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 176 Managerial Skill Development
Glossary
A Acknowledgment responses: Nods, smiles, frowns and words that let a speaker know you are listening. Active listening: Feeding back the literal meaning or the emotional content or both so that the speaker knows that the listener has heard and understood. Active verb: A verb that describes the action of the grammatical subject of the sentence Adjustment: The response to a claim letter; if the company agrees to grant a refund, the amount due will be adjusted. Analytical report: Assumptions: A report that interprets information Statements that are not proven in a report, but on which the recommendations are based B Behavioural interviews: Job interviews that ask candidates to describe actual behaviours they have used in the past in specific situations Bias-free language: Language that does not discriminate against people on the basis of sex, physical condition, race, age or any other category Blind ads: Blind copies: Job listings that do not list the companys name Copies sent to other recipients that are not listed on the original letter or memo Block format: In letters, a format in which inside address, date and signature block are lined up at the left margin Blocking: Body: Body language: Disagreeing with every idea that is proposed in a meeting The main part of a letter, memo or report Non-verbal communication conveyed by posture and
movement, eye contact, facial expressions and gestures Boilerplate: Language from a previous document that a writer includes in a new document, writers use boilerplate both to save time and Managerial Skill Development 177
energy and to use language that has already been approved by the organisations legal staff. Brainstorming: A method of generating ideas by recording everything a person or a group thinks of, without judging or evaluating the ideas. Branching question: Question that sends respondents who answer differently to different parts of the questionnaire; allows respondents to answer only those questions that are relevant to their experience Bridge: A sentence that connects the attention-getter to the body of a letter Buffer: A neutral or positive statement designed to allow the writer to bury or buffer, the negative message. Build goodwill: To create a good image of yourself and of your organisation. The kind of image that makes people want to do business with you. Bullets: Large round dots or squares that set off items in a list, when you are giving examples, but the number is not exact and the order does not matter, use bullets to set off items. Business slang: Terms that have technical meaning but are used in more general sense Used sparingly, these terms are appropriate in job application letters and in messages for people in the same organisation, who are likely to share the vocabulary. Businessese: A kind of jargon including unnecessary words, some words were common 200 to 300 years ago but are no longer part of spoken English. Some have never been used outside of business writing. All of these terms should be omitted. Buying time with limited agreement: Agreeing with the small part of a criticism that one does accept as true C Case: The grammatical role a noun or pronoun plays in a sentence. The nominative case is used for the subject of a clause, the 178 Managerial Skill Development
possessive to show who or what something belongs to, the objective case for the object of a verb or a preposition. Channel: The physical means by which a message is sent.; written channels include memos, letters and billboards; oral channels include phone calls, speeches and face-to-face conversations Channel overload: The inability of a channel to carry all the messages that are being sent Chartjunk: Decoration that is irrelevant to a visual and that may be misleading Checking for feelings: Identifying the emotions that the previous speaker seemed to be expressing verbally or non-verbally Checking for inferences: Trying to identify the unspoken content or feelings implied by what the previous speaker has actually said Choice or selection: Chronological rsum: The decision to include or omit information in a message A rsum that lists what you did in a timeline, starting with the most recent events and going backward in reverse chronology Citation: Attributing a quotation or other idea to a source in the body of the report Claim Letter Clear: A letter requesting a replacement or refund. A message whose audience gets the meaning the writer or speaker intended. Clip art: Pre-drawn images that you can import into your newsletter, sign or graph. Close: The ending of a document
Closed or defensive body position: Keeping the arms and legs crossed and close to the body. Suggests physical and psychological discomfort, defending oneself and shutting the other person out Closed question: Closure report: Question with a limited number of possible responses. A report summarising completed research that does not result in action or recommendation
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Clowning:
Making unproductive jokes and diverting the group from its task.
Clustering:
A method of thinking up ideas by writing the central topic in the middle of the page, circling it, writing down the ideas that topic suggests and circling them
Collaborative writing: Collection letter:
Working with other writers to produce a single document A letter asking a customer to pay for goods and services received.
Collection series:
A series of letters asking customers to pay for goods and services they have already received. Early letters in the series assume that the reader intends to pay but final letters threaten legal action if the bill is not paid.
Comma splice or comma fault: Using a comma to join two independent clauses; to correct, use a semicolon, subordinate one of the clauses or use a period and start a new sentence. Common ground: Communication theory: Values and goals that the writer and reader share A theory explaining what happens when we communicate and where miscommunication can occur Complaint letter: A letter that challenges a policy or tries to get a decision changed Complete: A message that answers all of the audiences questions, the audience has enough information to evaluate the message and act on it Complex sentence: Complimentary close: Sentence with one main clause and one subordinate clause The words after the body of the letter and before the signature Sincerely and cordially are the most commonly used complimentary closes in business letters. Compound sentence: Conclusion: Sentence with two main clauses joined by a conjunction Section of a report that restates the main points
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Conflict resolution:
Strategies for getting at the real issue, keeping discussion open, and minimising hurt feelings so that people can find a solution that feels good to everyone involved
Connotations:
The emotional colourings or associations that accompany a word
Convenience sample: Conversational style:
A group of subjects to whom the researcher has easy access. Conversational patterns such as speed and volume of speaking, pauses between speakers, whether questions are direct or indirect. When different speakers assign different meanings to a specific pattern, miscommunication results
Coordinating:
Planning work, giving directions, fitting together contributions of group members
Coordination:
The third stage in the life of a task group, when the group finds, organises and interprets information and examines alternatives and assumptions. This is the longest of the four stages.
Correct:
Used to describe a message that is accurate and free from errors in punctuation, spelling, grammar, word order and sentence structure
Credibility: Criteria:
The audiences response to the source of the message The standards used to evaluate or weigh the factors in a decision
Critical incident: Cropping:
An important event that illustrates a subordinates behaviour Cutting a photograph to fit a specific space. Also, photographs are cropped to delete visual information that is unnecessary or unwanted.
Culture:
The unconscious patterns of behaviour and beliefs that are common to a people, nation or organisation.
Cycling:
The process of sending a document from writer to superior to writer to yet another superior for several rounds of revisions before the document is approved
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D Dangling modifier: A phrase that modifies a word that is not actually in a sentence; to correct a dangling modifier, recast the modifier as a subordinate clause or revise the sentence so its subject or object can be modified by the now-dangling phrase. Data: Database: Facts or figures from which conclusions can be drawn A computer program that organises data in categories the user can then manipulate to get the information he or she needs Decode: Decorative visual: To extract meaning from symbols A visual that makes the speakers points more memorable but that does not convey numerical data. Defensive or closed body position: Keeping the arms and legs crossed and close to the body suggests physical and psychological discomfort, defending oneself and shutting the other person out. Demographic characteristics: Measurable features of an audience that can be counted objectively: age, sex, race, education level, income Denial: A refusal to accept or believe something that is potentially harmful or life threatening; people deny realities that are too much for them to cope with. Denotation: A words literal or 'dictionary' meaning; most common words in English have more than one denotation. Context usually makes it clear which of several meanings is appropriate. Dependent clause: A group of words that contains a subject and a verb but cannot standby itself as a complete sentence Descriptors: Words describing the content of an article; used to permit computer searches for information on a topic Dingbats: Small symbols such as arrows, pointing fingers and so forth that are part of a typeface Direct request: A pattern of organisation that makes the request directly in the first and last paragraphs Directed subject line: 182 A subject line that makes clear the writers stance on the issue Managerial Skill Development
Discourse community:
A group of people who share assumptions about what channels, formats and styles to use for communication, what topics to discuss and how to discuss them and what constitutes evidence.
Document design:
The process of writing, organizing and laying out a document so that it can be easily used by the intended audience
Documentation:
Providing full bibliographic information so that interested readers can go to the original source of material used in a report
Dominating:
Trying to run a group by ordering, shutting out others and insisting on ones own way
Dot charts:
Dot charts show correlations or other large data sets. Dot charts have labelled horizontal and vertical axes E
Early letter:
A collection letter that is gentle. An early letter assumes that the reader intends to pay but has forgotten or has met with temporary reverses
Editing:
Checking the draft to see that it satisfies the requirements of good English and the principles of business writing, unlike revision, which can produce major changes in meaning, editing focuses on the surface of writing
Ego-involvement:
The emotional commitment the audience has to its position
Elimination of alternatives: A pattern of organisation for reports that discusses the problem and its causes, the impractical solutions and their weaknesses and finally the solution the writer favours Emotional appeal: Empathy: Making the audience do what the writer or speaker asks. The ability to put oneself in someone elses shoes, to feel with that person Encode: Enunciate: Evaluating: To put ideas into symbols To voice all the sounds of each word while speaking Measuring the draft against your goals and the requirements
of the situation and audience, anything produced during each Managerial Skill Development 183
stage of the writing process can be evaluated, not just the final draft. Evidence: Exaggeration: Facts or data the audience already accepts Making something sound bigger or more important than it really is Executive summary: A summary of a report, specifying the recommendations and the reasons for them Expectancy theory: A theory that argues that motivation is based on the expectation of being rewarded for performance and the importance of the reward External audiences: External documents: External report: Audiences who are not part of the writers organisation Documents that go to people in another organisation Report written by a consultant for an organisation of which he or she is not a permanent employee Extrinsic benefits: Benefits that are 'added on'; they are not a necessary part of the product or action Eye contact: Looking another person directly in the eye F Feasibility study: A report that evaluates two or more possible alternatives and recommends one of them, doing nothing is always one alternative. Feedback: Figure: Fixed typeface: The receivers response to a message Any visual that is not a table A typeface in which each letter has the same width on the page Sometimes called typewriter typeface Flaming: Sending out an angry e-mail message before thinking about the implications of venting ones anger Focus groups: Small groups who come in to talk with a skilled leader about a potential product 184 Managerial Skill Development
Forced choice:
A choice in which each item is ranked against every other item; used to discover which of a large number of criteria are crucial
Form letter:
A letter that is sent unchanged or with only minor modifications to a large number of readers
Formal meetings:
Meetings run under strict rules, such as the rules of parliamentary procedure summarised in Roberts Rules of Order.
Formal report:
A report containing formal elements such as a title page, a transmittal, a table of contents and an abstract
Formalisation:
The fourth and last stage in the life of a task group, when the group makes and formalises its decision
Format:
The parts of a document and the way they are arranged on a page
Formation:
The second stage in the life of a task group, when members choose a leader and define the problem they must solve
Free writing:
A kind of writing uninhibited by any constraints. Free writing may be useful in overcoming writers block, among other things G
Gatekeeper:
The audience with the power to decide whether your message is sent on to other audiences, some gatekeepers are also initial audiences
Gathering:
Physically getting the background data you need. It can include informal and formal research or simply getting the letter to which you are responding.
General slang:
Words or phrases such as awesome, smoking or at the end of my rope that are sometimes used in conversations and in presentations, but are not appropriate in business and administrative writing since they appear sloppy or imprecise.
Gerund:
The -ing form of a verb; grammatically, it is a verb used as a noun
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Getting feedback:
Asking someone else to evaluate your work, feedback is useful at every stage of the writing process, not just during composition of the final draft.
Glossary: Goodwill:
A list of terms used in a report with their definitions The value of a business beyond its tangible assets, including its reputation and patronage, also, a favourable condition and overall atmosphere of trust that can be fostered between parties conducting business.
Goodwill ending:
Shift of emphasis away from the message to the reader. A good will ending is positive, personal and forward-looking and suggests that serving the reader is the real concern.
Goodwill presentation: Grammar checker: Grapevine:
A presentation that entertains and validates the audience Software program that flags errors or doubtful usage The informal informational network in an organisation, which carries gossip and rumours as well as accurate information.
Ground rules:
Procedural rules adopted by groups to make meetings run smoothly
Groupthink:
The tendency for a group to reward agreement and directly or indirectly punish dissent
Guided discussion:
A presentation in which the speaker presents the questions or issues that both speaker and audience have agreed on in advance, instead of functioning as an expert with all the answers, the speaker serves as a facilitator to help the audience tap its own knowledge H
Headings:
Words or short phrases that group points and divide your letter, memo, or report into sections
Hearing: Hidden job market:
Perceiving sounds Jobs that are never advertised but may be available or may be created for the right candidate
Hidden negatives: 186
Words that are not negative in themselves, but become negative in context Managerial Skill Development
High-context culture:
A culture in which most information is inferred from the context, rather than being spelled out explicitly in words
Histogram:
A bar graph using pictures, asterisks or points to represent a unit of the data
Hot buttons:
Issues to which the audience has a strong emotional response I
Impersonal expression:
A sentence that attributes actions to inanimate objects, designed to avoid placing blame on a reader. Indented format: A format for rsums in which items that are logically equivalent begin at the same horizontal space, with carryover lines indented three spaces. Indented format emphasises job titles
Independent clause:
A group of words that can stand by itself as a complete sentence
Infinitive: Inform: Informal meetings:
The form of the verb that is preceded by to To explain something or tell the audience something Loosely run meetings in which votes are not taken on every point
Informal report: Information interview:
A report using letter or memo format An interview in which you talk to someone who works in the hope to find out what the day-to-day work involves and how you can best prepare to enter that field
Information overload:
The inability of a human receiver to process all the messages he or she receives
Information report:
A report that collects data for the reader but does not recommend action
Informational messages:
In a group, messages focusing on the problem, data and possible solutions
Informative message: Informative presentation:
Message to which the readers basic reaction will be neutral A presentation that informs or teaches the audience
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Informative or talking heads: Headings that are detailed enough to provide an overview of the material in the sections they introduce Initial audience: The audience that assigns the message and routes it to other audiences Inside address: The readers name and address; put below the date and above the salutation in most letter formats Interactive presentation: A conversation in which the seller uses questions to determine the buyers needs, probe objections and gain provisional and then final commitment to the purchase Intercultural competence: The ability to communicate sensitively with people from other cultures and countries, based on an understanding of cultural differences. Internal audiences: Internal document: Audiences in the writers organisation Document written for other employees in the same organisation
Internal documentation:
Providing information about a source in the text itself rather than in footnotes or endnotes
Internal report:
Reports written by employees for use only in their organisation
Interpersonal communication: Communication between people Interpersonal messages: In a group, messages promoting friendliness, cooperation, and group loyalty Interpret: Interview: To determine the significance or importance of a message Structured conversation with someone who is able to give you useful information Intrinsic benefits: Benefits that come automatically from using a product or doing something Introduction: The part of a report that states the purpose and scope of the report, the introduction may also include limitations, assumptions, methods, criteria and definitions
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J Jargon: There are two kinds of jargon. The first kind is the specialized terminology of a technical field. The second is businesses, outdated words that do not have technical meanings and are not used in other forms of English Judgment sample: Justification report: A group of subjects whose views seem useful Report that justifies the need for a purchase, an investment, a new personnel line or a change in procedure Justified margins: Margins that end evenly on the right side of the page K Keywords or descriptors: Words describing the content of an article used to permit computer searches for information on a topic L Landscape graphs: Line graphs with the area below the line filled in are sometimes called landscape graphs Late letter: A collection letter that threatens legal action if the bill is not paid Letter: Short document using block or modified block format that goes to readers outside your organisation Letterhead: Stationery with the organisations name, logo, address and telephone number printed on the page Limitations: Problems or factors that limit the validity of the
recommendations of a report Line graph: A visual consisting of lines that show trends or allow the viewer to interpolate values between the observed values Listening: Low-context culture: Decoding and interpreting sounds correctly A culture in which most information is conveyed explicitly in words rather than being inferred from context M Memo: Document using memo format sent to readers in your 189
organisation. Managerial Skill Development
Methods section:
The section of a report or survey describing how the data were gathered
Middle letter:
A collection letter that is more assertive than an early letter. Middle letters may offer to negotiate a schedule for repayment if the reader is not able to pay the whole bill immediately, remind the reader of the importance of good credit, educate the reader about credit or explain why the creditor must have prompt payment.
Minutes:
Records of a meeting, listing the items discussed, the results of votes and the persons responsible for carrying out follow-up steps
Misplaced modifier:
A word or phrase that appears to modify another element of the sentence than the writer intended.
Mixed punctuation:
Using a colon after the salutation and a comma after the complimentary close in a letter
Mode: Modified block format:
The most frequent number A letter format in which the inside address, date and signature block are lined up with each other one-half or one-third of the way over on the page
Modifier:
A word or phrase giving more information about another word in a sentence
Monochronic culture:
Culture in which people do only one important activity at a time
Monologue presentation:
A presentation in which the speaker speaks without interruption, the presentation is planned and is delivered without deviation
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: A scale that categorizes people on four dimensions: introvertextrovert; sensing-intuitive; thinking-feeling; and perceivingjudging. N Negative message: A message in which basic information conveyed is negative; the reader is expected to be disappointed or angry 190 Managerial Skill Development
News release:
Messages that package information about a company and that the writer would like announced in local and national media
Noise: Nominative case:
Any physical or psychological interference in a message The grammatical form used for the subject of a clause. I, we, he, she and they are nominative pronouns
Nonagist:
Words, images or behaviours that do not discriminate against people on the basis of age
Nonracist:
Words, images or behaviours that do not discriminate against people on the basis of race
Nonrestrictive clause:
A clause giving extra but unessential information about a noun or pronoun, because the information is extra, commas separate the clause from the word it modifies.
Nonsexist language:
Language that treats both sexes neutrally, that does not make assumptions about the proper gender for a job and that does not imply that men are superior to or take precedence over women
Non-verbal communication: Communication that does not use words Normal interview: A job interview with some questions that the interviewer expects to be easy, some questions that present an opportunity to display strong points and some questions that probe any weaknesses evident from the rsum Noun-pronoun agreement: Having a pronoun be the same number (singular or plural) and the same person (first, second or third) as the noun it refers to O Objective case: The grammatical form used for the object of a verb or preposition, me ,us, him, her and them are objective pronouns Omnibus motion: A motion that allows a group to vote on several related items in a single vote, saves time in formal meetings with long agendas Open body position: Keeping the arms and legs uncrossed and away from the body Suggests physical and psychological comfort and openness Managerial Skill Development 191
Open punctuation:
Using
no
punctuation
after
the
salutation
and
the
complimentary close Open question: Organization: Organizational culture: Question with an unlimited number of possible responses The order in which ideas are arranged in a message The values, attitudes and philosophies shared by people in an organisation that shape its messages and its reward structure Orientation: The first stage in the life of a task group, when members meet and begin to define their task Original or primary research: Research that gathers new information P Paired graphs: Two or more simple stories juxtaposed to create a more powerful story Parallel structure: Putting words or ideas that share the same role in the sentences logic in the same grammatical form Paraphrase: To repeat in your own words the verbal content of what the previous speaker said Passive verb: A verb that describes action done to the grammatical subject of the sentence People-first language: Language that names the person first, then the condition: 'people with mental retardation', used to avoid implying that the condition defines the persons potential Perception: Performance appraisals: Personal space: The ability to see, to hear, to taste, to smell, to touch Supervisors written evaluations of their subordinates The distance someone wants between him- or herself and other people in ordinary, non-intimate interchanges Personalized: A form letter that is adapted to the individual reader by including the readers name and address and perhaps other information Persuade: Persuasive presentation: 192 To motivate and convince the audience to act A presentation that motivates the audience to act or to believe Managerial Skill Development
Pie chart:
A circular chart whose sections represent percentages of a given quantity
Pitch:
The highness or lowness of a sound, low-pitched sounds are closer to the bass notes on a piano; high-pitched sounds are closer to the high notes
Planning:
All the thinking done about a subject and the means of achieving your purposes, planning takes place not only when devising strategies for the document as a whole, but also when generating 'mini-plans' that govern sentences or paragraphs.
Polychronic culture: Population: Positive emphasis:
Culture in which people do several things at once The group a researcher wants to make statements about Focusing on the positive rather than the negative aspects of a situation
Positive or good news message: Message to which the readers reaction will be positive Possessive case: The grammatical form used to indicate possession or ownership. My, our, his, hers, its and their are possessive pronouns Postal service abbreviations: Two-letter abbreviations for states and provinces Prepositions: Words that indicate relationships, for example, with, in, under, at Presenting problem: The problem that surfaces as the subject of disagreement; the presenting problem is often not the real problem Primary audience: The audience who will make a decision or act based on a message Primary research: Pro and con pattern: Research that gathers new information A pattern of organisation for reports that presents all the arguments for an alternative and then all the arguments against it Problem-solving persuasion: A pattern of organisation that describes a problem that affects the reader before offering a solution to the problem
193
Procedural messages:
Messages focusing on a groups methods: how it makes decisions, who does what, when assignments are due
Process of writing:
What people actually do when they write, most researchers would agree that the writing process can include eight parts: planning, gathering, writing, evaluating, getting feedback, revising, editing and proofreading.
Product of writing: Progress report:
The final written document A statement of the work done during a period of time and the work proposed for the next period
Proofreading:
Checking the final copy to see that it is free from typographical errors
Proportional font:
A font in which some letters are wider than other letters (for example, w is wider than i).
Proposal:
Document that suggests a method for finding information or solving a problem
Prospecting letter:
A job application letter written to companies that have not announced openings but where you would like to work
Psychographic data:
Human characteristics that are qualitative rather than quantitative: values, beliefs, goals and lifestyles
Psychological description: Psychological reactance:
Description of a product or service in terms of reader benefits Phenomenon occurring when a reader reacts to a negative message by asserting freedom in some other arena
Purpose statement:
The statement in a proposal or a report specifying the organisational problem, the technical questions that must be answered to solve the problem and the rhetorical purpose of the report (to explain, to recommend, to request, to propose) Q
Questionnaire:
List of questions for people to answer in a survey R
Ragged right or unjustified margins: Margins that do not end evenly on the right side of the page 194 Managerial Skill Development
Random sample:
A sample for which each person of the population theoretically has an equal chance of being chosen
Reader benefits:
Benefits or advantages that the reader gets by using the writers services, buying the writers products, following the writers policies or adopting the writers ideas Reader benefits can exist for policies and ideas as well as for goods and services.
Recommendation report: Recommendations: Reference line:
A report that recommends action Section of a report that specifies items for action A subject line that refers the reader to another document (usually a numbered one, such as an invoice)
Referral interview:
Interviews you schedule to learn about current job opportunities in your field and to get referrals to other people who may have the power to create a job for you, useful for tapping into unadvertised jobs and the hidden job market
Release date: Request:
Date a report will be made available to the public To ask the audience to take an easy or routine action
Request for proposal (RFP): A statement of the service or product that an agency wants; a bid for proposals to provide that service or product Respondents: Response rate: The people who fill out a questionnaire The percentage of subjects receiving a questionnaire who agree to answer the questions Restrictive clause: A clause limiting or restricting the meaning of a noun or pronoun. Because its information is essential, no commas separate the clause from the word it restricts Rsum: Reverse chronology: A persuasive summary of your qualifications for employment Starting with the most recent job or degree and going backward. Pattern of organisation used for chronological rsums Revising: Making changes in the draft: adding, deleting, substituting or rearranging Managerial Skill Development 195
Revision can be changes in single words, but more often it means major additions, deletions or substitutions, as the writer measures the draft against purpose and audience and reshapes the document to make it more effective RFP: Rhetorical purpose: See request for proposal The effect the writer or speaker hopes to have on the audience (to inform, to persuade, to build goodwill) Rival hypotheses: Run-on sentence: Alternate factors that might explain observed results A sentence containing several main clauses strung together with and, but or so or for S Salutation: Sample: Sans serif: The greeting in a letter: 'Dear Ms. Smith' The portion of the population a researcher actually studies Literally, without serifs; typeface whose letters lack bases or flicks; Helvetica and Geneva are examples of sans serif typefaces Saves the readers time: The result of a message whose style, organisation and visual impact help the reader to read, understand and act on the information as quickly as possible Scope statement: A statement in a proposal or report specifying the subjects the report covers and how broadly or deeply it covers them Secondary audience: The audience affected by the decision or action; these people maybe asked by the primary audience to comment on a message or to implement ideas after theyve been approved Secondary research: Sentence fragment: Research retrieving data someone else gathered A group of words that are not a complete sentence but that are punctuated as if they were a complete sentence Sentence outline: An outline using complete sentences that lists the sentences proving the thesis and the points proving each of those sentences. A sentence outline is the basis for a summary abstract. 196 Managerial Skill Development
Serif:
The little extensions from the main strokes on the r and g and other letters, Times Roman and Courier are examples of serif typefaces
Sexist interview:
It is a stress interview in which questions are biased against one sex; many sexist questions mask a legitimate concern. The best strategy is to respond as you would to a stress question: rephrase it and treat it as a legitimate request for information.
Signpost:
An explicit statement of the place that a speaker or writer has reached: 'Now we come to the third point'.
Simple sentence: Situational interviews:
Sentence with one main clause Job interviews in which candidates are asked to describe what they would do in specific hypothetical situations
Skills rsum:
A rsum organised around the skills you have used, rather than the date or the job in which you used them
Slang: Solicited letter: Spell checker: Spot visuals:
See business slang and general slang A job letter written when you know that the company is hiring Software program that flags possible errors in spelling Informal visuals that are inserted directly into text; spot visuals do not have numbers or titles
Stereotyping:
Putting similar people or events into a single category, even though significant differences exist
Storyboard:
A visual representation of the structure of a document, with a rectangle representing each page or unit; an alternative to outlining as a method of organising material
Strategy: Stress: Stress interview:
A plan for reaching your specific goals with a specific audience Emphasis given to one or more words in a sentence A job interview that deliberately puts the applicant under stress, physical or psychological. Here it is important to change the conditions that create physical stress and to meet psychological stress by rephrasing questions in less inflammatory terms and treating them as requests for
information. Managerial Skill Development
197
Strong verbs:
Verbs that help to convey information forcefully or more clearly than verb strings or nouns
Structured interview:
An interview that follows a detailed list of questions prepared in advance
Subject line:
The title of the document, used to file and retrieve the document; subject line tells readers why they need to read the document and provides a framework in which to set what you are about to say.
Subjects:
The people studied in an experiment, focus group or survey
Subordinate or dependent clause: A group of words containing a subject and a verb but that cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence Summarizing: Restating and relating major points, pulling ideas together
Summary sentence or paragraph: A sentence or paragraph listing in order the topics that following sentences or paragraphs will discuss Survey: A method of getting information from a large group of people T Table: Talking heads: Numbers or words arrayed in rows and columns Headings that are detailed enough to provide an overview of the material in the sections they introduce Teleconferencing: Telephone conference calls among three or more people in different locations and videoconferences where one-way or two-way TV supplements the audio channel Telephone tag: Making and returning telephone calls repeatedly before the two people are on the line at the same time Thank-you letter: Threat: A letter thanking someone for helping you A statement, explicit or implied, that someone will be punished if he or she does something Tone: The implied attitude of the author toward the reader and the subject Tone of voice: 198 The rising or falling inflection that indicates whether a group of words is a question or a statement, whether the speaker is Managerial Skill Development
uncertain or confident, whether a statement is sincere or sarcastic Topic outline: An outline listing the main points and the sub points under each main point; a topic outline is the basis for the table of contents of a report. Topic sentence: A sentence that introduces or summarizes the main idea in a paragraph; a topic sentence may be either stated or implied and it may come anywhere in the paragraph Transitions: Words, phrases or sentences that show the connections between ideas Transmit: Transmittal: Truncated code: To send a message A memo or letter explaining why something is being sent Symbols such as asterisks that turn up other forms of a keyword in a computer search Truncated scales: Graphs with part of the scale missing U Umbrella sentence or paragraph: A sentence or paragraph listing in order the topics that following sentences or paragraphs will discuss Understatement: Unity: Downplaying or minimizing the size or features of something Using only one idea or topic in a paragraph or other piece of writing Unjustified margins: Unstructured interview: Margins that do not end evenly on the right side of the page An interview based on three or four main questions prepared in advance and other questions that build on what the interviewee says V Verbal communication: Vested interest: Communication that uses words; may be either oral or written The emotional stake readers have in something if they benefit from keeping things just as they are Visual impact: The visual 'first impression' you get when you look at a page 199
Volume:
The loudness or softness of a voice or other sound W
Watchdog audience:
An audience that has political, social or economic power and that may base future actions on its evaluation of your message
Weak verbs: White space:
Verbs composed of a form of the verb to be plus a noun The empty space on the page, white space emphasises material that it separates from the rest of the text.
Withdrawing:
Being silent in meetings, not contributing, not helping with the work, not attending meetings
Wordiness: Works cited: Writing:
Taking more words than necessary to express an idea The sources specifically referred to in a report The act of putting words on paper or on a screen or of dictating words to a machine or a secretary Y
You-attitude:
A style of writing that looks at things from the readers point of view, emphasises what the reader wants to know, respects the readers intelligence and protects the readers ego; using you probably increases you-attitude in positive situations. In negative situations or conflict, avoid you since that word will attack the reader
200

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Unit 1

Time Required to Complete the unit

Managerial Skill Development

1.9 1.10 1.11

Summary Self Assessment Test Further Reading

Managerial Skill Development

1.2 Meaning and definition of communication

ideas, feelings or course of action. Managerial Skill Development

Alien Louis A.:

Managerial Skill Development

1.3 Importance of Communication

Managerial Skill Development

Managerial Skill Development

1.3.1 ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS

Managerial Skill Development

1.3.2 OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION

Managerial Skill Development

1.4 Nature of Communication

Managerial Skill Development

Message Feedback improves communication

Communication may be formal or informal:

Formal communication follows the

1.5 Principles of Communication

Managerial Skill Development

Managerial Skill Development

meeting, writing a newsletter article or formal report?

1.6 Process of Communication

Managerial Skill Development

Managerial Skill Development

1.6.1 COMMUNICATION PROCESS: MODELS AND THEORIES

A source An encoder A message A channel A decoder A receiver

Fig. 1.3: Linear Model of Communication Managerial Skill Development

Managerial Skill Development

Fig. 1.6: Lasswell's Model

Managerial Skill Development

Managerial Skill Development

1.7 Communication Network

Fig. 1.7: Communication network in an organisation Managerial Skill Development 25

Managerial Skill Development

Cross Cultural Communication

1.8.1 CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR

Competition, Risk taking, Freedom

Group harmony; Belonging

Reputation; Family security; Religion

Managerial Skill Development

expressions; many signatures

Desire to maintain harmony

Future relationship; personal greetings Status; continuation

Efficiency; directness; action

Politeness, indirectness, relationship

Managerial Skill Development

1.8.2 TIPS FOR COMMUNICATING WITH PEOPLE CROSS-CULTURALLY

Managerial Skill Development

Managerial Skill Development

Managerial Skill Development

1.10 Self Assessment Test

1.11 Further Reading

Managerial Skill Development

Managerial Skill Development