PYTHON

PROGRAMMING

BY
Pruthvi raj A
Asst.Professor
Dept of computer
science
 INTRODUCTION TO PYTHON UNIT -1
Introduction :  Comments;
 Features and Applications of Python;  Built-in Functions- Console Input and
Console Output,
 Python Versions;
 Type Conversions;
 Installation of Python;
 Python Libraries;
 Python Command Line mode and Python IDEs;
 Importing Libraries with Examples.

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 Simple Python Program.
 Python Control Flow:
Python Basics:
 Types of Control Flow:
 Identifiers;  Control Flow Statements- if, else, elif,
 Keywords;  while loop,
 Statements and Expressions;  break, continue statements,
 for loop Statement;
 Variables;  range () and exit () functions
 Operators;
 Precedence and Association;
 Data Types;
 Indentation;
 PYTHON PROGRAMMING
Very beginning learn about

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What?
Where?
Why?
 What is Python?
 Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum, and
released in 1991.
 OR
 Python is an interpreted, object-oriented, high-level programming language with dynamic
semantics developed by Guido van Rossum.
 It was originally released in 1991. Designed to be easy as well as fun, the name "Python" is a
nod to the British comedy group Monty Python.

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 Python has a reputation as a beginner-friendly language, replacing Java as the most widely
used introductory language because it handles much of the complexity for the user, allowing
beginners to focus on fully grasping programming concepts rather than minute details.
 Where It is used for?
• web development (server-side),
• software development,
• mathematics,
• system scripting.
• Processing big data
• Fast prototyping
• Developing production-ready software
 Why Python?
• Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc).
• Python has a simple syntax similar to the English language.
• Python has syntax that allows developers to write programs with fewer lines than some
other programming languages.
• Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that code can be executed as soon as it is
written. This means that prototyping can be very quick.

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• Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-oriented way or a functional way.

Things to know
• The most recent major version of Python is Python 3, which we shall be using .
• However, Python 2, although not being updated with anything other than security updates,
is still quite popular.
• Python will be written in a text editor.
• It is possible to write Python in an Integrated Development Environment, such as Thonny,
Pycharm, Netbeans or Eclipse which are particularly useful when managing larger
collections of Python files.
 Example
 print("Hello, World!")
 Python Install
 Many PCs and Macs will have python already installed.
To check if you have python installed on a Windows PC, search

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
in the start bar for Python or run the following on the
Command Line (cmd.exe):

C:\Users\Your Name>python –version

If you find that you do not have Python installed on your computer, then
you can download it for free from the following
website: https://www.python.org/
 Verify installation
 Once IDLE is launched, go to file menu
 Click on  new file to create new python file.
 How to use IDLE
 Print(“morning”)

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 Save the file with .py extension and run the file(run menu click on run module or press
F5)
 If the output is morning then installation is successful and IDLE is ready to use.
 Python Quickstart
 Python is an interpreted programming language, this means that as a developer you write
Python (.py) files in a text editor and then put those files into the python interpreter to be
executed.
 The way to run a python file is like this on the command line:
 C:\Users\panka>AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python311\my.py
 Where “my.py" is the name of your python file.
 Let's write our first Python file, called my.py, which can be done in any text editor.
 The Python Command Line
 To test a short amount of code in python sometimes it is quickest and easiest not to write
the code in a file. This is made possible because Python can be run as a command line itself.
 Type the following on the Windows, Mac or Linux command line:
 C:\Users\Your Name>python
 Or, if the "python" command did not work, you can try "py":

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 C:\Users\Your Name>py
 From there you can write any python, including our hello world example from earlier in the
tutorial:
 >>> print("Hello, World!")
 Which will write "Hello, World!" in the command line:
 Hello, World!
 Whenever you are done in the python command line, you can simply type the following to quit
the python command line interface:
 exit()
 >>>exit()
 Features and Benefits of Python
• Compatible with a variety of platforms including Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, and others
• Uses a simple syntax comparable to the English language that lets developers use fewer lines than other programming
languages
• Operates on an interpreter system that allows code to be executed immediately, fast-tracking prototyping
• Can be handled in a procedural, object-orientated, or functional way
 Python Identifiers
 Identifiers are the name given to variables, classes, methods, functions etc. For example

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language = 'Python’

 Here, language is a variable (an identifier) which holds the value 'Python'.
 We cannot use keywords as variable names as they are reserved names that are built-in to
Python. For example,

continue = 'Python’

 The above code is wrong because we have used continue as a variable name. (CONTINUE IS
KEYWORD)
 Rules for Naming an Identifier:
 Identifiers cannot be a keyword.

 Identifiers are case-sensitive.

 It can have a sequence of letters and digits. However, it

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must begin with a letter or _. The first letter of an
Valid Invalid
identifier cannot be a digit. Identifiers Identifiers

 It's a convention to start an identifier

_scorewith a letter
@core rather

_. return_value return

 Whitespaces are not allowed. highest_score highest score

 We cannot use special symbols likename1!, @, #, $, and so on.

1name

Some Valid and Invalid Identifiers inconvert_to_strin

g Python
convert to_string

MY_BOOK MY book
 Things to Remember
 Python is a case-sensitive language. This means,
Variable and variable are not the same.
 Always give the identifiers a name that makes sense.

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 While c = 10 is a valid name, writing count = 10 would
make more sense, and it would be easier to figure out
what it represents when you look at your code after a
long gap.
 Multiple words can be separated using an underscore,
like this_is_a_long_variable.
Govt. First Grade College,
Malur

Department of Computer

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Science

PYTHON PROGRAMMING

Unit 1
 What is Python?
 Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van
Rossum, and released in 1991.
 OR
 Python is an interpreted, object-oriented, high-level programming language
with dynamic semantics developed by Guido van Rossum.
 It was originally released in 1991. Designed to be easy as well as fun, the
name "Python" is a nod to the British comedy group Monty Python.

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 Python has a reputation as a beginner-friendly language, replacing Java as
the most widely used introductory language because it handles much of the
complexity for the user, allowing beginners to focus on fully grasping
programming concepts rather than minute details.
 Where It is used for?
 web development (server-side),
 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.
 Processing big data
 Fast prototyping
 Developing production-ready software
Why Python?
 Python works on different platforms (Windows, Mac,
Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc).
 Python has a simple syntax similar to the English
language.

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 Python has syntax that allows developers to write
programs with fewer lines than some other
programming languages.
 Python runs on an interpreter system, meaning that
code can be executed as soon as it is written. This
means that prototyping can be very quick.
 Python can be treated in a procedural way, an object-
oriented way or a functional way.
PYTHON HISTORY AND VERSIONS
 Python laid its foundation in the late 1980s.
 The implementation of Python was started in

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December 1989 by Guido Van Rossum at CWI
in Netherland.
 In February 1991, Guido Van
Rossum published the code (labeled version
0.9.0) to alt.sources.
 In 1994, Python 1.0 was released with new
features like lambda, map, filter, and reduce.
 Python 2.0 added new features such as list
comprehensions, garbage collection systems.
 On December 3, 2008, Python 3.0 (also called
"Py3K") was released. It was designed to rectify
the fundamental flaw of the language.
PYTHON FEATURES
1) Easy to Learn and Use
Python is easy to learn as compared to other programming
languages. Its syntax is straightforward and much the

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same as the English language. There is no use of the
semicolon or curly-bracket, the indentation defines the code
block. It is the recommended programming language for
beginners.
2) Expressive Language
Python can perform complex tasks using a few lines of code.
A simple example, the hello world program you simply type
print("Hello World"). It will take only one line to execute,
while Java or C takes multiple lines.
3) Interpreted Language
Python is an interpreted language; it means the Python
program is executed one line at a time. The advantage of
being interpreted language, it makes debugging easy and
portable.
4) Cross-platform Language
Python can run equally on different platforms such as Windows, Linux, UNIX, and
Macintosh, etc. So, we can say that Python is a portable language. It enables
programmers to develop the software for several competing platforms by writing a
program only once.
5) Free and Open Source
Python is freely available for everyone. It is freely available on its official website
www.python.org. It has a large community across the world that is dedicatedly
working towards make new python modules and functions. Anyone can contribute to
the Python community. The open-source means, "Anyone can download its source

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code without paying any penny."
6) Object-Oriented Language
Python supports object-oriented language and concepts of classes and objects come
into existence. It supports inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation, etc. The
object-oriented procedure helps to programmer to write reusable code and develop
applications in less code.
7) Dynamic Memory Allocation
In Python, we don't need to specify the data-type of the variable. When we assign
some value to the variable, it automatically allocates the memory to the variable at
run time. Suppose we are assigned integer value 15 to x, then we don't need to write
int x = 15. Just write x = 15.
8) GUI Programming Support
Graphical User Interface is used for the developing Desktop application. PyQT5,
Tkinter, Kivy are the libraries which are used for developing the web application.
9) Integrated
It can be easily integrated with languages like C, C++, and JAVA, etc. Python runs
code line by line like C,C++ Java. It makes easy to debug the code.
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PYTHON APPLICATIONS
1) Web Applications
We can use Python to develop web applications. It provides libraries
to handle internet protocols such as HTML and XML, JSON, Email
processing, request, beautifulSoup, Feedparser, etc. One of Python
web-framework named Django is used on Instagram.

2) Desktop GUI Applications

The GUI stands for the Graphical User Interface, which provides a
smooth interaction to any application. Python provides a Tk GUI

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library to develop a user interface. Some popular GUI libraries are
given below.
 Tkinter or Tk
 wxWidgetM
 Kivy (used for writing multitouch applications )
 PyQt or Pyside

3) Console-based Application
Console-based applications run from the command-line or shell.
These applications are computer program which are used commands
to execute. This kind of application was more popular in the old
generation of computers. Python can develop this kind of application
very effectively. It is famous for having REPL, which means the
Read-Eval-Print Loop that makes it the most suitable language for
the command-line applications.
4) Software Development
Python is useful for the software development process. It works as a
support language and can be used to build control and
management, testing, etc.

5) Scientific and Numeric

This is the era of Artificial intelligence where the machine can
perform the task the same as the human. Python language is the
most suitable language for Artificial intelligence or machine

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learning. It consists of many scientific and mathematical libraries,
which makes easy to solve complex calculations.

6) Business Applications
Business Applications differ from standard applications. E-
commerce and ERP are an example of a business application. This
kind of application requires extensively, scalability and readability,
and Python provides all these features.

7) Audio or Video-based Applications

Python is flexible to perform multiple tasks and can be used to
create multimedia applications. Some multimedia applications
which are made by using Python are TimPlayer, cplay, etc.
8) 3D CAD Applications
The CAD (Computer-aided design) is used to design engineering
related architecture. It is used to develop the 3D representation of
a part of a system. Python can create a 3D CAD application by
using AnyCAD.

9) Enterprise Applications

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Python can be used to create applications that can be used within
an Enterprise or an Organization. Some real-time applications
are OpenERP, Tryton, Picalo, etc.

10) Image Processing Application

Python contains many libraries that are used to work with the
image. The image can be manipulated according to our
requirements. Some libraries of image processing are given below.
 OpenCV
 Pillow
 SimpleITK
Python Install
 Many PCs and Macs will have python already
installed.
 To check if you have python installed on a Windows
PC, search in the start bar for Python or run the
following on the Command Line (cmd.exe):
C:\Users\Your Name>python –

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versionName>python –version
C:\Users\Your

If you find that you do not have Python installed on your

computer, then you can download it for free from the following
website: https://www.python.org/
 Verify installation
 Once IDLE is launched, go to file menu
 Click on  new file to create new python file.
 FIRST PYTHON PROGRAM

 Python provides us the two ways to run a program:

1. Using Interactive interpreter prompt
2. Using a script file

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Example Program
 print("Hello, World!")
 PYTHON BASICS
 PYTHON CHARACTER SET
Character set is a set of valid characters that a language can recognize. A
character represents any letter, digit or any other symbol. Python
supports Unicode encoding standard. That means, Python has the
following character set :

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Letters A-Z, a-z
Digits 0-9
Special symbols space +-/*\() [] {} // = != == <, > . '"'"",;:%!& # <= >=
@_(underscore)
Whitespaces Blank space, tabs (→), carriage return (), newline,
formfeed.
Other characters Python can process all ASCII and Unicode
characters as part of data or literals
IDENTIFIERS
IDENTIFIERS ARE FUNDAMENTAL BUILDING BLOCKS OF A PROGRAM
AND ARE USED AS THE GENERAL TERMINOLOGY FOR THE NAMES GIVEN
TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE PROGRAM VIZ. VARIABLES, OBJECTS,
CLASSES, FUNCTIONS, LISTS, DICTIONARIES ETC. IDENTIFIER FORMING
RULES OF PYTHON ARE BEING SPECIFIED BELOW:
 An identifier is an arbitrarily long Valid Invalid

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sequence of letters and digits.
Identifier Identifier
 The first character must be a letter; the s s
underscore (_) counts as a letter.
 Upper and lower-case letters are different. _score @core
All characters are significant.
 The digits 0 through 9 can be part of the return_val
return
identifier except for the first character. ue
 Identifiers are unlimited in length. Case is highest_sco highest
significant i.e., Python is case sensitive as re score
it treats upper and lower-case characters
differently. name1 1name
 An identifier cannot contain any special
character except for underscore (_). convert_to_ convert
 An identifier must not be a keyword of string to_string
python.
MY_BOOK MY book
 KEYWORDS IN PYTHON

 Keywords are the reserved words in Python. We cannot

use a keyword as a variable name, function name or any
other identifier.

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 Here's a list of all keywords in Python Programming

Keywords in Python programming language

False await else import pass
None break except in raise

True class finally is return

and continue for lambda try

as def from nonlocal while

assert del global not with

async elif if or yield
STATEMENTS IN PYTHON
A statement is an instruction that a Python
interpreter can execute. So, in simple words,
we can say anything written in Python is a

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statement.
For example, a = 10 is an assignment statement.
where a is a variable name and 10 is its value.

There are mainly four types of statements in

Python
 Print statements,
 Assignment statements,
 Conditional statements,
 Looping statements,
 Return statements,
MULTI-LINE STATEMENTS
Python statement ends with the token NEWLINE character.
But we can extend the statement over multiple lines using line
continuation character (\). This is known as an explicit continuation.
 Example
>>addition = 10 + 20 + \

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30 + 40 + \
50 + 60 + 70
>>print(addition)
# Output: 280

Implicit continuation:
We can use parentheses () to write a multi-line statement.
We can add a line continuation statement inside it.
Whatever we add inside a parentheses () will treat as a single statement
even it is placed on multiple lines.
Example:
addition = (10 + 20 + 30 + 40 +
50 + 60 + 70)
print(addition)
# Output: 280
EXPRESSION STATEMENTS

 Expression statements are used to compute and write a value. An

expression statement evaluates the expression list and calculates
the value.
 An expression is a combination of values, variables, and operators.

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 A single value all by itself is considered an expression. Following
are all legal expressions (assuming that the variable x has been
assigned a value):
 x + 20
 So here x + 20 is the expression statement which computes the
final value if we assume variable x has been assigned a value
(10). So final value of the expression will become 30.
 Note : “But in a script, an expression all by itself doesn’t
do anything! So we mostly assign an expression to a
variable, which becomes a statement for an interpreter to
execute”.
PYTHON VARIABLES
 Variables are identifiers of a physical memory
location, which is used to hold values temporarily
during program execution.
 Python interpreter allocates memory based on the
values(letter or a number) data type of variable,
different data types like integers, decimals,

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characters, etc. can be stored in these variables.
Python Variable Declaration
 In Python, like many other programming languages,
there is no need to define variables in advance.
 As soon as a value is assigned to a variable, it is
automatically declared. This is why Python is
called a dynamically typed language.
The syntax for creating variables in Python is
given below:

<variable-name> =
<value>
ASSIGNING VALUE TO VARIABLES
 Python interpreter can determine what type of data is
stored, so before assigning a value, variables do not need to
be declared.
 Usually, in all programming languages, equal sign = is
used to assign values to a variable. It assigns the values of
the right side operand to the left side operand.

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 The left side operand of = operator is the name of a
variable, and the right side operand is value.
 Example:
name = "Packing box" # A string
height = 10 # An integer assignment
width = 20.5 # A floating point
print (name)
print (height)
print (width)
OUTPUT
Packing box
10
20.5
Common Rules for Naming Variables in Python
Python has some variable related rules that must be
followed:
 Variable names are case-sensitive.

 Variable names must begin with a letter or

underscore.

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 A variable name can only contain alphanumeric
characters and underscore, such as (a-z, A-Z, 0-9, and
_ ).
 A variable name can not contents space.

 Reserved words cannot be used as a variable name.

Example
This will create two variables:
a=4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a
DATA TYPES
Python offers following built-in core data types :

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1. Numbers - immutable(cannot be changed/modified)
2. String - immutable(cannot be changed/modified)
3. List - mutable(changed/modified)
4. Tuple - immutable(cannot be changed/modified)
5. Dictionary - mutable(changed/modified)
 1. NUMBERS
Numeric values are stored in numbers. The whole number, float, and
complex qualities have a place with a Python Numbers data type.
Python offers the type() function to determine a variable's data type.
The instance () capability is utilized to check whether an item has a
place with a specific class.
Example

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a=5
print("The type of a", type(a))
b = 40.5
print("The type of b", type(b))
c = 1+3j
print("The type of c", type(c))
print(" c is a complex number", isinstance(1+3j,complex))
Output
The type of a <class 'int'>
The type of b <class 'float'>
The type of c <class 'complex'>
c is complex number: True
PYTHON SUPPORTS THREE KINDS OF
NUMERICAL DATA.

 Int: Whole number worth can be any length, like

numbers 10, 2, 29, - 20, - 150, and so on. An

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integer can be any length you want in Python. Its
worth has a place with int.
 Float: Float stores drifting point numbers like
1.9, 9.902, 15.2, etc. It can be accurate to within
15 decimal places.
 Complex: An intricate number is in the form
A+Bi where i is the imaginary number, equal to
the sqare root of -1 i.e., √-1, that is 12 The complex
numbers like 2.14j, 2.0 + 2.3j, etc.
2. SEQUENCE TYPE OR STRING TYPE
 The sequence of characters in the quotation marks can be used to
describe the string. A string can be defined in Python using single,
double, or triple quotes.
 String dealing with Python is a direct undertaking since Python
gives worked-in capabilities and administrators to perform tasks in

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the string.
 When dealing with strings, the operation "hello"+" python" returns
"hello python," and the operator + is used to combine two strings.
 Because the operation "Python" *2 returns "Python," the operator * is
referred to as a repetition operator.
 Example
str1 = 'hello javatpoint' #string str1
str2 = ' how are you' #string str2
print (str1[0:2]) #printing first two character using slice operator
print (str1[4]) #printing 4th character of the string
print (str1*2) #printing the string twice
print (str1 + str2) #printing the concatenation of str1 and str2
3. LIST
 Lists in Python are like arrays in C, but lists can contain data of
different types. The things put away in the rundown are isolated
with a comma (,) and encased inside square sections [].
 To gain access to the list's data, we can use slice [:] operators. Like
how they worked with strings, the list is handled by the
concatenation operator (+) and the repetition operator (*).

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 Example
list1 = [1, "hi", "Python", 2] Out put
#Checking type of given list [1, 'hi', 'Python', 2]
print(type(list1)) [2]
#Printing the list1 [1, 'hi']
print (list1) [1, 'hi', 'Python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'Python', 2]
# List slicing [1, 'hi', 'Python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'Python', 2,
print (list1[3:]) 1, 'hi', 'Python', 2]
# List slicing
print (list1[0:2])
# List Concatenation using + operator
print (list1 + list1)
# List repetation using * operator
print (list1 * 3)
4. TUPLE
 In many ways, a tuple is like a list. Tuples, like lists, also contain a
collection of items from various data types. A parenthetical space ()
separates the tuple's components from one another.
 Because we cannot alter the size or value of the items in a tuple, it is a
read-only data structure.
 Example
up = ("hi", "Python", 2) Out put

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# Checking type of tup <class 'tuple'>
print (type(tup)) ('hi', 'Python', 2)
('Python', 2)
#Printing the tuple
('hi',)
print (tup) ('hi', 'Python', 2, 'hi', 'Python', 2)
# Tuple slicing ('hi', 'Python', 2, 'hi', 'Python', 2,
print (tup[1:]) 'hi', 'Python', 2)
print (tup[0:1]) Traceback (most recent call
# Tuple concatenation using + operator last):
print (tup + tup) File "main.py", line 14, in
# Tuple repatation using * operator <module> t[2] = "hi";
TypeError: 'tuple' object does
print (tup * 3)
not support item assignment
# Adding value to tup. It will throw an error.
t[2] = "hi"
5. DICTIONARY
 A dictionary is a key-value pair set arranged in any order. It stores a
specific value for each key, like an associative array or a hash table.
Value is any Python object, while the key can hold any primitive data
type.
 The comma (,) and the curly braces are used to separate the items in
the dictionary.
 Example

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d = {1:'Jimmy', 2:'Alex', 3:'john', 4:'mike'}
Out Put
# Printing dictionary 1st name is Jimmy
print (d) 2nd name is mike
{1: 'Jimmy', 2: 'Alex', 3: 'john', 4: 'mike'}
# Accesing value using keys dict_keys([1, 2, 3, 4]) dict_values(['Jimmy',
'Alex', 'john', 'mike'])
print("1st name is "+d[1])
print("2nd name is "+ d[4])

print (d.keys())
print (d.values())
6. SETS
 The data type's unordered collection is Python
Set. It is iterable, mutable(can change after

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creation), and has remarkable components. The
elements of a set have no set order; It might
return the element's altered sequence. Either a
sequence of elements is passed through the curly
braces and separated by a comma to create the
set or the built-in function set() is used to create
the set. It can contain different kinds of values.
EXAMPLE
# Creating Empty set Out Put
set1 = set()
{3, 'Python', 'James', 2}

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set2 = {'James', 2, 3,'Python'} {'Python', 'James', 3, 2, 10}
{'Python', 'James', 3, 10}
#Printing Set value
print(set2)

# Adding element to the set

set2.add(10)
print(set2)

#Removing element from the set

set2.remove(2)
print(set2)
PYTHON - OPERATORS

 Python operators are the constructs which can manipulate

the value of operands. These are symbols used for the
purpose of logical, arithmetic and various other operations.

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 Consider the expression 4 + 5 = 9. Here, 4 and 5 are
called operands and + is called operator. In this tutorial,
we will study different types of Python operators.
 Types of Python Operators
 Python language supports the following types of operators.
 Arithmetic Operators
 Comparison (Relational) Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Membership Operators
 Identity Operators
PYTHON ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
 Python arithmetic operators are used to perform
mathematical operations on numerical values. These
operations are Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication,
Division, Modulus, Exponents and Floor Division.

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Operator Description
+ (Addition) It is used to add two operands. For example, if a = 10, b = 10 => a+b = 20

- (Subtraction) It is used to subtract the second operand from the first operand. If the first operand is less
than the second operand, the value results negative. For example, if a = 20, b = 5 => a - b =
15

/ (divide) It returns the quotient after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For example, if a
= 20, b = 10 => a/b = 2.0

* (Multiplication) It is used to multiply one operand with the other. For example, if a = 20, b = 4 => a * b = 80

% (reminder) It returns the reminder after dividing the first operand by the second operand. For example, if
a = 20, b = 10 => a%b = 0

** (Exponent) As it calculates the first operand's power to the second operand, it is an exponent operator.

// (Floor division) It provides the quotient's floor value, which is obtained by dividing the two operands.
PYTHON COMPARISON OPERATORS

 Python comparison operators compare the values on

either sides of them and decide the relation among
them. They are also called relational operators. These
operators are equal, not equal, greater than, less than,
greater than or equal to and less than or equal to.

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Operator Name Example

== Equal 4 == 5 is not true.

!= Not Equal 4 != 5 is true.

> Greater Than 4 > 5 is not true.

< Less Than 4 < 5 is true.

>= Greater than or Equal to 4 >= 5 is not true.

<= Less than or Equal to 4 <= 5 is true.

PYTHON ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS

 Python assignment operators are used to assign values

to variables. These operators include simple
assignment operator, addition assign, subtraction
assign, multiplication assign, division and assign

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Opera Name Example
operators etc. tor
= Assignment Operator a = 10
+= Addition Assignment a += 5 (Same as a = a + 5)

-= Subtraction Assignment a -= 5 (Same as a = a - 5)

*= Multiplication Assignment a *= 5 (Same as a = a * 5)

/= Division Assignment a /= 5 (Same as a = a / 5)

%= Remainder Assignment a %= 5 (Same as a = a %

5)
**= Exponent Assignment a **= 2 (Same as a = a **
2)
//= Floor Division Assignment a //= 3 (Same as a = a // 3)
PYTHON BITWISE OPERATORS
 Bitwise operator works on bits and performs bit by bit operation.
Assume if a = 60; and b = 13; Now in the binary format their
values will be 0011 1100 and 0000 1101 respectively. Following
table lists out the bitwise operators supported by Python
language with an example each in those, we use the above two
variables (a andName
Operato b) as operands Example
r

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& Binary AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1

| Binary OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1

^ Binary XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1

~ Binary Ones Inverts all the bits

Complement

<< Binary Left Shift Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right
and let the leftmost bits fall off

>> Binary Right Shift right by pushing copies of the

Shift leftmost bit in from the left, and let the
rightmost bits fall off
PYTHON LOGICAL OPERATORS
 The assessment of expressions to make decisions
typically makes use of the logical operators. The
following logical operators are supported by Python.

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Operator Description Example

and Logical If both the operands are (a and b) is true.

AND true then condition
becomes true.

or Logical OR If any of the two operands (a or b) is true.

are non-zero then condition
becomes true.

not Logical Used to reverse the logical Not(a and b) is false.

NOT state of its operand.
PYTHON MEMBERSHIP OPERATORS

 Python’s membership operators test for membership in

a sequence, such as strings, lists, or tuples. There are
two membership operators as explained below

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PYTHON IDENTITY OPERATORS
Identity operators compare the memory locations of two objects. There are two Identity
operators explained below −Types of Identity Operators in Python
Identity Operator in Python has two types :
1. "is" operator
2. "is not" operator
is Operator

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is operator is a positive equivalence checking operator. It is used to determine if two
variables refer to an identical memory location or
not.
is operator returns True if both operands have the same unique id (points to the same
memory location).
Example : The Use of "is" Identity Operator in Python

is not Operator
is not operator is a negative equivalence checking operator. It is used to determine if two
variables refer to a distinct memory location or not.
is not operator returns True if both operands are stored at different memory locations.
Example : The Use of "is not" Identity Operator in python
Write a python program to demonstrate “is not operator”
Find the difference between == and “is operator”
PYTHON COMMENTS

 Comments can be used to explain Python code.

 Comments can be used to make the code more
readable.

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 Comments can be used to prevent execution when
testing code.
 Types of Comments in Python

 Single-Line Comments

 Multi-Line Comments
Single-Line Comments
 A single-line comment of Python is the one that has a
hashtag # at the beginning of it and continues until
the finish of the line. If the comment continues to the
next line, add a hashtag to the subsequent line and
resume the conversation.

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 example

 # This code is to show an example of a single-

line comment
 print( 'This statement does not have a hashtag before it'
)
Multi-Line Comments
Python does not provide the facility for multi-line comments. However, there are
indeed many ways to create multi-line comments.
With Multiple Hashtags (#)
example
# it is a
# comment
# extending to multiple lines

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Using String Literals
Because Python overlooks string expressions that aren't allocated to a variable,
we can utilize them as comments.
example
‘it is a comment extending to multiple lines’
add a multiline string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your comment
inside it:
"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")
CONSOLE INPUT IN PYTHON
 The interactive shell in Python is treated as
a console. We can take the user entered data
the console using input() function.
 #Example: Python
using input() to takeUser Input
user input

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num = input('Enter a number: ‘)
print('You Entered:', num)
print('Data type of num:', type(num))

output
Enter a number: 34
You Entered: 34
Data type of num: <class 'str'>
To convert user input into a number we can use int() or
float() functions
num = int(input('Enter a number:
as: ‘))
CONSOLE OUTPUT IN PYTHON
 In Python, we can simply use the print() function to print output. For
example,
print('Python is powerful') # Output: Python is powerful

 Here, the print() function displays the string enclosed inside the single
quotation.

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Syntax of print()
 In the above code, the print() function is taking a single parameter.
 However, the actual syntax of the print function accepts 5 parameters.
print(object= separator= end= file= flush=)

 Here,
 object - value(s) to be printed
 sep (optional) - allows us to separate multiple objects inside print().
 end (optional) - allows us to add add specific values like new line "\n", tab
"\t"
 file (optional) - where the values are printed. It's default value is sys.stdout
(screen)
 flush (optional) - boolean specifying if the output is flushed or buffered.
 EXAMPLE

Example 1: Python Print Statement Example 2: Python print() with

end Parameter
print('Good Morning!')
print('It is rainy today’) # print with end whitespace print('Good
Morning!', end= ' ') print('It is rainy today’)

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Output
Output
Good Morning! It is rainy today Good Morning! It is rainy today

In the above example, the print()  Notice that we have included the
statement only includes the object end= ' ' after the end of the first
to be printed. Here, the value for print() statement.
end is not used. Hence, it takes  Hence, we get the output in a
the default value '\n'. single line separated by space.

So we get the output in two different

lines.
TYPE CONVERSION IN PYTHON

 Type conversion is the transformation of a Py type of data

into another type of data.
 In Python, there are two kinds of type conversion:
 Explicit Type Conversion-The programmer must perform
this task manually.

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 Implicit Type Conversion-By the Python program
automatically.

 Python Explicit Type Conversion

 In Explicit Type Conversion, users convert the data type of
an object to required data type.
 We use the built-in functions like int(), float(), str(), etc to
perform explicit type conversion.
 This type of conversion is also called typecasting because
the user casts (changes) the data type of the objects.
Example explicit conversion
num_string = '12'
num_integer = 23
print("Data type of num_string before Type
Casting:",type(num_string))
# explicit type conversion

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num_string = int(num_string)
print("Data type of num_string after Type
Casting:",type(num_string))
num_sum = num_integer + num_string
print("Sum:",num_sum)
print("Data type of num_sum:",type(num_sum))
Output
Data type of num_string before Type Casting: <class 'str’>
Data type of num_string after Type Casting: <class 'int’>
Sum: 35
Data type of num_sum: <class 'int'>
PYTHON IMPLICIT TYPE CONVERSION

In certain situations, Python automatically converts one data type to

another. This is known as implicit type conversion.

Example 1: Converting integer to float

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Let's see an example where Python promotes the conversion of the
lower data type (integer) to the higher data type (float) to avoid
data loss.
integer_number = 123
float_number = 1.23
new_number = integer_number + float_number # display new
value and resulting data type
print("Value:",new_number)
print("Data Type:",type(new_number))

Out put
Value: 124.23
Data Type: <class 'float'>
PYTHON LIBRARIES

What are Python Libraries?

 Python Libraries are collections of python modules that
provide several utilities
 Python Libraries are written in many programming
languages

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 Python libraries are a collection of utility methods, classes,
and modules that can be used in a python application
directly.
 These libraries provide pre-written methods and classes for
use within python applications.
 Their use may range from anything from Input/Output to
data manipulation and visualization etc.
 Python libraries may be written in a number of
programming languages including C, Python, as well as
Java in case of Jpython, etc.
 Python libraries provide code bundles that can be used
repeatedly within a python application.
Some Important Python Libraries
In the following section, we shall look into a few of the important
python libraries that are frequently in use and provide essential
utilities.
Matplotlib
 The matplotlib library is used in data visualization in python and
is an important tool in Data Science.

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 Matplotlib is a comprehensive library for creating static,
animated, and interactive visualizations in Python.
 It can be used by installing the matplotlib library and importing
the neccessary methods using the import keyword.
 It consists of a number of functions like plot(), scatter() bar()
stem() step() etc.
 Pandas
 The Pandas or Python Data Analysis Library is another
important tool in Data Sciences and provides utilities that
help in Data Analysis.
 pandas is a fast, powerful, flexible and easy to use open source
data analysis and manipulation tool, built on top of the

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Python programming language.
 Pandas is built on top of NumPy. It also provides a huge number
of functions and can be accessed by installing
the pandas library.
 NumPy
 NumPy is used for scientific calculations and it provides utilities
that help in executing large mathematical
calculations and it supports big matrices and multidimensional
data.
 NumPy offers comprehensive mathematical functions, random

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number generators, linear algebra routines, Fourier
transforms, and more.
 NumPy supports a wide range of hardware and computing
platforms, and plays well with distributed,GPU, and sparse array
libraries.
 It can be used by installing the numpy library.
 CONTROL FLOW STATEMENTS
Loops are employed in Python to iterate over a section of code
continually. Control statements are designed to serve the
purpose of modifying a loop's execution from its default behavior.
Based on a condition, control statements are applied to alter how

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the loop executes.
Types of Flow Control in Python
1. Conditional statements
2. Iterative statements.
3. Transfer statements
1. CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

In Python, condition statements act depending on

whether a given condition is true or false. You can
execute different blocks of codes depending on the
outcome of a condition. Condition statements always

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evaluate to either True or False.
There are three types of conditional statements.
1. if statement

2. if-else

3. if-elif-else

4. nested if-else
IF STATEMENT IN PYTHON
 In control statements, The if statement is the simplest form. It
takes a condition and evaluates to either True or False.
 If the condition is True, then the True block of code will be
executed, and if the condition is False, then the block of code is
skipped, and The controller moves to the next line.

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 Syntax of the if statement
if condition:
statement 1
statement 2
statement n
Let’s see the example of the if statement. In this example, we
will calculate the square of a number if it greater than 5
Example
number = 6
if number > 5:

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# Calculate square
print(number * number)
print('Next lines of code')

Output
36
Next lines of code
If – else statement
 The if-else statement checks the
condition and executes the if
block of code when the condition
is True, and if the condition is
False, it will execute the else
block of code.

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 Syntax of the if-else
statement
if condition:
statement 1 else:
statement 2

 if the condition is True, then

statement 1 will be executed If
the condition is False,
statement 2 will be executed.
See the following flowchart for
more detail.
 Example
 password = input('Enter password ‘)

 if password == “ncms":
print("Correct password")
else:

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print("Incorrect Password")

Output 1:
Enter password ncms
Correct password
Output 2:
Enter password
PYnative Incorrect
Password
if-elif-else in Python
 In Python, the if-elif-else
condition statement has an print("Please enter the values
from 0 to 4")
elif blocks to chain
multiple conditions one x=int(input("Enter a number: "))
after another. This is if x==0:
useful when you need to print("You entered:", x)
check multiple conditions. elif x==1:

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 With the help of if-elif-else print("You entered:", x)
we can make a tricky elif x==2:
decision. The elif print("You entered:", x)
statement checks multiple
conditions one by one and elif x==3:
if condition-1:
if thestatement
condition fulfills, print("You entered:", x)
1
thenelif
executes that code.
condition-2: elif x==4:
 Syntax of the2 if-elif-else
statement print("You entered:", x)
statement:
elif condition-3: else:
statement 3
...
print("Beyond the range than
specified")
else:
statement
Nested if-else statement Example: Find a greater number
 In Python, the nested if-else between two numbers
statement is an if statement num1 = int(input('Enter first number
‘))
inside another if-else statement.
num2 = int(input('Enter second number
It is allowed in Python to put
‘))
any number of if statements in
if num1 >= num2:
another if statement.

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if num1 == num2:
 Indentation is the only way to print(num1, 'and', num2, 'are equal’)
differentiate the level of else:
print(num1, 'is greater than', num2)
nesting. The nested if-else is
else:
useful when we want to make a print(num1, 'is smaller than', num2)
series of decisions.
if conditon_outer:
 Syntax of the nested-if-else:
if condition_inner:
statement of inner if
else:
statement of inner
else:
statement ot outer if
else:
Outer else
statement outside if block
2. ITERATIVE STATEMENTS.
 In computer programming, loops are used to repeat a
block of code.
 For example, if we want to show a message 100 times,

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then we can use a loop. It's just a simple example; you
can achieve much more with loops.
 There are 2 types of loops in Python:

 for loop

 while loop
 Python for Loop
 In Python, a for loop is used to
iterate over sequences such as
lists, tuples, string, etc. For  In the above example, we
example, have created a list called
languages.
languages = ['Swift', 'Python',  Initially, the value of

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'Go', 'JavaScript’] language is set to the first
# run a loop for each item of element of the array, i.e.
the list Swift, so the print statement
for language in languages:
inside the loop is executed.
print(language)  language is updated with
the next element of the list,
and the print statement is
Output executed again. This way,
Swift the loop runs until the last
Python element of the list is
Go accessed.
JavaScript
 for Loop Syntax  Flowchart of Python for
 The syntax of a for loop is: Loop

for val in sequence:

# statement(s)

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 Here, val accesses each
item of sequence on each
 iteration.

 The loop continues until

we reach the last item in
the sequence.
 Example: Loop Through a  languages = ['Swift', 'Python', 'Go']
String  for language in languages:
 for x in 'Python':  print('Hello')
 print(x)  print('Hi’)
 Output  Output
 P  Hello

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 y  Hi
 t  Hello
 h  Hi
 o  Hello
 N  Hi
 Using a for Loop Without  Here, the loop runs three times
Accessing Items because our list has three items. In
 It is not mandatory to use items of a each iteration, the loop body prints
sequence within a for loop. For 'Hello' and 'Hi'. The items of the list
example are not used within the loop.
 Python while Loop  Flowchart of Python
 In programming, loops are used to while Loop
repeat a block of code. For example,
if we want to show a message 100
times, then we can use a loop. It's
just a simple example, we can
achieve much more with loops.
Python while loop is used to run a block
code until a certain condition is met.

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The syntax of while loop is:

while condition: # body of

while loop
 Here,
1. A while loop evaluates the condition
2. If the condition evaluates to True,
the code inside the while loop is
executed.
3. condition is evaluated again.
4. This process continues until the
condition is False.
5. When condition evaluates to False,
the loop stops.
 Example: Python program  Infinite while Loop in Python
to display numbers from 1  If the condition of a loop is
to 5 using while Loop always True, the loop runs
 # initialize the variable for infinite times (until the
 i=1 memory is full). For
example,
 n=5
age = 32
 # while loop from i = 1 to 5

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 # the test condition is
 while i <= n: always True
 print(i)  while age > 18:
 i=i+1  print('You can vote')
 Output
 1  In the above example, the
 2 condition always evaluates
 3 to True. Hence, the loop
body will run for infinite
 4 times.
 5
 Python range()  Syntax of range()
 The range() function returns  The range() function can
a sequence of numbers take a maximum of three
between the give range. arguments:
# create a sequence of range(start,
numbers from 0 to 3 stop, step)
numbers = range(4)
# iterating through the  The start and step

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sequence of numbers parameters in range() are
for i in numbers: print(i) optional.
Output:  Now, let's see how range()
0 works with different number
1 of arguments.
2
3
 Note: range() returns an
immutable sequence of
numbers that can be easily
converted to lists, tuples, sets
etc.
Example 1: range() with Stop Argument  Example 2: range() with Start and
If we pass a single argument to range(), it Stop Arguments
means we are passing the stop argument.  If we pass two arguments to range(), it
In this case, range() returns a sequence of means we are passing start and stop
numbers starting from 0 up to the number arguments.
(but not including the number).  In this case, range() returns a sequence of
# numbers from 0 to 3 (4 is not included) numbers starting from start (inclusive) up
to stop (exclusive).
numbers = range(4)
 # numbers from 2 to 4 (5 is not

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print(list(numbers)) included)
# [0, 1, 2, 3]  numbers = range(2, 5)
 print(list( numbers))
# if 0 or negative number is passed, we  # [2, 3, 4]
get an empty sequence
 # numbers from -2 to 3 (4 is not
numbers = range(-4) included)
print(list(numbers))  numbers = range(-2, 4)
# []  print(list(numbers))
 # [-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3]
 # returns an empty sequence of
numbers
 numbers = range(4, 2)
 print(list(numbers))
 # []
OPERATORS IN AND NOT IN
 The in operator tests if a given value is contained
in a sequence or not and returns True or False.
 The not in operator tests if a given value is
contained in a sequence or not and returns True

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or False.
 Example

1. 3 in [1,2,3,4] it will return True.

2. 5 in [1,2,3,4,] it will return False

3. 3 not in [1,2,3,4] it will return False.

4. 5 not in [1,2,3,4,] it will return True

Python break Statement Python break Statement with for Loop
The break statement is used to terminate the We can use the break statement with the for
loop immediately when it is encountered. loop to terminate the loop when a certain
condition is met. For example,
The syntax of the break statement is:
for i in range(5):
break if i == 3:
break
print(i)

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Working of Python break Statement
Output
0
1
2
In the above example, we have used the for
loop to print the value of i. Notice the use
of the break statement,
if i == 3:
break
Here, when i is equal to 3, the break
statement terminates the loop. Hence, the
output doesn't include values after 2.
Note: The break statement is almost
always used with decision-making
statements.
Python break Statement with while if i >= 5:
Loop
We can also terminate the while loop using break
the break statement. For example, This means when i is greater than or equal
# program to find first 5 multiples of 6 to 5, the while loop is terminated.
i=1
while i <= 10:
print('6 * ',(i), '=',6 * i)

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if i >= 5:
break
i=i+1
Output
6* 1=6
6 * 2 = 12
6 * 3 = 18
6 * 4 = 24
6 * 5 = 30
In the above example, we have used the
while loop to find the first 5 multiples of
6. Here notice the line,
Python continue Statement Python continue Statement with for
The continue statement is used to skip the Loop
current iteration of the loop and the We can use the continue statement with
control flow of the program goes to the the for loop to skip the current iteration
next iteration. of the loop. Then the control of the
The syntax of the continue statement program jumps to the next iteration.
is: For example,
continue for i in range(5):
if i == 3:

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Working of Python continue continue
Statement print(i)
Output
0
1
2
4
In the above example, we have used Output
the for loop to print the value of i. 1
Notice the use of the continue
statement, 3
if i == 3: 5
continue 7
Here, when i is equal to 3, the 9
continue statement is executed. In the above example, we have used
Hence, the value 3 is not printed to the while loop to print the odd

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the output.
numbers between 1 to 10. Notice
Python continue Statement with the line,
while Loop
if (num % 2) == 0:
In Python, we can also skip the
current iteration of the while loop continue
using the continue statement. For Here, when the number is even, the
example, continue statement skips the
# program to print odd numbers current iteration and starts the
from 1 to 10 next iteration.
num = 0
while num < 10:
num += 1
if (num % 2) == 0:
continue
print(num)
 Example of exit() in Python
 Python Exit() number = 7
 The built-in Python procedures exit(), if number < 8:
quit(), sys.exit(), and os. exit() are most
frequently used to end a program. # exits the program
 Syntax of exit() in Python print(exit)
exit()
exit() Function else:

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print("number is not less than 8")
 We can use the in-built exit() function to output
quit and come out of the execution loop Use exit() or Ctrl-D (end-of-file) to exit
of the program in Python.

 sys.exit() Function
 sys.exit() is a built-in function in the After writing the above code (python exit()
Python sys module that allows us to end function), once you run the code it will
the execution of the program. just give us the exit message. Here, if
 Syntax:
the value of the “number” is less than 8
sys.exi then the program is forced to exit, and it
will print the exit message.
t(argument)
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YOU
THANK
 Unit 2

Python

Prepared by Pruthvi Raj A Dept. of CS GFGC

MALUR
 Python Exception Handling
ERROR
Errors are problems that occur in the program due to an illegal operation performed by the
user or by the fault of a programmer, which halts the normal flow of the program. Errors are
also termed bugs or faults. There are mainly two types of errors in python programming. Let
us learn about both types of python errors:
1. Syntax errors
2. Logical Errors or Exceptions

1. Syntax Errors
A syntax error is one of the most basic types of error in programming. Whenever we do not write
the proper syntax of the python programming language (or any other language) then the
python interpreter throws an error known as a syntax error.
Example:
number = 100
if number > 50
print("Number is greater than 50!")

Out put:
File "test.py", line 3
if number > 50
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
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2. Logical Errors
• Logical Errors are those errors that cannot be caught during compilation
time. As we cannot check these errors during compile time, we name
them Exceptions. Since we cannot check the logical errors during
compilation time, it is difficult to find them.
• There is one more name of logical error. Run time errors are those errors
that cannot be caught during compilation time. So, run-time can cause
some serious issues so we should handle them effectively.

• some of the most common logical types of errors in python programming.

 ZeroDivisionError Exception ImportError
Raised when the imported module is
not found.
 Indentation is not Correct
 Built-in Exceptions IndexError
Raised when the index of a sequence
is out of range.

Raised when a key is not found in a

KeyError
dictionary.
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Exception in Python
An exception is an unexpected event that occurs
during program execution. For example,
divide_by_zero = 7 / 0
The above code causes an exception as it is not
possible to divide a number by 0.
Definition: An Exception is an error that happens
during the execution of a program. Whenever there is
an error, Python generates an exception that could
be handled. It basically prevents the program from
getting crashed.

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 Common inbuilt Exceptions in Python
• ImportError Raised when an import statement fails
• NameError Raised when an identifier is not found in
the local or non-local or global scope.
• SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in python syntax.
• TypeError Raised when a specific operation of a function is
triggered for an invalid data type
• RuntimeError Raised when an error does not fall into
any other category
• ArithmeticError Errors that occur during numeric calculation are
inherited by it.
• OverflowError When a calculation exceeds the max limit
for a specific numeric data type
• ZeroDivisionError Raised when division or modulo by zero
takes place.
• EOFError Raised when the end of file is reached, usually
occurs when there is no input from input()
function
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 Exception Handling
• Exception handling is the process of responding
to the occurrence of exceptions-anomalous or
exceptional conditions requiring special
processing during the execution of a program.
• In Python, we catch exceptions and handle them
using try, except, else and finally code blocks.
Try and Except Statement
Syntax:
try :
#statements in try block
except :
#executed when error in try block
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• The try: block contains one or more statements which
are likely to encounter an exception. If the statements
in this block are executed without an exception, the
subsequent except: block is skipped.
• If the exception does occur, the program flow is
transferred to the except: block. The statements in the
except: block are meant to handle the cause of the
exception appropriately. For example, returning an
appropriate error message.
• example
try:
a=5
b='0’
print(a/b)
except:
print('Some error occurred.’)
print("Out of try except
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 Python try with else clause
• In some situations, we might want to run a certain block of code if
the code block inside try runs without any errors.
• For these cases, you can use the optional else keyword with the try
statement.
• Let's look at an example: program to print the reciprocal of even
numbers
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: ")) Out put
assert num % 2 == 0 1. Enter a number: 1
except: Not an even number!
2. Enter a number: 4
print("Not an even number!") 0.25
else: 3. Enter a number: 0 Traceback
reciprocal = 1/num (most recent call last): File
"<string>", line 7, in <module>
print(reciprocal) reciprocal = 1/num
ZeroDivisionError: division by
zero
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 Python try...finally
• In Python, the finally block is always executed no matter whether
there is an exception or not.
• The finally block is optional. And, for each try block, there can be
only one finally block.
• Let's see an example,
try: Out put
numerator = 10
denominator = 0 Error: Denominator cannot be 0.
This is finally block.
result = numerator/denominator

print(result)
except:
print("Error: Denominator cannot be 0.")

finally:
print("This is finally block.")
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 Functions in Python
A function in Python is a collection of
connected statements that performs a single
task. Functions help in the division of our
program into smaller, modular portions.
Functions help our program become more
ordered and controllable as it grows in size. It also
eliminates repetition and makes the code
reusable.
What are Functions in Python?
Functions are modular blocks of code designed to
perform specific tasks. They enhance code
efficiency and clarity by reducing code repetition
and enabling code reuse.

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For example of functions

• A function can be related to the process of making tea. If you

were to make tea for the first time, your parents would have
defined the steps to make it. The next time they want to drink
tea, they’ll call out to you directly by saying ‘Make Tea’.
• Similarly, in the case of functions, you first define the
sequence of steps that you would like to carry out to achieve
a certain task. Later, you can call out the Function by its
name, and these steps will be performed.

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syntax to declare a function is:

Example :

def square( num ):

"""
This function computes the square of the number.
"""
return num**2
object_ = square(6)
print( "The square of the given number is: ", object_ )
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The components of a python function
definition are:
1. Keyword def:
In python, the keyword def is used to define a function. It marks the beginning of the
function definition.
2. Name of the Function:
function_name is a unique identifier that is considered the name of the Function.
3. Parameters:
These are the values passed to the Function. 0 or more parameters can be included in
the parentheses.
4. Colon(:): The:
represent the start of the indented function block.
5. Statements:
These include the sequence of tasks that the Function is to perform. It can also use the
pass keyword in case of no statements. These statements are usually indented at the
same level (usually 2 or 4 spaces).
6. Return Statement:
The optional return statement symbolizes the return of values from the Function to
the calling code.

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 Rules for Naming Functions in
Python
• They must begin with a letter or an underscore.
• They should be lowercase.
• They can consist of numbers but shouldn’t start
with one.
• They can be of any length.
• They shouldn’t be a keyword in python, i.e. be
reserved for any purpose. To improve readability
and to maintain conventions, separate words by
underscores. Ensure that you give function names
that define the purpose of the Function.

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 Types of Functions in Python
1. User-defined: 2. Built-in:
User-defined functions - We can create
our own functions based on our These are already defined within
requirements. Python, and thus a user need not
Example: define them again. They can be
directly used in a program or
def square( num ):
application.
"""
This function computes the square of
the number. Example:
""" abs() is used to find the absolute
return num**2 value of a number.
object_ = square(6) x = abs(-7.25)
print( "The square of the given number print(x)
is: ", object_ )
Output:
Output: 7.25
The square of the given number is: 36
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How Does a Python Function Work? Example: To call the Function named
hello, simply type the following:
hello()
1. # Example Python Code for calling a
function
2. # Defining a function
3. def a_function( string ):
4. "This prints the value of length of
• A python function consists of 2 parts:
string"
• Function definition and function call.
5. return len(string)
• To create a function in Python, you
have to first define the Function, 6. # Calling the function we defined
giving it a name, parameters,
statements, etc., and then call it 7. print( "Length of the string Functio
separately in the program using its ns is: ", a_function( "Functions" ) )
names and parameters, if any.
How to Call a Function in Python? 8. print( "Length of the string Python i
A function in Python is called by using its s: ", a_function( "Python" ) )
name followed by parentheses. In Output:
case parameters are present, these Length of the string Functions is: 9
are included in the parentheses.
Length of the string Python is: 6
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 Passed by Reference or Passed by
Value
def myFunc(a):
print("Value received in 'a'
Call by Value in Python =", a)
a+=2
• When Immutable print("Value of 'a' changes
objects such as whole to :",a)
numbers, strings, etc are num=13
passed as arguments to the print("Initial number: ",
num)
function call, the it can be myFunc(num)
considered as Call by Value. print("Value of number= ",
• This is because when the
num)
Output:
values are modified within Initial number: 13
the function, then Value received in 'a' = 13
the changes do not get Value of 'a' changes to : 15
reflected outside the Value of number= 13
Explanation: As we can see here, the value
function. of the number changed from 13 to 15,
inside the function, but the value
remained 13 itself outside the function.
Hence, the changes did not reflect in the
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 Output:
 Pass by reference List before function call : [1]
• When Mutable objects such as List received: [1]
list, dict, set, etc., are passed as List after adding some elements: [1, 3, 7,
arguments to the function call, it 1]
can be called Call by reference in List within called function: [1, 3, 1]
Python. When the values are List after function call: [1, 3, 1]
modified within the function, Explanation: Here we can see that the
the change also gets list value within the function changed
reflected outside the function. from [1] to [1, 3, 1] and the changes got
reflected outside the function.
• Example 1 showing Call by
reference in Python
def myFunc(myList):
print("List received: ",myList)
myList.append(3)
myList.extend([7,1])
print("List after adding some elements:", myList)
myList.remove(7)
print("List within called function:", myList)
return List1=[1]
print("List before function call :",List1)
myFunc(List1)
print("List after function
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 Function Arguments
Functions with arguments/parameters are called parameterized
functions. To call these functions, the number and order of arguments
should be as given in the function definition.

A function can have 1 or more parameters. A function in python can

accept up to 255 parameters.

The arguments/parameters used in the python function definition

are called formal arguments or formal parameters while the ones in
the function call are called local arguments or local parameters. The
name is based on their location in the program.

Function parameters can have their type defined along with them, as
given in the example:

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Example: Function with Single Parameter
def hello(name):
print ("Hello", name)
hello(“madam")
Output
Hello madam
Example: Function with Multiple Parameters
def hello(name1, name2, name3):
print("Hello", name1, "\nHi", name2, "\nHola", name3)
hello("Siri", "Kanchana", "Madhuri")
Output:
Hello Siri
Hi Kanchana
Hola Madhuri

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There are four major types of arguments:
1. Required arguments
2. Keyword arguments
3. Default arguments
4. Variable-length arguments

1. Required Arguments
In such functions, the exact number of arguments are
required to be passed in the order in which it is defined in the
Function.
Example:
def hello(name):
print ("Hello", name)
hello(“BCA")
Output
Hello BCA

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2. Keyword Arguments
The term “keyword” is pretty self-explanatory. It can be
broken down into two parts— a key and a word (i.e., a
value) associated with that key.
To understand keyword arguments in Python, let us first
look at the example given below.
For example:
def divide_two(a, b):
res = a / b
return res
res = divide_two(12, 3)
print(res)

Output: 4.0

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3. Default Arguments • Example:
 Default function arguments in def add_numbers( a = 7, b = 8):
python, as the name suggests, sum = a + b
are some default argument print('Sum:', sum)
values that we provide to the
function at the time of function # function call with two
declaration. arguments
 Thus, when calling the function, add_numbers(2, 3)
if the programmer doesn’t # function call with one
provide a value for the argument
parameter for which we add_numbers(a = 2)
specified the default argument, # function call with no arguments
the function assumes the
default value as the argument in add_numbers()
that case. Output
 Thus, calling the function will Sum: 5
not result in any error even if Sum: 10
we don’t provide any value as Sum: 15
an argument for the parameter
with a default argument.
 We declare a default argument
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4. Variable-length Arguments or Arbitrary arguments

In Python Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, *args, and **kwargs can pass a

variable number of arguments to a function using special symbols. There
are two special symbols:

1. *args in Python (Non-Keyword Arguments)

2. **kwargs in Python (Keyword Arguments)

Exmple: Output:
Hello
# Python program to illustrate
Welcome
# *args for variable number of arguments to
def myFun(*argv): GeeksforGeeks
for arg in argv:
print(arg)
myFun('Hello', 'Welcome', 'to', 'GeeksforGeeks')

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• 2nd example :
# Python program to illustrate
# *kwargs for variable number of keyword arguments

def myFun(**kwargs):
for key, value in kwargs.items():
print("%s == %s" % (key, value))

# Driver code
myFun(first='Geeks', mid='for', last='Geeks')

Output:

first == Geeks
mid == for
last == Geeks

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 Recursion in Python
What is Recursion in Python?
 What would happen if we placed two mirrors parallel to each
other? You will see multiple images stretched to infinity caused by the
reflections between the surfaces.
 Imagine you want to know the name of a person in the queue that
you are standing in. You ask people to find out about it.
 They keep asking the next person until they find an answer. Once an
answer is found, they send it back until it reaches you.
 The above two examples depict a process in which a particular
action is repeated until a condition is met. These processes have a
strong resemblance to what we call recursion.
 A process in which a function calls itself is called recursion. This
process helps ease the method of solving problems by replacing
iterative code with recursive statements.

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Use of Recursion in Python
•Quite often, people wonder why we should use recursion when loops
exist. Everything can be coded without recursion.
•The difference between iteration and recursion is there is no
sequential end to recursive code. It tests on a base condition and can
go on as long as that is satisfied.
•Recursion is used in Python when problems can be broken into
simpler parts for easier computation and more readable code.

Recursive function in Python has two parts:

(a) Base Case -This helps us to terminate the recursive function. It is a
simple case that can be answered directly and doesn't use recursion. If
satisfied, it returns the final computable answer. If this is omitted, the
function will run till infinity.
Python interpreter limits the number of recursive calls for a function to
1000 by giving a recursion error.
b) General (Recursive) Case - This case uses recursion and is called
unless the base condition is satisfied.

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Syntax:
def rec_func_name():
if(condition) # base case
simple statement without recursion
else # general case
statement calling rec_func_name()

Example of Recursive Function

Suppose you want to find the sum of n natural
numbers in python. We would write the following
code to get the answer.
def sum(n):
if n <= 1: # base case
return n
else: # general or recursive case
ans = sum(n - 1)
return n + ans
print(sum(6))
Output:
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Types of Recursion in Python • Factorial is an example of direct
recursive as shown below:
There are mainly 2 types of recursive
functions: def factorial(n):
1. Direct Recursion if n < 0 or n == 1:
2. Indirect Recursion # The function terminates here
return 1
1) Direct Recursion else:
• When a function calls itself within value = n*factorial(n-1)
the same function repeatedly, it is return value
called the direct recursion.
Structure of the direct recursion # Returns the factorial of 5
fun() factorial(5)
{
// write some code Output:
fun(); 120
// some code
}
• In the above structure of the direct
recursion, the outer fun() function
recursively calls the inner fun()
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2. Indirect Recursion
# Python program to show Indirect
• When a function is mutually Recursion
called by another function in a def funA(n):
circular manner, the function is if (n > 0):
called an indirect recursion print("", n, end='')
function.
# Fun(A) is calling fun(B)
funB(n - 1)

def funB( n):

if (n > 1):
print("", n, end='')

# Fun(B) is calling fun(A)

funA(n // 2)

# Driver code
• From the above diagram fun(A) funA(20)
is calling for fun(B), fun(B) is
calling for fun(C) and fun(C) is
calling for fun(A) and thus it
makes a cycle.
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 Scope and Lifetime of Variables in
Functions
•The scope defines the accessibility of the python
object. To access the particular variable in the code,
the scope must be defined as it cannot be accessed
from anywhere in the program.
•A variable is only available from inside the region it
is created. This is called scope.
•Based on the scope, we can classify Python variables
into three types:
1. Local Variables
2. Global Variables
3. Nonlocal Variables
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1. Local Variables
•When we declare variables inside a function, these variables will
have a local scope (within the function). We cannot access them
outside the function.
•These types of variables are called local variables. For example,
def greet():
# local variable
message = 'Hello'
print('Local', message)
greet()
# try to access message variable
# outside greet() function
print(message)

Output
Local Hello
NameError: name 'message' is not defined
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2. Python Global Variables

In Python, a variable declared outside of the function or in global scope

is known as a global variable. This means that a global variable can be
accessed inside or outside of the function.
Let's see an example of how a global variable is created in Python.

# declare global variable

message = 'Hello'
def greet():
# declare local variable
print('Local', message)
greet()
print('Global', message)

Output
Local Hello
Global Hello
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3. Python Nonlocal Variables
The ‘nonlocal’ keyword is used to work in scenarios where
we have nested functions. Using the nonlocal keyword, we
instruct the variable that it should not belong to the inner
function. Let’s understand this with an example:

def func1():
a = 20
def func2():
nonlocal a
print('func2 ', a)
func2()
print('func1 ', a)
func1()

Output:
func2 20
func1 20
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 Strings
What is a string in python?
•In computer programming, a string is a sequence of
characters. For example, "hello" is a string containing a
sequence of characters 'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', and 'o'.
•We use single quotes or double quotes to represent a string
in Python.
Creating and storing String in Python
A string in Python can be easily created using single, double,
or even triple quotes. The characters that form the string are
enclosed within any of these quotes.
Note: Triple quotes are generally used when we are working
with multiline strings in Python and docstring in Python.
Let’s take a look at an example where we will create strings
using the three types of quotes –

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Code:
single_string='Hello'
double_string="Hello World"
triple_string="""Welcome to Scaler"""
print(single_string)
print(double_string)
print(triple_string)
Output:
Hello
Hello World
Welcome to Scaler
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Access String Characters in Python
We can access the characters in a string in three
ways.
1. Indexing: One way is to treat strings as a list and
use index values. For example,
greet = 'hello'
# access1st index element
print(greet[1]) # "e“
2. Negative Indexing: Similar to a list, Python allows
negative indexing for its strings. For example,
greet = 'hello'
# access 4th last element
print(greet[-4]) # "e"
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3. Slicing: Access a range of characters in a string by
using the slicing operator colon :. For example,
Note: If we try to access an index out of the range or use
numbers other than an integer, we will get errors.

The syntax looks like this –

'str[start_index: end_index]'

While performing slicing operations, one thing to

remember is that the start index value is always included
while that of the last index is always excluded.
Slicing can also be negative or positive, just like indexing
in Python!
Let’s consider the following examples to understand this
better –

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Code:
message="Welcome to Scaler"
print(message[2:5]) # positive slicing

print(message[-10:-2]) #negative slicing

print(message[:5]) #slicing from the start
print(message[2:]) #slicing to the end
Output:
lco
to scal
welco
lcome to Scaler

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How to delete a string?
We have established that strings are immutable. In simple
words, it means that once a string is assigned, we cannot
make any changes to it. We cannot remove or delete any
character of the string.
What we can do is delete the Python string entirely. We
can do so by using the del keyword.
The following code snippet shows how we can do that –
message="Welcome to Scaler"
print(message) Welcome to Scaler Traceback
(most recent call last) :
del message File "main.py", line 4, in <module>
print (message)
print(message) NameError: name 'message' is not defined

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Python str()

The str() method returns the string representation of a given object.

Example
# string representation of Adam
print(str('Adam'))
# Output: Adam
str() Syntax
The syntax of str() is:
str(object, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict’)

str() Parameters
The str() method takes three parameters:
object - whose string representation is to be returned
encoding - that the given byte object needs to be decoded to (can be UTF-8,
ASCII, etc)
errors - a response when decoding fails (can be strict, ignore, replace, etc)
Note: There are six types of errors: strict, ignore, replace, xmlcharrefreplace,
namereplace, backslashreplace. The default error is strict.

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The str() method returns:
A printable string representation of a given object
string representation of a given byte object in the provided encoding
Example 1: Python() String
# string representation of Luke
name = str('Luke')
print(name)
# string representation of an integer 40
age = str(40)
print(age)
# string representation of a numeric string 7ft
height = str('7ft')
print(height)

Output
Luke
40
7ft
In the above example, we have used the str() method with different types of
arguments like string, integer, and numeric string.
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Example 2: str() with Byte Objects
We can use the str() method with byte objects which are
defined by the bytes() method.
In this case, we need to specify the encoding that we want to
convert the byte objects to and the type of error checking that
the str() method can perform.
# declare a byte object
b = bytes('pythön', encoding='utf-8')
# convert a utf-8 byte object to ascii with errors ignored
print(str(b, encoding='ascii', errors='ignore'))
# convert a utf-8 byte object to ascii with strict error
print(str(b, encoding='ascii', errors='strict'))

Output
pythn
UnicodeDecodeError: 'ascii' codec can't decode byte 0xc3 in
position 4: ordinal not in range(128)
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In the first example, we have created a byte object
b with the string 'pythön' and the encoding utf-8.
We have passed the b object to the str() method
and specified the encoding to ascii.
Here, we have set the errors parameter to ignore
so, the str() method ignores the character 'ö'. Since
the method can't decode this character to ascii, we
get the output pythn.
Similarly, in the second example, we've set the error
to strict. In this case, the str() method will take the
character 'ö' into account and produce
UnicodeDecodeError as the output.

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 String Operators in Python
Arithmetic operators do not work on strings. But, we do have certain
operators for performing special operations on strings in Python.
Let’s check out some of them –

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Example Program of String Operators in Python
Code:
message1="Hello World!" Output
message2="Welcome to Scaler" Hello World!Welcome to Scaler
print(message1+message2) # + operator Hello World!Hello World!Hello
World!
print(message1*3) # * operator w
print(message1[6]) # [] operator Welcome
It is a present!
print(message2[0:7]) # [:] operator It is not present!
str1="Hello"
if str1 in message1:# in operator
print("It is a present!")
if str1 not in message2:# not in operator
print("It is not present!")

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 Python String Operations
1. Compare Two Strings
We use the == operator to compare two strings. If two strings are
equal, the operator returns True. Otherwise, it returns False. For
example,
str1 = "Hello, world!"
str2 = "I love Python."
str3 = "Hello, world!"
# compare str1 and str2
print(str1 == str2)
# compare str1 and str3
print(str1 == str3)
Output
False
True
In the above example,
str1 and str2 are not equal. Hence, the result is False.
str1 and str3 are equal. Hence, the Raj
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2. Join Two or More 3. Python String Length
Strings(Concatenation) In Python, we use the len() method to
find the length of a string.
In Python, we can join
(concatenate) two or more strings Syntax:
Len(<Sting>)
using the + operator.
For example,
greet = "Hello, " wishes = ‘Morning'
name = "Jack" # count length of wishes
# using + operator string
result = greet + name print(len(wishes))
print(result)
Output: Hello, Jack Output: 7
In the above example, we
have used the + operator to
join two strings: greet and
name.
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4.String Membership Test 5.Python Reverse String
We can test if a substring There isn’t any built-in
exists within a string or not, function to reverse a given
using the keyword in. String in Python but the
print('a' in 'program') easiest way is to do that is
output to use a slice that starts at
the end of the string, and
True goes backward.
print('at' not in 'battle') x = “good” [::-1]
output print(x)
False The output will be: doog

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 Methods of Python String
• Besides those mentioned above, there are various string
methods present in Python. Here are some of those methods:

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 String Slicing in Python
• Python slicing is about obtaining a sub-string from the given
string by slicing it respectively from start to end.

How String slicing in Python works

• For understanding slicing we will use different methods,
here we will cover 2 methods of string slicing, one using the
in-build slice() method and another using the [:] array slice.
String slicing in Python is about obtaining a sub-string from
the given string by slicing it respectively from start to end.

• Python slicing can be done in two ways:

1. Using a slice() method
2. Using the array slicing [:: ] method

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Index tracker for positive and negative index:
String indexing and slicing in python. Here, the
Negative comes into consideration when
tracking the string in reverse.

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Method 1: Using the slice() method

The slice() constructor creates a slice object representing the

set of indices specified by range(start, stop, step).

Syntax:

slice(stop)
slice(start, stop, step)
Parameters:
start: Starting index where the slicing of object starts.
stop: Ending index where the slicing of object stops.
step: It is an optional argument that determines the
increment between each index for slicing.
Return Type: Returns a sliced object containing elements in
the given range only.
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example
# Python program to demonstrate Output
# string slicing String slicing
AST
# String slicing
SR
String = 'ASTRING'
GITA
# Using slice constructor
s1 = slice(3)
s2 = slice(1, 5, 2)
s3 = slice(-1, -12, -2)

print("String slicing")
print(String[s1])
print(String[s2])
print(String[s3])

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 Method 2: Using the List/array slicing [ :: ]
method
In Python, indexing syntax can be used as a substitute for the
slice object. This is an easy and convenient way to slice a
string using list slicing and Array slicing both syntax-wise
and execution-wise. A start, end, and step have the same
mechanism as the slice() constructor.

Below we will see string slicing in Python with examples.

Syntax

arr[start:stop] # items start through stop-1

arr[start:] # items start through the rest of the array
arr[:stop] # items from the beginning through stop-1
arr[:] # a copy of the whole array
arr[start:stop:step] Prepared
# start through not past stop, by step
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Example :
In this example, we will see slicing in python list the index start from 0
indexes and ending with a 2 index(stops at 3-1=2 ).

# Python program to demonstrate

# string slicing

# String slicing
String = 'GEEKSFORGEEKS'

# Using indexing sequence

print(String[:3])

Output:
GEE

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Basic Example
Here is a basic example of string slicing.

S = 'ABCDEFGHI’
print(S[2:7])
Output # CDEFG

Note that the item at index 7 'H' is not included.

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Slice with Negative Indices Slice with Positive & Negative Indices
You can also specify negative indices while You can specify both positive and negative
slicing a string. indices at the same time.
S = 'ABCDEFGHI’
print(S[-7:-2])
S = 'ABCDEFGHI’
print(S[2:-5])
Output # CDEFG
output# CD

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Specify Step of the Slicing Negative Step Size
You can specify the step of the slicing You can even specify a negative step
using step parameter. The step size.
parameter is optional and by default 1.
# Returns every 2nd item
between position 6 to 1 in
# Return every 2nd item between reverse order
position 2 to 7 S = 'ABCDEFGHI’
S = 'ABCDEFGHI’ print(S[6:1:-2])
print(S[2:7:2])
Output# GEC
Output # CEG

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Slice at Beginning & End
Omitting the start index starts the slice from the index 0. Meaning, S[:stop] is
equivalent to S[0:stop]

# Slice first three characters from the string

S = 'ABCDEFGHI’
print(S[:3])

Output# ABC

Whereas, omitting the stop index extends the slice to the end of the string.
Meaning, S[start:] is equivalent to S[start:len(S)]

# Slice last three characters from the string

S = 'ABCDEFGHI’
print(S[6:])

Output# GHI Prepared by Pruthvi Raj A Dept. of CS GFGC

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 Python String join() Method
• Python join() is an inbuilt string function in Python used to join elements
of the sequence separated by a string separator. This function joins
elements of a sequence and makes it a string. ( Or )
• The join in Python takes all the elements of an iterable and joins them into
a single string. It will return the joined string. You have to specify a string
separator that will be used to separate the concatenated string.
• Syntax
string.join(iterable)

Parameter Condition Description

Any iterable
iterable Required (like list, tuple, dictionary etc.) whose
items are strings

Return Value
The method returns the string obtained by concatenating the items of an
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Basic Examples Join a List of Integers
If there are any non-string values in iterable, a
# Join all items in a list with TypeError will be raised.
comma
L = ['red', 'green', 'blue’]
x = ','.join(L) L = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
print(x) x = ','.join(L)
print(x)
Output
red,green,blue Output
# Triggers TypeError: sequence
item 0:
# Join list items with newline expected string, int found
L = ['First Line', 'Second Line’]
x = '\n'.join(L)
print(x)

output
First Line
Second Line

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To avoid such exception, you need to convert To join all values, call values() method on
each item in a list to string. The list dictionary and pass it as an iterable.
comprehension makes this especially
convenient. L = {'name': 'Bob', 'city':'seattl
L = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
x = ','.join(L.values())
x = ','.join(str(val) for val in L)
print(x)
print(x)
# Prints 1,2,3,4,5,6 # Prints Seattle, Bob

join() on Dictionary To join all keys and values, use join()

When you use a dictionary as an iterable, all method with list comprehension.
dictionary keys are joined by default.
L = {'name':'Bob',
L = {'name':'Bob', 'city':'seattle’} 'city':'seattle’}
x = ','.join(L) print(x) x = ','.join('='.join((key,val))
# Prints city,name for (key,val) in L.items())
print(x)
# Prints city=seattle,name=Bob
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 Traversing
Traversing a string means Example
accessing all the elements of counter = 0
the string one after the
other by using the subscript. while counter < 3:
A string can be traversed print('Inside loop’)
using for loop or while loop. counter = counter + 1
Example else:
Using while loop print('Inside else')
In Python, a while loop may Output
have an optional else block. Inside loop
Here, the else part is Inside loop
executed after the condition
of the loop evaluates to Inside loop
False. Inside else

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Format Specifiers Ghhh
Introduction
String formatting is a way to insert a variable or
another string in a predefined string. We can
use various methods of string formatting in
Python to manipulate strings. We can use
format specifiers like other programming
languages to perform string formatting. We can
also use the format() method and f-strings to
manipulate strings in Python.
String Formatting in Python
Using Format Specifiers
Like other programming languages, we can also NOTE:To format a string in
use format specifiers to format strings in Python using format
Python. Format specifiers are used with the %
operator to perform string formatting. specifiers, We put the format
The % operator, when invoked on a string, takes
a variable or tuple of variables as input and
specifier in the predefined
places the variables in the specified format string at the position where
specifiers. Following is a table of the most
commonly used format specifiers for different
the variable is to be inserted.
types of input variables.

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Code: Code:

Output –
Code of Scaler is 1117

Output –
Note:
Variable is 1234 and Code of Scaler
is 1117 Specifying variables with the correct data type
for each format specifier is important.
We will specify the desired number of format
specifiers to insert two or more variables into Otherwise, the TyperError exception is raised
the string. as follows.
Then we will pass a tuple of variables as input to
the % operator.
The % operator inserts the variables at the
specified positions in a serial manner as follows.
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Raw and Unicode Strings in Example:
Python str = "This is a \n normal
Python strings become raw strings when string example"
they are prefixed with r or R, such as r'...'
and R'...'. Raw strings treat backslashes print(str)
(/) as literal characters.
Raw strings are useful for strings with a raw_str = r"This is a \n raw
lot of backslashes, like regular string example"
expressions or directory paths.
print(raw_str)
What is a Raw String
Python raw strings are created by Output:
prefixing string literals with 'r' or 'R'. Raw This is a
Python strings treat backslashes / as
literals. Backslashes are useful when we normal string example
don't want them treated as escape
characters in a string. This is a \n raw string
example

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Unicode Strings
Unicode is a standard encoding system that is used to represent characters from
almost all languages. Every Unicode character is encoded using a unique integer code
point between 0 and 0x10FFFF. A Unicode
string is a sequence of zero or more code points.

Example
hindi_str=u “नमस्ते”
Print(hindi_str)

Output

नमस्ते

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Escape Sequences in Python example

# escape double quotes

The escape sequence is used to example = "He said, \"What's
escape some of the characters there?\""
present inside a string. # escape single quotes
Suppose we need to include both example = 'He said, "What\'s there?"'
double quote and single quote inside print(example)
a string,
# Output: He said, "What's there?“
example = "He said, "What's Assignment Q1
there?""
Explain different types of escape
print(example) # throws error sequence with example
Since strings are represented by
single or double quotes, the
compiler will treat "He said, " as the
string. Hence, the above code will
cause an error.
To solve this issue, we use the
escape character \ in Python.

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Python String Formatting (f-Strings)

Python f-Strings make it really easy to print values and variables.

For example,
name = ‘Jack'
country = 'UK'
print(f'{name} is from {country}’)
Output
Jack is from UK
Here, f'{name} is from {country}' is an f-string.
This new formatting syntax is powerful and easy to use.

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Unit 3
 Lists
• A list can be defined as a collection of values or items of
different types.
•python lists are mutable type which implies that we may modify its
element after it has been formed. the items in the list are separated
with the comma (,) and enclosed with the square brackets [].
Characteristics of a Python List
The various characteristics of a list are:
1. Ordered: Lists maintain the order in which the data is inserted.
2. Mutable: In list element(s) are changeable. It means that we can
modify the items stored within the list.
3. Heterogenous: Lists can store elements of various data types.
4. Dynamic: List can expand or shrink automatically to accommodate
the items accordingly.
5. Duplicate Elements: Lists allow us to store duplicate data.
Creating Lists in Python
A list is created by placing the items/ elements separated by a comma (,)
between the square brackets ([ ]).

create Lists in Python in different ways.

Accessing Values/Elements in List in Python
 Elements stored in the lists are associated with a unique
integer number known as an index.
 The first element is indexed as 0, and the second is 1, and so
on. So, a list containing six elements will have an index from 0
to 5.
 For accessing the elements in the List, the index is mentioned
within the index operator ([ ]) preceded by the list's name.
 Another way we can access elements/values from the list in
python is using a negative index.
 The negative index starts at -1 for the last element, -2 for the
last second element, and so on.
Example Output
# Creating a List with • List with the use of
# the use of Numbers Numbers: [1, 2, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3,
# (Having duplicate values) 6, 5]
List = [1, 2, 4, 4, 3, 3, 3, 6, 5] • List with the use of Mixed
print("\nList with the use of Values: [1, 2, 'Geeks', 4, 'For',
Numbers: ") 6, 'Geeks']
print(List)

# Creating a List with

# mixed type of values
# (Having numbers and strings)
List = [1, 2, 'Geeks', 4, 'For', 6,
'Geeks']
print("\nList with the use of
Mixed Values: ")
print(List)
 List Operations in Python
1. Joining list • As you can see that the resultant
Joining two lists is very easy just like list has firstly elements of first list
you perform addition, literally ;-). Ist1 and followed by elements of
The concatenation operator +, second list Ist2. You can also join
when used with two lists, joins two or more lists to form a new
two lists. Consider the example list, e.g.,
given below :
• >>> lst1 = [10, 12, 14]
The + operator concatenates two lists
and creates a new list
• >>> lst2 = [20, 22, 24]
>>>lst1=[1,3,5]
• >>> lst3 = [30, 32, 34]
>>>lst2=[6,1,0]
• >>> lst = lst1 + lst2 + lst3
>>> lst1+ lst2
• >>> lst
[1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8]
• [10, 12, 14, 20, 22, 24, 30, 32, 34]
 3. Slicing the Lists
2. Repeating or Replicating Lists
List slices, like string slices are the
Like strings, you can use * operator to sub part of a list extracted out.
replicate a list specified number of You can use indexes of list
times, elements to create list slices as
e.g., per following format :

>>>list lst1 = [1, 3, 5]) Syntax:

seq = L[start:stop]
>>> lst1 * 3
Example:
[1, 3, 5, 1, 3, 5, 1, 3, 5] >>> lst =[10, 12, 14, 20, 22, 24,
30, 32, 34]

>>> seq = lst [3: -3]

>>> seq

[20, 22, 24]

 Built-in Functions on Lists;
• Len()
• Index()
• Append()
• Extend()
• Insert()
• Pop()
• Remove()
• Clear()
• Count()
• Reverse()
• sort()
• Sorted()
• Min(), max(), sum()
Implementation of Stacks and Stack in Python can be implemented simply by
using a list data structure. Stack function
Queues using Lists push() can be mimicked by using the append()
Stack is a abstract data type that can be function which adds the elements to the top
defined as a linear collection of data items of the stack.
that supports last in and first out (LIFO)
semantics for insertion and deletion of data
elements. We can use the pop() method of the list data
type to write the pop method that pops out
Implementation of Stack using the topmost element from the stack.
list in Python note: The list stores the new element in the
Stack in python can be implemented in next block to the last one. If the list grows out
various ways using existing forms of data of a block of memory then Python allocates
structures. Python stack can be implemented some memory. That's why the list becomes
using the following ways: slow.
 Append()(push)
 Pop()(delete) In below mentioned Python program, the
stack has been implemented in Python and
the basic operational function assumes that
the end of the list will hold the top element of
the stack.
# Python code to demonstrate Output:
Implementing ['Amar', 'Akbar', 'Anthony', 'Ram', 'Iqbal']
# stack using list
stack = ["Amar", "Akbar", "Anthony"] ['Amar', 'Akbar', 'Anthony', 'Ram']
stack.append("Ram")
stack.append("Iqbal") ['Amar', 'Akbar', 'Anthony']
print(stack)

# Removes the last item

print(stack.pop())

print(stack)

# Removes the last item

print(stack.pop())

print(stack)
Operations:
• Adding - It adds the items in the stack
and increases the stack size. The addition
takes place at the top of the stack.
• Deletion - It consists of two conditions,
first, if no element is present in the stack,
then underflow occurs in the stack, and
second, if a stack contains some
elements, then the topmost element gets
removed. It reduces the stack size.
• Traversing - It involves visiting each
element of the stack.
Characteristics:
• Insertion order of the stack is preserved.
• Useful for parsing the operations.
• Duplicacy is allowed.
Queue
A Queue follows the First-in-First-Out (FIFO)
principle. It is opened from both the ends
hence we can easily add elements to the back
and can remove elements from the front.
To implement a queue, we need two simple
operations:
• enqueue - It adds an element to the end of
the queue.
• dequeue - It removes the element from the Operations on Queue
beginning of the queue.
• Addition - It adds the element in a
queue and takes place at the rear end, i.e.,
at the back of the queue.
• Deletion - It consists of two conditions - If
no element is present in the queue,
Underflow occurs in the queue, or if a
stack contains some elements then
element present at the front gets deleted.
• Traversing - It involves to visit each element
of the queue.
Characteristics
• Insertion order of the queue is preserved.
• Duplicacy is allowed.
• Useful for parsing CPU task operations.
# Python code to demonstrate Output :
Implementing
# Queue using list ['Amar', 'Akbar', 'Anthony', 'Ram', 'Iqbal']
queue = ["Amar", "Akbar",
"Anthony"] ['Akbar', 'Anthony', 'Ram', 'Iqbal']
queue.append("Ram")
queue.append("Iqbal") ['Anthony', 'Ram', 'Iqbal']
print(queue)

# Removes the first item

print(queue.pop(0))

print(queue)

# Removes the first item

print(queue.pop(0))

print(queue)
Nested List
a list storing several other lists as its items. It is
known as a nested list. The nested list is created
by placing the various lists separated by comma
(,) within the square brackets ([ ]).

Example :
L = ['a', ['bb', ['ccc', 'ddd'], 'ee', 'ff'], 'g', 'h']
L = ['a', 'b', ['cc', 'dd', ['eee', 'fff']], 'g', 'h']
print(L[2])
# Prints ['cc', 'dd', ['eee', 'fff']]
print(L[2][2])
# Prints ['eee', 'fff']
print(L[2][2][0])
# Prints eee
 Dictionaries
• Dictionaries are Python’s implementation of a data structure that is
more generally known as an associative array. A dictionary consists
of a collection of key-value pairs. Each key-value pair maps the key
to its associated value.
Or
• Dictionaries are mutable, unordered collections with elements in
the form of key : value pairs that associate keys to values.
• Dictionary by enclosing a comma-separated list of key-value pairs in
curly braces ({}). A colon (:) separates each key from its associated
value.
• Example:
Dict = {1: 'Geeks', 2: 'For', 3: 'Geeks'}
print(Dict)
 Creating a Dictionary
• In Python, a dictionary can be created by placing a sequence
of elements within curly {} braces, separated by a ‘comma’.
• The dictionary holds pairs of values, one being the Key and
the other corresponding pair element being its Key:value.
• Values in a dictionary can be of any data type and can be
duplicated, whereas keys can’t be repeated and must
be immutable.
• Note – Dictionary keys are case sensitive, the same name but
different cases of Key will be treated distinctly.
• example:
Dict = {"Name": "Gayle", "Age": 25}

• In the above example dictionary Dict, The

keys Name and Age are the strings which comes under the
category of an immutable object.
 Accessing the dictionary print("Age : %d"
values %Employee["Age"])
To access data contained in lists and print("Salary : %d"
tuples, indexing has been studied. %Employee["salary"])
The keys of the dictionary can be print("Company : %s"
used to obtain the values because %Employee["Company"])
they are unique from one
another. The following method
can be used to access dictionary out put
values. <class 'dict'>
Example : printing Employee data ....
Employee = {"Name": "Dev", "Age": Name : Dev
20, Age : 20
"salary":45000,"Company":"WIPR
O"} Salary : 45000
print(type(Employee)) Company : WIPRO
print("printing Employee data .... ")
print("Name : %s"
%Employee["Name"])
Characteristics of Dictionary
1. Unordered Set
A dictionary is a unordered set of key: value pairs. Its values can contain references
to any type of object.
2. Not a Sequence
Unlike a string, list and tuple, a dictionary is not a sequence because it is
unordered set of elements.
3. Indexed by Keys, Not Numbers
Dictionaries are indexed by keys. According to Python, a key can be "any non-
mutable type.
4. Keys must be Unique
Each of the keys within a dictionary must be: 6 unique. Since keys are used to
identify values in a dictionary, there cannot be duplicate keys in a dictionary.
5. Dictionaries are Mutable
Like lists, dictionaries are also mutable. We can change the value of a certain key
"in place" using the assignment statement.
6. Internally Stored as Mappings
Internally, the key: value pairs of a dictionary are associated with one another with
some internal function (called hash-function). This way of linking is called
mapping.
 Assignment questions
1. Operations on Dictionaries
2. Adding Deleting and Updating
Dictionaries with example.
 Built-in Functions on Dictionaries
• all()
• any()
• len()
• cmp()
• sorted()
• type(variable)
1. all() function # Some elements of dictionary
• The Python all() function # are true while others are false
returns true if all the elements d = {0: "Salut", 1: "Hello", 2: "Hi"}
of a given iterable (List, print(all(d))
Dictionary, Tuple, set, etc.) are
True otherwise it returns False. # Empty dictionary
• It also returns True if the d = {}
iterable object is empty. print(all(d))
Syntax: all( iterable ) # all() with condition - to check if all
Were , letters of word 'time' are there
Iterable: It is an iterable object such l = {"t":1, "i":1, "m":2, "e":0}
as a dictionary,tuple,list,set,etc. print(all(ele > 0 for ele in l.values()))
Returns: boolean Output
Example: True
# All elements of dictionary are true False
d = {1: "Hello", 2: "Hi"} False
print(all(d)) True
# All elements of dictionary are false False
d = {0: "Hello", False: "Hi"}
print(all(d))
2. any() function
• Python any() function returns # Some keys of dictionary
True if any of the elements of a
given iterable( List, Dictionary, # are true while others are false
Tuple, set, etc) are True else it d = {0: "Salut", 1: "Hello", 2: "Hi"}
returns False. print(any(d))
Syntax: any(iterable)
• Iterable: It is an iterable object # Empty dictionary
such as a dictionary, tuple, list, d = {}
set, etc.
print(any(d))
• Returns: Returns True if any of
the items is True.
Example: Output:
# All keys of dictionary are true True
d = {1: "Hello", 2: "Hi"} False
print(any(d)) True
False
# All keys of dictionary are false
d = {0: "Hello", False: "Hi"}
print(any(d))
3. len() function Example
• Python dictionary dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
method len() gives the print ("Length :%d " %len (dict))
total length of the
dictionary. This would be output
equal to the number of Length : 2
items in the dictionary.
• Syntax
len(dict)
dict − This is the dictionary,
whose length needs to be
calculated.
4. cmp() function Example
• Python dictionary dict1 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
method cmp() compares dict2 = {'Name': 'Mahnaz', 'Age': 27};
dict3 = {'Name': 'Abid', 'Age': 27};
two dictionaries based on
dict4 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
key and values. print "Return Value : %d" % cmp
• Syntax (dict1, dict2)
print "Return Value : %d" % cmp
cmp(dict1, dict2) (dict2, dict3)
Parameters print "Return Value : %d" % cmp
(dict1, dict4)
• dict1 − This is the first
dictionary to be
compared with dict2. Output
Return Value : -1
• dict2 − This is the second Return Value : 1
dictionary to be Return Value : 0
compared with dict1.
4. Sorted() Function • Example
• There are two elements in a # Creates a sorted dictionary
Python dictionary-keys and (sorted by key)
values. You can sort the from collections import
dictionary by keys, values, or OrderedDict
both. In this article, we will
discuss the methods of
sorting dictionaries by key or dict = {'ravi': '10', 'rajnish': '9',
value using Python. 'sanjeev': '15', 'yash': '2',
'suraj': '32'}
dict1 =
OrderedDict(sorted(dict.items
()))
print(dict1)

Output
OrderedDict([('rajnish', '9'),
('ravi', '10'), ('sanjeev', '15'),
('suraj', '32'), ('yash', '2')])
5. type(variable) Example:
• Python dictionary dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
method type() returns print "Variable Type : %s" % type
the type of the passed (dict)
variable. If passed
variable is dictionary then Output
it would return a Variable Type : <type 'dict'>
dictionary type.
• Syntax
type(dict)
Parameters
• dict − This is the
dictionary.
 Methods on Dictionaries
1. dict.clear() 6 dict.items()

2 dict.copy() 7 dict.keys()

8 dict.setdefault(key, default=None)

3 dict.fromkeys()
9 dict.update(dict2)
4 dict.get(key, default=None)
10dict.values()
5 dict.has_key(key)
1. dict.clear() Example:
dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
Python dictionary method print "Start Len : %d" % len(dict)
clear() removes all dict.clear()
items from the print "End Len : %d" % len(dict)
dictionary. Out put
Start Len : 2
Syntax End Len : 0
Following is the syntax for
clear() method −

dict.clear()
2 dict.copy() Example:
Python dictionary method dict1 = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7};
copy() returns a shallow dict2 = dict1.copy()
copy of the dictionary. print "New Dictionary : %s" %
str(dict2)

Syntax
Output:
Following is the syntax for New Dictionary : {'Age': 7, 'Name':
copy() method − 'Zara'}

dict.copy()
3 dict.fromkeys() Example:
Python dictionary method seq = ('name', 'age', 'sex')
fromkeys() creates a new dict = dict.fromkeys(seq)
dictionary with keys from print "New Dictionary : %s" %
seq and values set to value. str(dict)

Syntax dict = dict.fromkeys(seq, 10)

dict.fromkeys(seq[, value]) print "New Dictionary : %s" %
Parameters str(dict)
seq − This is the list of values
which would be used for Output
dictionary keys preparation.
New Dictionary : {'age': None,
'name': None, 'sex': None}
value − This is optional, if New Dictionary : {'age': 10,
provided then value would 'name': 10, 'sex': 10}
be set to this value
4 dict.get(key, default=None) Example:
Python dictionary method dict = {'Name': 'Zabra', 'Age':
get() returns a value for 7}
the given key. If key is not print "Value : %s" %
available then returns dict.get('Age')
default value None. print "Value : %s" %
dict.get('Education',
Syntax "Never")
dict.get(key, default = None)
Parameters Output:
key − This is the Key to be Value : 7
searched in the dictionary. Value : Never
default − This is the Value to
be returned in case key
does not exist.
5 dict.has_key(key) Example:
Python dictionary method dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age':
has_key() returns true if 7}
a given key is available in print "Value : %s" %
the dictionary, otherwise dict.has_key('Age')
it returns a false. print "Value : %s" %
dict.has_key('Sex')
Syntax
dict.has_key(key) Output:
Parameters Value : True
key − This is the Key to be Value : False
searched in the
dictionary.
6 dict.items() Example:
Python dictionary method dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age':
items() returns a list of 7}
dict's (key, value) tuple print "Value : %s" %
pairs dict.items()

Syntax Output:

dict.items() Value : [('Age', 7), ('Name',

'Zara')]
7 dict.keys() Example:
Python dictionary method dict = {'Name': 'Zara',
keys() returns a list of all 'Age': 7}
the available keys in the print "Value : %s" %
dictionary. dict.keys()

Syntax Output:
Value : ['Age', 'Name']
dict.keys()
8 dict.setdefault(key, Example:
default=None) dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age': 7}
Python dictionary method print "Value : %s" %
setdefault() is similar to dict.setdefault('Age', None)
get(), but will set
dict[key]=default if key is print "Value : %s" %
not already in dict. dict.setdefault('Sex', None)

Syntax Output:
dict.setdefault(key, Value : 7
default=None) Value : None
Parameters
key − This is the key to be
searched.
default − This is the Value to
be returned in case key is
not found.
9 dict.update(dict2) Example:
Python dictionary method dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age':
update() adds dictionary 7}
dict2's key-values pairs dict2 = {'Sex': 'female' }
in to dict. This function dict.update(dict2)
does not return
print "Value : %s" % dict
anything.

Output:
Syntax
Value : {'Age': 7, 'Name':
dict.update(dict2)
'Zara', 'Sex': 'female'}
Parameters
dict2 − This is the dictionary
to be added into dict.
10 dict.values() Example:
Python dictionary dict = {'Name': 'Zara', 'Age':
method values() returns 7}
a list of all the values print "Value : %s" %
available in a given dict.values()
dictionary.
Syntax Output:
dict.values() Value : [7, 'Zara']
 Populating Dictionaries
populate a dictionary using for loop and
a dictionary comprehension and a zip() function.

Method 1:Using Zip And For Loop

• The zip() method takes one value from each list
passed and returns it to the for loop during each
iteration.
• The returned values are created as a key and
value, and finally, it is assigned to the dictionary
object.
Example:
keys = ["One", "Two", "Three", "Four"]
values = [1,2,3,4]
yourdict = {k:v for k,v in zip(keys, values)}
Yourdict

Output:
{'One': 1, 'Two': 2, 'Three': 3, 'Four': 4}
Method 2:Using Dictionary Example:
Constructor & Zip keys = ["One", "Two",
• This section teaches you "Three", "Four"]
how to use the dictionary values = [1,2,3,4]
constructor with the zip() yourdict = dict(zip(keys,
method instead of the values))
dictionary comprehension.
yourdict
• Pass the zip method output
to the dictionary
constructor, as Output:
demonstrated in the {'One': 1, 'Two': 2, 'Three':
following code. 3, 'Four': 4}
 Traversing or Iterating Dictionary
• Iterating through a dictionary means, visiting
each key-value pair in order.
• It means accessing a Python dictionary and
traversing each key-value present in the
dictionary.
• Iterating a dictionary is a very important task if
you want to properly use a dictionary.
There are multiple ways to iterate through a
dictionary, we are discussing some generally used
methods for dictionary iteration in Python which
are the following:

• Iterate Python dictionary using build.keys()

• Iterate through all values using .values()
• Looping through Python Dictionary using for loop
• Iterate key-value pair using items()
• Access key Using map() and dict.get
• Access key in Python Using zip()
• Access key Using Unpacking of Dict
 PYTHON
PROGRAMMING
Unit - 4

BY
Mr. Pruthvi raj A
Dept of computer
science
 File Handling in Python

•File handling is the process of saving data in a Python program in the form of outputs or inputs.
• The python file can be store in the form of binary file or a text file.
•There are six different types of modes are available in Python programming language.

1. r – read an existing file by opening it.

2. w – initiate a write operation by opening an existing file. If the file already has some data in it, it will be
overwritten; if it doesn’t exist, it will be created.
3. a – Open a current file to do an add operation. Existing data won’t be replaced by it.
4. r+ – Read and write data to and from the file. It will replace any prior data in the file.
5. w+ – To write and read data, use w+. It will replace current data.
6. a+ – Read and add data to and from the file. Existing data won’t be replaced by it.
Types of Files BINARY FILE
Python allow us to create and manage three types of file What is Binary File?
1. TEXT FILE • A binary file contains arbitrary binary data i.e. numbers stored
in the file, can be used for numerical operation(s).
2. BINARY FILE
• So when we work on binary file, we have to interpret the raw
3. CSV (Comma separated values) files bit pattern(s) read from the file into correct type of data in
our program.
TEXT FILE
• In the case of binary file it is extremely important that we
What is Text File? interpret the correct data type while reading the file.
• A text file is usually considered as sequence of lines. • Python provides special module(s) for encoding and decoding
• Line is a sequence of characters (ASCII or UNICODE), stored on of data for binary file.
permanent storage media.
• The default character coding in python is ASCII each line is
terminated by a special character, known as End of Line (EOL).
• At the lowest level, text file will be collection of bytes.
• Text files are stored in human readable form and they can also
be created using any text editor.
CSV files Operations on Files–
What is CSV File?  Create
• A comma-separated values (CSV) file is a  Open
delimited text file that uses a comma to separate values.  Read
• Each line of the file is a data record.
 Write
• Each record consists of one or more fields, separated by
 Close Files
commas.
Opening and Closing a File in Python
• The use of the comma as a field separator is the source of the
1. open() Function:
name for this file format.
This function takes two arguments. First is the
• CSV file is used to transfer data from one application to
filename along with its complete path, and the other
another. is access mode. This function returns a file object.
• CSV file stores data, both numbers and text in a plain text. Syntax:

open(filename, mode)
Important points:
The file and python script should be in the same directory.
Else, you need to provide the full path of the file. Opens the file for appending. If the file is present,
9. a then the pointer is at the end of the file, else it
By default, the access mode is read mode if you don't creates a new file for writing.
specify any mode.
Access mode tells the type of operations possible in the
opened file. There are various modes in which we can
open a file. Let's see them: Same as a mode, except this opens the file in
10. ab
binary format.
No. Modes Description

Opens a file in read-only mode. The pointer of the file is at the

1. r
beginning of the file. This is also the default mode.

Opens the file for appending and reading. The file

2. rb Same as r mode, except this opens the file in binary mode.
11. a+ pointer is at the end of the file if the file exists,
Opens the file for reading and writing. The pointer is at the
else it creates a new file for reading and writing.
3. r+
beginning of the file.

4. rb+ Same as r+ mode, except this, opens the file in binary mode.

Opens the file for writing. Overwrites the existing file and if the Same as a+ mode, except this, opens the file in
5. w 12. ab+
file is not present, then creates a new one. binary format.

6. wb Same as w mode, except this opens the file in binary format.

Opens the file for both reading and writing, rest is the same
7. w+
as w mode.

8. wb+ Same as w+ except this opens the file in binary format.

Example of Opening and Closing Files in Python 2. close() function:
Code: This function doesn't take any argument, and you can
directly call the close() function using the file object.
# When the file is in the same folder where the python
script is present. Also access mode is 'r' which is read It can be called multiple times, but if any operation is
mode. performed on the closed file, a "ValueError"
exception is raised.
file = open('test.txt',mode='r')
Syntax:

# When the file is not in the same folder where the python file.**close()**
script is present. In this case, the whole path of the file
should be written.
You can use the 'with' statement with open also, as it
file = open('D:/data/test.txt',mode='r') provides better exception handling and simplifies it
by providing some cleanup tasks.

It is general practice to close an opened file as a closed file Also, it will automatically close the file, and you don't
reduces the risk of being unwarrantedly updated or read. have to do it manually.
We can close files in python using the close function.
Let's discuss it.
Example using with statement
Code:
with open("test.txt", mode='r') as f:
# perform file operations
The method shown in the above section is not entirely safe. If some exception
occurs while opening the file, then the code will exit without closing the file. A
safer way is to use a try-finally block while opening files.
Code:
try:
file = open('test.txt',mode='r')
# Perform file handling operations
finally:
file.close()

Now, this guarantees that the file will close even if an exception occurs while
opening the file.
So, you can use the ‘with’ statement method instead. Any of the two methods is
good.
3. Python – Create New File A new file will be created in the present working
directory. You can also provide a complete path to the
To create a new file with Python, use open() method with file if you would like your file to be created at an
“x” as second parameter and the filename as first absolute path in the computer.
parameter.
Example 2: Create a New File with the same name as
that of existing file
myfile = open("complete_filepath", "x") In the following example, we will try creating a new
file sample.txt. But this file is already present in the
same location.
The open() method with options shown in the above code
snippet creates an empty file Python Program
Example 1: Create a New File using open() f = open("sample.txt", "x")
In the following example, we will create a new file named f.close
sample.txt. You will get FileExistsError with a similar stack trace as
Python Program below.
#open file Output
f = open("sample.txt", "x") Traceback (most recent call last):
#close file File "example.py", line 1, in <module>
f.close f = open("sample.txt", "x")
FileExistsError: [Errno 17] File exists: 'sample.txt'
4. Read Text File in Python Output
To read text file in Python, follow these steps.
 Call open() builtin function with filepath and mode 2. Read only few characters from the text file
passed as arguments. open() function returns a file If you need to read only specific number of characters,
object. say N number of characters, present at the starting of the
 Call read() method on the file object. read() returns a file, pass N (number) as argument to read() function.
string. In the following Python program, we will read first 20
 The returned string is the complete text from the text characters in the file.
file.
Examples Python Program
1. Read a text file “sample.txt” f = open("sample.txt", "r")
In the following Python program, we will open sample.txt data = f.read(20)
file in read mode. We will read all the contents of the text print(data)
file and print the text to the console.
Output
Welcome to pythonexa
Python Program
read(20) function returned the first 20 characters from
fileObject = open("sample.txt", "r") the text file.
data = fileObject.read()
print(data)
3. Read the file in text mode 5. Closing a File
read, write and execute modes are based on the The close() function is used to close a file.
permissions. There are text and binary based on the
nature of content.
In the following example, we will open the file in text Syntax of the Python close function:
mode explicitly by providing “t” along with the read “r”
mode. File_object.close()
Python Program
f = open("sample.txt", "rt") Example:
data = f.read() j=open(“simple.txt”,”r”)
print(data) k=j.read()
print(k)
Output j.close()
Welcome to pythonexamples.org Output:
Hello Nagarjuna
File Names and Paths
To understand path we must be familiar with the terms:
DRIVE, FOLDER/DIRECTORY, FILES.
Our hard disk is logically divided into many parts called
Drives like C drive, D drive etc.

The drive is the main container in which we put

everything to store.
The naming format is DRIVE_LETTER:
For Ex C: , D:
 Drive is also known as ROOT DIRECTORY.
 Drive contains Folders and files
 Folder contains sub-folders or files.
 Files are the actual data container.
ABSOLUTE PATH:
Absolute path is the full address of any file or folder
From the drive i.e. from root folder . It is like
Drive_name:\Folder\Folder…..\filename
For eg absolute path of file Python_unit4.ppt will be
C:\Users\panka\OneDrive\Documents\NCMS\NEP_note
s\Python_unit4.ppt
RELATIVE PATH:
Relative path is the location of file/folder from the current
folder.
To use relative path special symbols are:
Single dot(.):it refers to current folder
Double dot(..): it refers to parent folder.
Backslash(\):first backslash before(.) and double
dot(..)refers to the ROOT folder.
Format operator >>> camels = 42
• The argument of write has to be a >>> '%d' % camels
string, so if we want to put other '42'
values in a file, we have to convert
them to strings. The result is the string '42', which is
not to be confused with the integer
• Example: value 42.
The easiest way to do that is with str:
>>> x = 52
>>> fout.write(str(x))
An alternative is to use the format
operator uses the syntax % symbol
followed by one or more format
codes and optionally a format
specifier.
Python Object-Oriented Programming • As you may notice, the data (attributes) are always
nouns, while the behaviors (method) are always
(OOP) verbs.
What Is Object-Oriented Programming in • This compartmentalization is the central concept of
Python? Object-Oriented Programming. You build objects
 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming that store data and contain specific kinds of
prototype in which we can think about complex functionality.
problems as objects. Why Do We Use Object-Oriented
 A prototype is a theory that supplies the base for Programming in Python?
solving problems. OOP allows you to create secure and reliable
 So when we’re talking about OOP, we’re referring to a software. Many Python frameworks and libraries use
set of concepts and patterns we use to solve problems this prototype to build their codebase. Some
with objects. examples are pandas, NumPy, etc.
 An object in Python is a single collection of data
(attributes) and behavior (methods). You can think of
objects as real things around you. For example,
consider calculators:
The main advantages of using OOP in Python. Class and Objects in Python
 All Modern Programming Languages Use OOP  Suppose you wish to store the number of books
you have, you can simply do that by using a
This paradigm is language-independent. If you learn OOP
variable. Or, say you want to calculate the sum of 5
in Python, you’ll be able to use it in the following:
numbers and store it in a variable, well, that can be
Java, PHP, JavaScript done too!
 OOP Allows You to Code Faster  Primitive data structures like numbers, strings, and
lists are designed to store simple values in a
Coding faster doesn’t mean writing fewer lines of code. It variable. Suppose, your name, or square of a
means you can implement more features in less time number, or count of some marbles (say).
without compromising the stability of a project.
 But what if you need to store the details of all the
Object-Oriented programming allows you to reuse code Employees in your company?
by implementing abstraction. This principle makes your
code more concise and legible.  For example, you may try to store every employee
in a list, you may later be confused about which
 OOP Helps You Avoid Spaghetti Code index of the list represents what details of the
OOP gives us the possibility of compressing all the logic in employee(e.g. which is the name field, or the
objects, therefore avoiding long pieces of nested if’s. empID etc.)
 OOP Improves Your Analysis of Any Situation
Once you get some experience with OOP, you’ll be able to
think of problems as small and specific objects.
Example: IMPORTANT:
employee1 = ['John ', 104120, "Developer", "Dept. 2A"] A class just defines the structure of how anything
employee2 = ['Mark', 211240, "Database Designer", "Dept. 11B"]
should look. It does not point to anything or anyone in
particular.
employee3 = [‘Smith ', 131124, "Manager", "Dept. 2A"]
For example, say, HUMAN is a class, which has
Even if you try to store them in a dictionary, after an suppose -- name, age, gender, city. It does not point
extent, the whole codebase will be too complex to handle. to any specific HUMAN out there, but yes, it explains
So, in these scenarios, we use Classes in python. the properties and functions any HUMAN should or
A class is used to create user-defined data structures in any object of class HUMAN should have.
Python. An instance of a class is called the object. It is the
Classes define functions, which are termed methods, that implementation of the class and exists in real.
describe the behaviors and actions that an object created
from a class can perform.
An object is a collection of data (variables) and
Classes make the code more manageable by avoiding methods (functions) that access the data. It is the real
complex codebases. It does so, by creating a blueprint. implementation of a class.
It defines what properties or functions, any object which
is derived from the class should have.
Example:
• However, "Ron" is an object of the Human class
(please refer to the image given above for
understanding).
• That means, Ron is created by using the blueprint
of the Human class, and it contains the real data.
• "Ron" exists physically, unlike "Human" (which just
exists logically).
• He exists in real, and implements all the properties
of the class Human, such as, Ron have a name, he is
15 years old, he is a male, and lives in Delhi.
• Also, Ron implements all the methods of Human
class, suppose, Ron can walk, speak, eat, and sleep.
• And many humans can be created using the
blueprint of class Human. Such as, we may create
1000s of more humans by referring to the blueprint
of the class Human, using objects.

Consider this example, here Human is a class - It is just a

blueprint that defines how Human should be, and not a
real implementation.
You may say that "Human" class just exists logically.
Note: 'pass' is commonly used as a placeholder, in the place
of code whose implementation we may skip for the
class = blueprint(suppose an architectural drawing). The time being. "pass" allows us to run the code without
Object is an actual thing that is built based on the throwing an error in Python.
‘blueprint’ (suppose a house).
An instance is a virtual copy (but not a real copy) of the
object.
When a class is defined, only the blueprint of the object is
created, and no memory is allocated to the class.
Memory allocation occurs only when the object or
instance is created.
The object or instance contains real data or information.
How to Define a Class in Python?
Classes in Python can be defined by the keyword class,
which is followed by the name of the class and a colon.
Syntax:
class Human:
pass
 GU Interface
• Python offers multiple options for developing
GUI (Graphical User Interface).
• Out of all the GUI methods, tkinter is the most
commonly used method.
• It is a standard Python interface to the Tk GUI
toolkit shipped with Python.
• Python tkinter is the fastest and easiest way to
create GUI applications.
• Creating a GUI using tkinter is an easy task.
What is Tkinter?
Tkinter in Python helps in creating GUI Applications with
minimum hassle. Among various GUI Frameworks,
Tkinter is the only framework that is built-in into
Python's Standard Library.

• An important feature in favor of Tkinter is that it is

cross-platform, so the same code can easily work on
Windows, macOS, and Linux.
• Tkinter is a lightweight module.
• It comes as part of the standard Python installation, so
you don't have to install it separately.
• It supports a lot of built-in widgets that can be used
directly to create desktop applications.
What are Tcl, Tk, and Tkinter?
Let's try to understand more about the Tkinter module by
discussing more about its origin.
• Tkinter is based upon the Tk toolkit, which was originally
designed for the Tool Command Language (Tcl). As Tk is
very popular thus it has been ported to a variety of other
scripting languages, including Perl (Perl/Tk), Ruby
(Ruby/Tk), and Python (Tkinter).
• The wide variety of widgets, portability, and flexibility of Tk
makes it the right tool which can be used to design and
implement a wide variety of simple and complex projects.
• Python with Tkinter provides a faster and more efficient
way to build useful desktop applications that would have
taken much time if you had to program directly in C/C++
with the help of native OS system libraries.
How to install Tkinter?
• Tkinter comes as part of standard Python
installation. So if you have installed the latest
version of Python, then you do not have to do
anything else.
• If you do not have Python installed on your system -
Install Python (the current version is 3.11.4 at the
time of writing this article) first, and then check for
Tkinter.
• You can determine whether Tkinter is available for
your Python interpreter by attempting to import the
Tkinter module.
import tkinter
• If Tkinter is available, then there will be no errors,
otherwise, you will see errors in the console.
Using Tkinter to Create Desktop Applications
The basic steps of creating a simple desktop application using the Tkinter
module in Python are as follows:

• First of all, import the Tkinter module.

• The second step would be to create a basic window for the desktop
application.
• Then you can add different GUI components to the window and
functionality to these components or widgets.
• Then enter the main event loop using mainloop() function to run the
Desktop application.
• So let's write some code and create a basic desktop application using
the Tkinter module in Python.

Hello World tkinter Example

• When you create a desktop application, the first thing that you will
have to do is create a new window for the desktop application.
• The main window object is created by the Tk class in Tkinter.
• Once you have a window, you can text, input fields, buttons, etc. to it.
Here's a code example,

import tkinter as tk
win = tk.Tk()
win.title('Hello World!')
# you can add widgets here
win.mainloop()
Tkinter Methods used above:
The two main methods that are used while creating desktop applications in
Python are:

1. Tk( )

The syntax for the Tk() method is:

Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=1)

This method is used to create the main window.

This is how you can use it, just like in the Hello World code example,

win = tkinter.Tk() ## where win indicates name of the main window object

2. The mainloop() Function

This method is used to start the application. The mainloop() function is an infinite
loop that is used to run the application.
It will wait for events to occur and process the events as long as the window is
not closed.
 Common Tkinter Widgets
1. Button widget • The syntax of the button
• The Button widget in widget is given below,
Tkinter is mainly used W = Button(master, options)
to add a button in any
GUI Application. Exmple:
• In Python, while using the from tkinter import *
Tkinter button widget, we win = Tk() ## win is a top or parent
can easily modify the window
style of the button like win.geometry("200x100")
adding a background b = Button(win, text = "Submit")
colors to it, adjusting b.pack() #using pack() geometry
height and width of win.mainloop()
button, or the placement
of the button, etc. very
easily.
2. Label widget Example:
• The label widget in Tkinter is used import tkinter
to display boxes where you can from tkinter import *
place your images and text. win = Tk()
• The label widget is mainly used to var = StringVar()
provide a message about the other label = Label( win, textvariable=var,
widgets used in the Python relief=RAISED )
Application to the user.
# set label value
• You can change or update the text
var.set("Hey!? Welcome to
inside the label widget anytime you
StudyTonight")
want.
label.pack()
• This widget uses only one font at
the time of displaying some text. win.mainloop()

The syntax of the label widget

is given below,
W = Label(master,options)
3. entry widget Example:
from tkinter import *
• If you need to get a little bit of text
win = Tk()
from a user, like a name or an email
win.geometry("400x250")
address or a contact number then
name = Label(win, text = "Name").place(x = 30,y
use an Entry widget. = 50)
• The Entry widget is mainly used to email = Label(win, text = "Email").place(x = 30, y
display a small text box that the = 90)
user can type some text into. password = Label(win, text = "Password").place(x
= 30, y = 130)
• There are the number of options submitbtn = Button(win, text =
available to change the styling of "Submit",activebackground = "red",
the Entry Widget. activeforeground = "blue")
The syntax of the entry widget is given .place(x = 30, y = 170)
below: entry1 = Entry(win).place(x = 80, y = 50)
entry2 = Entry(win).place(x = 80, y = 90)
w = Entry(master, option=value) entry3 = Entry(win).place(x = 95, y = 130)
win.mainloop()
4. Text widget Example :
• The text widget is used to provide a import tkinter as tk
multiline textbox (input box) from tkinter import *
because in Tkinter single-line win = Tk()
#to specify size of window.
textbox is provided using Entry win.geometry("250x170")
widget. # To Create a text widget and specify size.
• You can use various styles and T = Text(win, height = 6, width = 53)
attributes with the Text widget. # TO Create label
• You can also use marks and tabs in l = Label(win, text = "Quote for the Day")
the Text widget to locate the l.config(font =("Courier", 14))
specific sections of the text. Quote = """Success usually comes to those who are
too busy to be looking for it"""
• Media files like images and links can # Create a button for the next text.
also be inserted in the Text Widget. b1 = Button(win, text = "Next", )
The syntax of the Text widget is given # Create an Exit button.
below: b2 = Button(win, text = "Exit", command =
win.destroy)
W = Text(master, options) l.pack()
T.pack()
b1.pack()
b2.pack()
# Insert the Quote
T.insert(tk.END, Quote)
tk.mainloop()
Tkinter Windows
The term "Window" has different meanings in the
different contexts, But generally "Window" refers
to a rectangular area somewhere on the user's
display screen through which you can interact.
• The top-level window object in GUI Programming
contains all of the little window objects that will
be part of your complete GUI.
• The little window objects can be text labels,
buttons, list boxes, etc., and these individual little
GUI components are known as Widgets.
• The object that is returned by making a call to
tkinter.Tk() is usually referred to as the Root
Window.
• The widgets can either be stand-alone or can be
containers. If one widget contains other widgets,
it is considered the parent of those widgets.
• Similarly, if a widget is contained within another
widget, it's known as a child of the parent, the
parent is the next immediate enclosing container
widget.
1. pack() method in Tkinter # button widgets which can also
The Pack geometry manager packs expand and fill
widgets relative to the earlier # in the parent widget entirely
widget.
# Button 1
Tkinter literally packs all the widgets
one after the other in a window. b1 = Button(pane, text = "Click me !")
We can use options like fill, expand, b1.pack(fill = BOTH, expand = True)
and side to control this geometry # Button 2
manager. b2 = Button(pane, text = "Click me
Example; too")
# Importing tkinter module b2.pack(fill = BOTH, expand = True)
from tkinter import * from tkinter.ttk # Execute Tkinter
import * master.mainloop()
# creating Tk window
master = Tk()
# creating a Fra, e which can expand
according
# to the size of the window
pane = Frame(master)
pane.pack(fill = BOTH, expand = True)
2. grid() method in Tkinter • Creating this layout using
• The Grid geometry manager the pack manager is possible,
puts the widgets in a 2- but it takes a number of extra
dimensional table. frame widgets, and a lot of
• The master widget is split into work to make things look
a number of rows and good.
columns, and each “cell” in • If you use the grid manager
the resulting table can hold a instead, you only need one
widget. call per widget to get
• The grid manager is the most everything laid out properly.
flexible of the geometry Using the grid manager is
managers in Tkinter. easy.
• If you don’t want to learn • Just create the widgets, and
how and when to use all use the grid method to tell
three managers, you should the manager in which row
at least make sure to learn and column to place them.
this one. You don’t have to specify the
size of the grid beforehand;
the manager automatically
determines that from the
widgets in it.
Example:
# this will arrange entry widgets
# import tkinter module
e1.grid(row = 0, column = 1, pady = 2)
from tkinter import * from tkinter.ttk import *
e2.grid(row = 1, column = 1, pady = 2)
# creating main tkinter window/toplevel
# infinite loop which can be terminated by
master = Tk()
keyboard
# or mouse interrupt
# this will create a label widget
mainloop()
l1 = Label(master, text = "First:")
l2 = Label(master, text = "Second:")

# grid method to arrange labels in respective

# rows and columns as specified
l1.grid(row = 0, column = 0, sticky = W, pady = 2)
l2.grid(row = 1, column = 0, sticky = W, pady = 2)

# entry widgets, used to take entry from user

e1 = Entry(master)
e2 = Entry(master)
3. place() method in Tkinter • Example:
# Importing tkinter module
• The Place geometry manager from tkinter import * from tkinter.ttk import *
is the simplest of the three
# creating Tk window
general geometry managers master = Tk()
provided in Tkinter.
• It allows you explicitly set the # setting geometry of tk window
master.geometry("200x200")
position and size of a window,
either in absolute terms, or # button widget
relative to another window. b1 = Button(master, text = "Click me !")
b1.place(relx = 1, x =-2, y = 2, anchor = NE)
• Syntax:
• widget.place(relx = 0.5, rely = # label widget
l = Label(master, text = "I'm a Label")
0.5, anchor = CENTER) l.place(anchor = NW)

# button widget
b2 = Button(master, text = "GFG")
b2.place(relx = 0.5, rely = 0.5, anchor = CENTER)

# infinite loop which is required to

# run tkinter program infinitely
# until an interrupt occurs
mainloop()
 SQLite3
• Light-weight implementation of a relational
DBMS (~340Kb)
– Includes most of the features of full DBMS
– Intended to be imbedded in programs
• Used as the data manager in iPhone apps and
Firefox (among many others)
• Databases are stored as files in the OS
 SQLite3 Data types
• SQLite uses a more general dynamic type system.
In SQLite, the datatype of a value is associated
with the value itself, not with its container
• Types are:
– NULL: The value is a NULL value.
– INTEGER: The value is a signed integer, stored in 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or 8 bytes depending
on the magnitude of the value
– REAL: The value is a floating point value, stored as an 8-byte IEEE floating point
number.
– TEXT. The value is a text string, stored using the database encoding (UTF-8, UTF-
16BE or UTF-16LE). (default max 1,000,000,000 chars)
– BLOB. The value is a blob of data, stored exactly as it was input.
 SQLite3 from Python
• SQLite is available as a loadable python library
– You can use any SQL commands to create, add data,
search, update and delete.

Python SQLite3 module

•Python SQLite3 module is used to integrate the SQLite database
with Python.
•It is a standardized Python DBI API 2.0 and provides a
straightforward and simple-to-use interface for interacting with
SQLite databases.
•There is no need to install this module separately as it comes
along with Python after the 2.5x version.
•To use sqlite3 module, you must first create a connection object
that represents the database and then optionally you can create a
cursor object, which will help you in executing all the SQL
statements.
 SQLite Methods
1. Connect Example:
When we connect to a SQLite import sqlite3
database, we are connection =
sqlite3.connect("aquarium.db")
accessing data that print(connection.total_changes)
ultimately resides in a file
on our computer. SQLite Explain:
databases are fully import sqlite3 gives our Python program
featured SQL engines that access to the sqlite3 module. The
can be used for many sqlite3.connect() function returns a
purposes. Connection object that we will use to
interact with the SQLite database held
Syntax: in the file aquarium.db. The
sqlite3.connect(database aquarium.db file is created
automatically by sqlite3.connect() if
[,timeout ,other optional aquarium.db does not already exist on
arguments]) our computer.
2. Cursor Example:
• Cursors are created by the cursor = connection.cursor()
connection.cursor() cursor.execute("CREATE
method: they are bound to TABLE fish (name TEXT,
the connection for the species TEXT, tank_number
entire lifetime and all the INTEGER)")
commands are executed in
the context of the database Explain:
session wrapped by the
connection. connection.cursor() returns a
• Cursors created from Cursor object. Cursor
different connections can or objects allow us to send
can not be isolated, SQL statements to a SQLite
depending on the database using
connections’ isolation level. cursor.execute().
• Syntax:
• connection.cursor([cursorCl
ass])
3. Execute Example:
A cursor is an object which rows =
helps to execute the query cursor.execute("SELECT
and fetch the records from name, species,
the database. The cursor tank_number FROM
plays a very important role fish").fetchall()
in executing the query. print(rows)
Syntax:
cursor.execute(operation, Output:
params=None, multi=False) [('Sammy', 'shark', 1),
('Jamie', 'cuttlefish', 7)]
4. Close Example:
This method closes the import sqlite3
database connection. connection =
Note that this does not sqlite3.connect("aquariu
automatically call m.db")
commit(). If you just
cursor = connection.cursor()
close your database
connection without cursor.close()
calling commit() first,
your changes will be
lost!
Syntax:
connection.close()
Connect To Database explain :
• let's run the above program
to create our database test.db
Following Python code shows
in the current directory.
how to connect to an existing
database. If the database • You can change your path as
does not exist, then it will be per your requirement. Keep
created and finally a database the above code in sqlite.py
object will be returned. file and execute it as shown
below.
Code:
• If the database is successfully
#!/usr/bin/python
created, then it will display
import sqlite3 the following message.
conn = sqlite3.connect('test.db')
print "Opened database output:
successfully";
$chmod +x sqlite.py
$./sqlite.py
Open database successfully
Create a Table explain:
Following Python program will be When the above program is
used to create a table in the executed, it will create the
previously created database. COMPANY table in your test.db
Code: and it will display the following
#!/usr/bin/python messages −
import sqlite3
conn = sqlite3.connect('test.db') output:
print "Opened database Opened database successfully
successfully"; Table created successfully
conn.execute('''CREATE TABLE
COMPANY
(ID INT PRIMARY KEY NOT
NULL,
NAME TEXT NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR(50),
SALARY REAL);''')
print "Table created successfully";
conn.close()
 Operations on Tables
1. INSERT Operation
Following Python program shows how to create records in the COMPANY table created in the
above example.
Code:
• #!/usr/bin/python
• import sqlite3
• conn = sqlite3.connect('test.db')
• print "Opened database successfully";
• conn.execute("INSERT INTO COMPANY (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) \
VALUES (1, 'Paul', 32, 'California', 20000.00 )");
• conn.execute("INSERT INTO COMPANY (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) \
VALUES (2, 'Allen', 25, 'Texas', 15000.00 )");
• conn.execute("INSERT INTO COMPANY (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) \
VALUES (3, 'Teddy', 23, 'Norway', 20000.00 )");
• conn.execute("INSERT INTO COMPANY (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) \
VALUES (4, 'Mark', 25, 'Rich-Mond ', 65000.00 )");
• conn.commit()
• print "Records created successfully";
• conn.close()

Output:
Opened database successfully
Records created successfully
2. SELECT Operation
Following Python program shows how to fetch and display records from the
COMPANY table created in the above example.

#!/usr/bin/python
import sqlite3
conn = sqlite3.connect('test.db')
print "Opened database successfully";
cursor = conn.execute("SELECT id, name, address, salary from COMPANY")
for row in cursor:
print "ID = ", row[0]
print "NAME = ", row[1]
print "ADDRESS = ", row[2]
print "SALARY = ", row[3], "\n"

print "Operation done successfully";

conn.close()
Output:
Opened database successfully
ID = 1
NAME = Paul
ADDRESS = California
SALARY = 20000.0

ID = 2
NAME = Allen
ADDRESS = Texas
SALARY = 15000.0

ID = 3
NAME = Teddy
ADDRESS = Norway
SALARY = 20000.0

ID = 4
NAME = Mark
ADDRESS = Rich-Mond
SALARY = 65000.0

Operation done successfully

3. UPDATE Operation
Following Python code shows how to use UPDATE statement to update any record and
then fetch and display the updated records from the COMPANY table.

#!/usr/bin/python

import sqlite3
conn = sqlite3.connect('test.db')
print "Opened database successfully";
conn.execute("UPDATE COMPANY set SALARY = 25000.00 where ID = 1")
conn.commit()
print "Total number of rows updated :", conn.total_changes
cursor = conn.execute("SELECT id, name, address, salary from COMPANY")
for row in cursor:
print "ID = ", row[0]
print "NAME = ", row[1]
print "ADDRESS = ", row[2]
print "SALARY = ", row[3], "\n"

print "Operation done successfully";

conn.close()
OUTPUT:
Opened database successfully
Total number of rows updated : 1
ID = 1
NAME = Paul
ADDRESS = California
SALARY = 25000.0
ID = 2
NAME = Allen
ADDRESS = Texas
SALARY = 15000.0
ID = 3
NAME = Teddy
ADDRESS = Norway
SALARY = 20000.0
ID = 4
NAME = Mark
ADDRESS = Rich-Mond
SALARY = 65000.0
Operation done successfully
4. DELETE Operation
Following Python code shows how to use DELETE statement to delete any record and then
fetch and display the remaining records from the COMPANY table.

#!/usr/bin/python

import sqlite3
conn = sqlite3.connect('test.db')
print "Opened database successfully";
conn.execute("DELETE from COMPANY where ID = 2;")
conn.commit()
print "Total number of rows deleted :", conn.total_changes
cursor = conn.execute("SELECT id, name, address, salary from COMPANY")
for row in cursor:
print "ID = ", row[0]
print "NAME = ", row[1]
print "ADDRESS = ", row[2]
print "SALARY = ", row[3], "\n"

print "Operation done successfully";

conn.close()
Output:
Opened database successfully
Total number of rows deleted : 1
ID = 1
NAME = Paul
ADDRESS = California
SALARY = 20000.0

ID = 3
NAME = Teddy
ADDRESS = Norway
SALARY = 20000.0

ID = 4
NAME = Mark
ADDRESS = Rich-Mond
SALARY = 65000.0

Operation done successfully

 Unit 5

Python Data Visualization

Visualization of Data
The field of data analysis that focuses on visualizing data is called
data visualization. It is an effective method of communicating
data insights and presents data graphically.

Python Data Visualization

Scatter Plot # Adding Title to the Plot
• Scatter plots are used to observe plt.title("Scatter Plot")
relationships between variables
and uses dots to represent the # Setting the X and Y labels
relationship between them.
• The scatter() method in the plt.xlabel('Day')
matplotlib library is used to draw plt.ylabel('Tip')
a scatter plot. plt.show()

Exapmle: Output:
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# reading the database

data = pd.read_csv("tips.csv")

# Scatter plot with day against tip

plt.scatter(data['day'], data['tip'])
Line Chart # Adding Title to the Plot
Line Chart is used to represent a plt.title("Scatter Plot")
relationship between two data X
and Y on a different axis. It is # Setting the X and Y labels
plotted using the plot() function.
Let’s see the below example. plt.xlabel('Day')
plt.ylabel('Tip')
Example: plt.show()

import pandas as pd Output:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# reading the database

data = pd.read_csv("tips.csv")

# Scatter plot with day against tip

plt.plot(data['tip'])
plt.plot(data['size'])
Bar Chart
plt.title("Bar Chart")
A bar plot or bar chart is a graph
that represents the category of
data with rectangular bars with # Setting the X and Y labels
lengths and heights that is plt.xlabel('Day')
proportional to the values which plt.ylabel('Tip')
they represent. It can be created
using the bar() method.
# Adding the legends
Example: plt.show()

import pandas as pd Output:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# reading the database

data = pd.read_csv("tips.csv")

# Bar chart with day against tip

plt.bar(data['day'], data['tip'])
Histogram # histogram of total_bills
• A histogram is basically used to plt.hist(data['total_bill'])
represent data in the form of some
groups. plt.title("Histogram")
• It is a type of bar plot where the X-
axis represents the bin ranges while
the Y-axis gives information about # Adding the legends
frequency. plt.show()
• The hist() function is used to
compute and create a histogram. In Output:
histogram, if we pass categorical
data then it will automatically
compute the frequency of that data
i.e. how often each value occurred.

Example:

import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# reading the database

data = pd.read_csv("tips.csv")