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SQL Reference Guide

The SQL Reference Guide provides an overview of SQL, including data types, commands, and various SQL functionalities such as DML, DQL, DCL, joins, indexing, views, stored procedures, functions, and triggers. It also includes examples for creating tables, inserting data, and optimizing queries. The guide serves as a comprehensive resource for interacting with relational databases using SQL.

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6 views3 pages

SQL Reference Guide

The SQL Reference Guide provides an overview of SQL, including data types, commands, and various SQL functionalities such as DML, DQL, DCL, joins, indexing, views, stored procedures, functions, and triggers. It also includes examples for creating tables, inserting data, and optimizing queries. The guide serves as a comprehensive resource for interacting with relational databases using SQL.

Uploaded by

jyoti swarup jena
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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SQL Reference Guide

1. Introduction to SQL
SQL (Structured Query Language) is used to interact with relational databases.

2. SQL Data Types


- INT - Integer
- VARCHAR(n) - Variable-length string
- CHAR(n) - Fixed-length string
- TEXT - Large text data
- BOOLEAN - True or False
- DATE - Date value
- DATETIME - Date and time
- FLOAT - Floating-point number
- DECIMAL(p, s) - Fixed-point number

3. SQL Commands
- CREATE - Creates a new database or table.
- ALTER - Modifies an existing table structure.
- DROP - Deletes a database or table.
- TRUNCATE - Deletes all records from a table.

Example:
CREATE TABLE employees (
id INT PRIMARY KEY,
name VARCHAR(50),
age INT,
department VARCHAR(50)
);

4. Data Manipulation Language (DML)


- INSERT - Adds new records.
- UPDATE - Modifies existing records.
- DELETE - Removes records.

Example:
INSERT INTO employees (id, name, age, department) VALUES (1, 'John Doe', 30, 'HR');

5. Data Query Language (DQL)


- SELECT - Retrieves data from tables.

Example:
SELECT name, age FROM employees WHERE department = 'HR';

6. Data Control Language (DCL)


- GRANT - Gives permissions.
- REVOKE - Removes permissions.

Example:
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON employees TO user1;

7. Joins in SQL
- INNER JOIN - Matches records in both tables.
- LEFT JOIN - Includes all records from the left table.
- RIGHT JOIN - Includes all records from the right table.
- FULL JOIN - Includes all records from both tables.

Example:
SELECT employees.name, departments.department_name
FROM employees
INNER JOIN departments ON employees.department_id = departments.id;

8. Indexing in SQL
- CREATE INDEX - Creates an index.
- DROP INDEX - Removes an index.

Example:
CREATE INDEX idx_employee_name ON employees(name);

9. Views in SQL
- CREATE VIEW - Defines a view.
- DROP VIEW - Removes a view.

Example:
CREATE VIEW employee_details AS
SELECT name, age, department FROM employees;

10. Stored Procedures and Functions


Stored procedures and functions execute SQL code.

Stored Procedure:
CREATE PROCEDURE GetEmployees()
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM employees;
END;

Function:
CREATE FUNCTION GetTotalEmployees()
RETURNS INT
BEGIN
DECLARE total INT;
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO total FROM employees;
RETURN total;
END;

11. SQL Triggers


Triggers execute automatically on data changes.

Example:
CREATE TRIGGER before_employee_insert
BEFORE INSERT ON employees
FOR EACH ROW
SET NEW.created_at = NOW();

12. SQL Optimization Tips


- Use indexes to speed up searches.
- Avoid SELECT *; instead, specify columns.
- Use joins efficiently.
- Normalize databases to reduce redundancy.
- Optimize queries with EXPLAIN ANALYZE.

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