Table 1: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Series

x(t) =
+

k=
a
k
e
jk
0
t
=
+

k=
a
k
e
jk(2/T)t
a
k
=
1
T
_
T
x(t)e
jk
0
t
dt =
1
T
_
T
x(t)e
jk(2/T)t
dt
Property Periodic Signal Fourier Series Coecients
x(t)
y(t)
_
Periodic with period T and
fundamental frequency
0
= 2/T
a
k
b
k
Linearity Ax(t) +By(t) Aa
k
+Bb
k
Time-Shifting x(t t
0
) a
k
e
jk
0
t
0
= a
k
e
jk(2/T)t
0
Frequency-Shifting e
jM
0
t
= e
jM(2/T)t
x(t) a
kM
Conjugation x

(t) a

k
Time Reversal x(t) a
k
Time Scaling x(t), > 0 (periodic with period T/) a
k
Periodic Convolution
_
T
x()y(t )d Ta
k
b
k
Multiplication x(t)y(t)
+

l=
a
l
b
kl
Dierentiation
dx(t)
dt
jk
0
a
k
= jk
2
T
a
k
Integration
_
t

x(t)dt
(nite-valued and
periodic only if a
0
= 0)
_
1
jk
0
_
a
k
=
_
1
jk(2/T)
_
a
k
Conjugate Symmetry
for Real Signals
x(t) real
_

_
a
k
= a

k
'ea
k
= 'ea
k

ma
k
= ma
k

[a
k
[ = [a
k
[
<) a
k
= <) a
k
Real and Even Sig-
nals
x(t) real and even a
k
real and even
Real and Odd Signals x(t) real and odd a
k
purely imaginary and odd
Even-Odd Decompo-
sition of Real Signals
_
x
e
(t) = cvx(t) [x(t) real]
x
o
(t) = Odx(t) [x(t) real]
'ea
k

jma
k

Parsevals Relation for Periodic Signals

k=
[a
k
[
2
Table 2: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Series
x[n] =

k=<N>
a
k
e
jk
0
n
=

k=<N>
a
k
e
jk(2/N)n
a
k
=
1
N

n=<N>
x[n]e
jk
0
n
=
1
N

n=<N>
x[n]e
jk(2/N)n
Property Periodic signal Fourier series coecients
x[n]
y[n]
_
Periodic with period N and fun-
damental frequency
0
= 2/N
a
k
b
k
_
Periodic with
period N
Linearity Ax[n] +By[n] Aa
k
+Bb
k
Time shift x[n n
0
] a
k
e
jk(2/N)n
0
Frequency Shift e
jM(2/N)n
x[n] a
kM
Conjugation x

[n] a

k
Time Reversal x[n] a
k
Time Scaling x
(m)
[n] =
_
x[n/m] if n is a multiple of m
0 if n is not a multiple of m
1
m
a
k
_
viewed as
periodic with
period mN
_
(periodic with period mN)
Periodic Convolution

r=N
x[r]y[n r] Na
k
b
k
Multiplication x[n]y[n]

l=N
a
l
b
kl
First Dierence x[n] x[n 1] (1 e
jk(2/N)
)a
k
Running Sum
n

k=
x[k]
_
nite-valued and
periodic only if a
0
= 0
_
_
1
(1 e
jk(2/N)
)
_
a
k
Conjugate Symmetry
for Real Signals
x[n] real
_

_
a
k
= a

k
'ea
k
= 'ea
k

ma
k
= ma
k

[a
k
[ = [a
k
[
<) a
k
= <) a
k
Real and Even Signals x[n] real and even a
k
real and even
Real and Odd Signals x[n] real and odd a
k
purely imaginary and odd
Even-Odd Decomposi-
tion of Real Signals
x
e
[n] = cvx[n] [x[n] real]
x
o
[n] = Odx[n] [x[n] real]
'ea
k

jma
k

Parsevals Relation for Periodic Signals

n=N
[x[n][
2
=

k=N
[a
k
[
2
Table 3: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Transform
x(t) =
1
2
_

X(j)e
jt
d
X(j) =
_

x(t)e
jt
dt
Property Aperiodic Signal Fourier transform
x(t) X(j)
y(t) Y (j)
Linearity ax(t) +by(t) aX(j) +bY (j)
Time-shifting x(t t
0
) e
jt
0
X(j)
Frequency-shifting e
j
0
t
x(t) X(j(
0
))
Conjugation x

(t) X

(j)
Time-Reversal x(t) X(j)
Time- and Frequency-Scaling x(at)
1
[a[
X
_
j
a
_
Convolution x(t) y(t) X(j)Y (j)
Multiplication x(t)y(t)
1
2
X(j) Y (j)
Dierentiation in Time
d
dt
x(t) jX(j)
Integration
_
t

x(t)dt
1
j
X(j) +X(0)()
Dierentiation in Frequency tx(t) j
d
d
X(j)
Conjugate Symmetry for Real
Signals
x(t) real
_

_
X(j) = X

(j)
'eX(j) = 'eX(j)
mX(j) = mX(j)
[X(j)[ = [X(j)[
<) X(j) = <) X(j)
Symmetry for Real and Even
Signals
x(t) real and even X(j) real and even
Symmetry for Real and Odd
Signals
x(t) real and odd X(j) purely imaginary and odd
Even-Odd Decomposition for
Real Signals
x
e
(t) = cvx(t) [x(t) real]
x
o
(t) = Odx(t) [x(t) real]
'eX(j)
jmX(j)
Parsevals Relation for Aperiodic Signals
_
+

[x(t)[
2
dt =
1
2
_
+

[X(j)[
2
d
Table 4: Basic Continuous-Time Fourier Transform Pairs
Fourier series coecients
Signal Fourier transform (if periodic)
+

k=
a
k
e
jk
0
t
2
+

k=
a
k
( k
0
) a
k
e
j
0
t
2(
0
)
a
1
= 1
a
k
= 0, otherwise
cos
0
t [(
0
) +( +
0
)]
a
1
= a
1
=
1
2
a
k
= 0, otherwise
sin
0
t

j
[(
0
) ( +
0
)]
a
1
= a
1
=
1
2j
a
k
= 0, otherwise
x(t) = 1 2()
a
0
= 1, a
k
= 0, k ,= 0
_
this is the Fourier series rep-
resentation for any choice of
T > 0
_
Periodic square wave
x(t) =
_
1, [t[ < T
1
0, T
1
< [t[
T
2
and
x(t +T) = x(t)
+

k=
2 sink
0
T
1
k
( k
0
)

0
T
1

sinc
_
k
0
T
1

_
=
sin k
0
T
1
k
+

n=
(t nT)
2
T
+

k=

_

2k
T
_
a
k
=
1
T
for all k
x(t)
_
1, [t[ < T
1
0, [t[ > T
1
2 sinT
1

sinWt
t
X(j) =
_
1, [[ < W
0, [[ > W

(t) 1
u(t)
1
j
+()
(t t
0
) e
jt
0

e
at
u(t), 'ea > 0
1
a +j

te
at
u(t), 'ea > 0
1
(a +j)
2

t
n1
(n1)!
e
at
u(t),
'ea > 0
1
(a +j)
n

Table 5: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Transform
x[n] =
1
2
_
2
X(e
j
)e
jn
d
X(e
j
) =
+

n=
x[n]e
jn
Property Aperiodic Signal Fourier transform
x[n]
y[n]
X(e
j
)
Y (e
j
)
_
Periodic with
period 2
Linearity ax[n] +by[n] aX(e
j
) +bY (e
j
)
Time-Shifting x[n n
0
] e
jn
0
X(e
j
)
Frequency-Shifting e
j
0
n
x[n] X(e
j(
0
)
)
Conjugation x

[n] X

(e
j
)
Time Reversal x[n] X(e
j
)
Time Expansions x
(k)
[n] =
_
x[n/k], if n = multiple of k
0, if n ,= multiple of k
X(e
jk
)
Convolution x[n] y[n] X(e
j
)Y (e
j
)
Multiplication x[n]y[n]
1
2
_
2
X(e
j
)Y (e
j()
)d
Dierencing in Time x[n] x[n 1] (1 e
j
)X(e
j
)
Accumulation
n

k=
x[k]
1
1 e
j
X(e
j
)
+X(e
j0
)
+

k=
( 2k)
Dierentiation in Frequency nx[n] j
dX(e
j
)
d
Conjugate Symmetry for
Real Signals
x[n] real
_

_
X(e
j
) = X

(e
j
)
'eX(e
j
) = 'eX(e
j
)
mX(e
j
) = mX(e
j
)
[X(e
j
)[ = [X(e
j
)[
<) X(e
j
) = <) X(e
j
)
Symmetry for Real, Even
Signals
x[n] real and even X(e
j
) real and even
Symmetry for Real, Odd
Signals
x[n] real and odd
X(e
j
) purely
imaginary and odd
Even-odd Decomposition of
Real Signals
x
e
[n] = cvx[n] [x[n] real]
x
o
[n] = Odx[n] [x[n] real]
'eX(e
j
)
jmX(e
j
)
Parsevals Relation for Aperiodic Signals
+

n=
[x[n][
2
=
1
2
_
2
[X(e
j
)[
2
d
Table 6: Basic Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Pairs
Fourier series coecients
Signal Fourier transform (if periodic)

k=N
a
k
e
jk(2/N)n
2
+

k=
a
k

_

2k
N
_
a
k
e
j
0
n
2
+

l=
(
0
2l)
(a)
0
=
2m
N
a
k
=
_
1, k = m, mN, m2N, . . .
0, otherwise
(b)
0
2
irrational The signal is aperiodic
cos
0
n
+

l=
(
0
2l) +( +
0
2l)
(a)
0
=
2m
N
a
k
=
_
1
2
, k = m, mN, m2N, . . .
0, otherwise
(b)
0
2
irrational The signal is aperiodic
sin
0
n

j
+

l=
(
0
2l) ( +
0
2l)
(a)
0
=
2r
N
a
k
=
_
_
_
1
2j
, k = r, r N, r 2N, . . .

1
2j
, k = r, r N, r 2N, . . .
0, otherwise
(b)
0
2
irrational The signal is aperiodic
x[n] = 1 2
+

l=
( 2l) a
k
=
_
1, k = 0, N, 2N, . . .
0, otherwise
Periodic square wave
x[n] =
_
1, [n[ N
1
0, N
1
< [n[ N/2
and
x[n +N] = x[n]
2
+

k=
a
k

_

2k
N
_
a
k
=
sin[(2k/N)(N1+
1
2
)]
N sin[2k/2N]
, k ,= 0, N, 2N, . . .
a
k
=
2N1+1
N
, k = 0, N, 2N, . . .
+

k=
[n kN]
2
N
+

k=

_

2k
N
_
a
k
=
1
N
for all k
a
n
u[n], [a[ < 1
1
1 ae
j

x[n]
_
1, [n[ N
1
0, [n[ > N
1
sin[(N
1
+
1
2
)]
sin(/2)

sin Wn
n
=
W

sinc
_
Wn

_
0 < W <
X() =
_
1, 0 [[ W
0, W < [[
X()periodic with period 2

[n] 1
u[n]
1
1 e
j
+
+

k=
( 2k)
[n n
0
] e
jn
0

(n + 1)a
n
u[n], [a[ < 1
1
(1 ae
j
)
2

(n +r 1)!
n!(r 1)!
a
n
u[n], [a[ < 1
1
(1 ae
j
)
r

Table 7: Properties of the Laplace Transform
Property Signal Transform ROC
x(t) X(s) R
x
1
(t) X
1
(s) R
1
x
2
(t) X
2
(s) R
2
Linearity ax
1
(t) +bx
2
(t) aX
1
(s) +bX
2
(s) At least R
1
R
2
Time shifting x(t t
0
) e
st
0
X(s) R
Shifting in the s-Domain e
s
0
t
x(t) X(s s
0
) Shifted version of R [i.e., s is
in the ROC if (s s
0
) is in
R]
Time scaling x(at)
1
[a[
X
_
s
a
_
Scaled ROC (i.e., s is in
the ROC if (s/a) is in R)
Conjugation x

(t) X

(s

) R
Convolution x
1
(t) x
2
(t) X
1
(s)X
2
(s) At least R
1
R
2
Dierentiation in the Time Domain
d
dt
x(t) sX(s) At least R
Dierentiation in the s-Domain tx(t)
d
ds
X(s) R
Integration in the Time Domain
_
t

x()d()
1
s
X(s) At least R 'es > 0
Initial- and Final Value Theorems
If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) contains no impulses or higher-order singularities at t = 0, then
x(0
+
) = lim
s
sX(s)
If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) has a nite limit as t , then
lim
t
x(t) = lim
s0
sX(s)
Table 8: Laplace Transforms of Elementary Functions
Signal Transform ROC
1. (t) 1 All s
2. u(t)
1
s
'es > 0
3. u(t)
1
s
'es < 0
4.
t
n1
(n 1)!
u(t)
1
s
n
'es > 0
5.
t
n1
(n 1)!
u(t)
1
s
n
'es < 0
6. e
t
u(t)
1
s +
'es >
7. e
t
u(t)
1
s +
'es <
8.
t
n1
(n 1)!
e
t
u(t)
1
(s +)
n
'es >
9.
t
n1
(n 1)!
e
t
u(t)
1
(s +)
n
'es <
10. (t T) e
sT
All s
11. [cos
0
t]u(t)
s
s
2
+
2
0
'es > 0
12. [sin
0
t]u(t)

0
s
2
+
2
0
'es > 0
13. [e
t
cos
0
t]u(t)
s +
(s +)
2
+
2
0
'es >
14. [e
t
sin
0
t]u(t)

0
(s +)
2
+
2
0
'es >
15. u
n
(t) =
d
n
(t)
dt
n
s
n
All s
16. u
n
(t) = u(t) u(t)
. .
n times
1
s
n
'es > 0
z-TRANSFORMPROPERTIES
The index-domain signal is x[n] for < n < ; and the z-transform is:
X(z) =

n=
x[n] z
n
x[n] =
1
2j

X(z) z
n
dz
z
The ROC is the set of complex numbers z where the z-transform sum converges.
Signal: x[n] < n < z-Transform: X(z) Region of
Convergence
x[n], x
1
[n] and x
2
[n] X(z), X
1
(z) and X
2
(z) R
x
, R
1
and R
2
ax
1
[n] +bx
2
[n] aX
1
(z) +bX
2
(z) contains R
1
R
2
x[n n

] z
n

X(z) R
x
except for the possible
addition or deletion of
z = 0 or z =
z
n

x[n] X(z/z

) |z

| R
x
n x[n] z
dX(z)
dz
R
x
except for the possible
addition or deletion of
z = 0 or z =
x

[n] X

(z

) R
x
e{x[n]}
1
2
[X(z) + X

(z

)] contains R
x
m{x[n]}
1
2 j
[X(z) X

(z

)] contains R
x
x[n] X(1/z) 1/R
x
= {z : z
1
R
x
}
x
1
[n] x
2
[n] X
1
(z) X
2
(z) contains R
1
R
2
x
1
[n] x
2
[n]
1
2j

X
1
(v) X
2
(z/v)
dv
v
contains R
1
R
2
Parseval's Theorem:

n=
x
1
[n] x

2
[n] =
1
2j

X
1
(v) X

2
(1/v

)
dv
v
Initial Value Theorem: x[n] = 0, for n < 0 = lim
z
X(z) = x[0]
z-TRANSFORMPAIRS
The index-domain signal is x[n] for < n < ; and the z-transform is:
X(z) =

n=
x[n] z
n
x[n] =
1
2j

X(z) z
n
dz
z
The ROC is the set of complex numbers z where the z-transform sum converges.
Signal: x[n] < n < z-Transform: X(z) Region of
Convergence
[n] 1 All z
[n n

] z
n

|z| > 0, if n

> 0
|z| < , if n

< 0
u[n]
1
1 z
1
|z| > 1
u[n 1]
1
1 z
1
|z| < 1
a
n
u[n]
1
1 az
1
|z| > |a|
a
n
u[n 1]
1
1 az
1
|z| < |a|
n a
n
u[n]
az
1
(1 az
1
)
2
|z| > |a|
n a
n
u[n 1]
az
1
(1 az
1
)
2
|z| < |a|
(n +1) a
n
u[n]
1
(1 az
1
)
2
|z| > |a|
[cos

n] u[n]
1 [cos

]z
1
1 2[cos

]z
1
+z
2
|z| > 1
[sin

n] u[n]
[sin

]z
1
1 2[cos

]z
1
+z
2
|z| > 1
[r
n
cos

n] u[n]
1 [r cos

]z
1
1 2r[cos

]z
1
+r
2
z
2
|z| > |r|
[r
n
sin

n] u[n]
[r sin

]z
1
1 2r[cos

]z
1
+r
2
z
2
|z| > |r|
x[n] =

a
n
, 0 n < L
0, otherwise
1 a
L
z
L
1 az
1
|z| > 0
PROPERTIES of the DFT
The index-domain signal is x[n] for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N1; and the frequency domain values are X[k] for
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N1. Outside the range [0, N1], the values of x[n] and X[k] are periodic.
Analysis Equation: X[k] =
N1

n=0
x[n] W
nk
N
(1)
Synthesis Equation: x[n] =
1
N
N1

k=0
X[k] W
nk
N
(2)
Exponential: W
N
= e
j2/N
(3)
N-point signal: x[n], n = 0, 1, . . . , N1 N-point DFT: X[k], k = 0, 1, . . . , N1
ax
1
[n] +bx
2
[n] aX
1
[k] +bX
2
[k] (Linearity)
x[n] = W

n
N
= e
+j2

n/N
X[k] = N [(k

) mod N]
y[n] = X[k] |
kn
Y[k] = N x[(k) mod N] (Duality)
y[n] =
1
N
X[(n) mod N] Y[k] = x[n] |
nk
(Duality)
x[(n n
o
) mod N] W
n
o
k
N
X[k]
W

n
N
x[n] X[(k

) mod N]
x[n]
N
h[n] =
N1

=0
x[]h[(n ) mod N] X[k] H[k]
x[n] w[n] (windowing)
1
N
N1

=0
X[]W[(k ) mod N]
x

[n] X

[(k) mod N]
x

[(n) mod N] X

[k]
e{x[n]} X
cs
[k] =
1
2
{X[k mod N] + X

[(k) mod N]}

[(k) mod N]}

[(n) mod N]} e{X[k]} (cs = conjugate-sym)

[(n) mod N]} j m{X[k]} (cas = conj-anti-sym)

n=0
|x[n]|
2
=
N1

k=0
| X[k]|
2
The following properties apply when x[n] is purely real:
Conjugate Symmetry X[k] = X

[(k) mod N]
Real part of X[k] is even e{X[k]} = e{X[(k) mod N]}
Imaginary part of X[k] is odd m{X[k]} = m{X[(k) mod N]}
| X[k]| (Magnitude) is even
arg{X[k]} (Phase) is odd