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Computer - Memory

What is Computer Memory?

A physical device that stores data or information temporarily or permanently in it is
called memory. Its a device where data is stored and processed. In common, a computer
has primary and secondary memories. Auxiliary (secondary) memory stores data and
programs for long-term storage or until the time a user wants to keep them in memory,
while main memory stores instructions and data during programme execution; hence,
any programme or file that is currently running or executing on a computer is stored in
primary memory.
Chapters Categories

Types of Computer Memory

Computer memory comes in various types and serves different purposes −

Primary Memory (RAM - Random Access Memory) − Volatile memory loses

its contents when the machine is turned off. RAM stores the data that is actively
being used. During the booting process of a system, the operating system
actively uses RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a file or a
program. It speeds up CPU processing by providing fast data and instruction
access.

Secondary Memory (Storage) − Secondary Memory is also known as

permanent memory or non-volatile memory of a computer. Secondary memory
retains data when the machine shuts down. Files, programmes, and the OS are
stored there permanently. HDDs, SSDs, USB flash drives, and optical discs are
non-volatile memory devices.

Cache Memory − Memory that is smaller and faster than RAM is called cache
memory. It is placed closer to the CPU than the RAM. It saves data and
instructions that are used a lot so that processing goes faster.

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Register Memory − Register memory, which is also called processor registers or

"registers," is the smallest and fastest type of computer memory that is directly
integrated into the CPU. Registers are small, fast storage units inside the CPU
that are used to quickly store data that is being processed or instructions that are
being run.

Primary Memory
Computer primary memory is also known as volatile memory, as it loses contents when
the machine is turned off. There are two types of primary memory: RAM and ROM. RAM
stores the data that is actively being used. During the booting process of a system, the
operating system actively uses RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a file
or a program. It speeds up CPU processing by providing rapid data and instruction
access.

Here is the classification of primary memory:

RAM (Random Access Memory)

SRAM (Static RAM)

DRAM (Dynamic RAM)

SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)

DDR (Double Data Rate) RAM

ROM (Read-Only Memory)

PROM (Programmable ROM)

EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)

Flash ROM

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM contains of a various number of memory locations wherein each location, typically
8-bits are stored. It can be possible to read from a RAM location, as well as write to a
RAM location. The drawback of RAM is that it is volatile. That means, when the power
supply to the RAM is switched off, the information in the RAM will be lost.

From the memory, data can be accessed in two different ways – SequentialAccess and
Random Access.

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Sequential Access − Sequential access and random access are two types of accessing
information. In sequential access, it is mandatory to access information strictly in order.
If there are 4000 memory locations, it have to be accessed in the order of 1, 2,
3,…,4000. Thus, it takes minimum time to access information from location 0 and at
most time to access information from location 4000. Magnetic tape is an example that
employs sequential access.

Random Access − In a random access technique, it can be possible to access a

memory location in any order. For example, one can read from the 4000 locations in the
order of 1500, 1210, 3060, 1640, 1352, and so on. Second, it takes a similar time to
read from a memory location irrespective of its position. In a RAM, the access method is
random, and its name, in fact, is derived based on the method of access.

2. Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM consists of a number of memory locations wherein each location typically stores 8
bits like a RAM. A ROM also uses random access method just like a RAM. The advantage
of ROM is that it is non-volatile in nature. That means, though the power supply to the
ROM is switched off, the information in the ROM will not be lost. However, only reading
operation is possible from a ROM location. Thus, in a computer, ROM is used for storing
information which is not lost when power is switched off.

Let us discuss different versions of ROM provided by semiconductor manufacturers for

storing information:

Mask-Programmed ROM It derives this name because the information is written to this
type of ROM at the time of manufacture by applying a suitable mask. Once written, the
information cannot be changed, even by the manufacturer. It is cheaper compared to
other types of ROMs when considering cost per unit quantity, but requires bulk ordering.
It is used in equipment produced in large quantities.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) The user writes information to this type
of ROM using a PROM programmer. Once written, the information cannot be changed.
Like Mask-Programmed ROM, the information is permanent. It is more expensive than
mask ROM but allows purchasing in smaller quantities.

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) Information is written by the

user with an EPROM programmer. As its content is erasable and rewritable, the user can
modify it multiple times. Data is erased using strong ultraviolet (UV) light on the quartz
window of the EPROM chip, which removes all content. Users can purchase a single piece
of EPROM and rewrite its content multiple times.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) Information is

written by the user using an EPROM programmer. Unlike EPROM, EEPROM data is erased
using electrical signals rather than UV light. EEPROM allows selective data erasure and is
more expensive than other ROM types. It is gaining popularity due to its flexibility.

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Types of Info.entered Possible Cost per Min.order Method of Application

ROM by to chip quantity erasing area
change info.
info?

Mask- Manufacturer No Cheapest Large Not Large-

programmed possible scale
ROM production

PROM User No Costlier One Not Medium-

possible scale
production

EPROM User Yes Even One Using R& D

more strong
costly UV
source

EEPROM User Yes Costliest One Using R& D

electrical
signals

Secondary Memory
Computer secondary memory stores data and programs permanently, even when the
computer is off.The secondary memory is also known as external memory or auxiliary
memory.

Classification of Secondary Memory

Here is the complete classification of secondary memory:

Magnetic Storage

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Floppy Disk (Obsolete)

Magnetic Tape

Optical Storage

CD (Compact Disc)

CD-ROM (Read-Only Memory)

CD-R (Recordable)

CD-RW (Rewritable)

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DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)

DVD-ROM

DVD-R/DVD+R

DVD-RW/DVD+RW
Blu-ray Disc (BD)

Flash Storage (Solid-State Storage)

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

USB Flash Drive (Pen Drive)

Memory Cards (SD Card, microSD, etc.)

Cloud Storage

Google Drive

Dropbox

OneDrive

Amazon S3

Hybrid Storage

Hybrid Drive (HDD + SSD Combination)

SSHD (Solid-State Hybrid Drive)

Cache Memory
Cache memory is smaller and faster than RAM. It is placed closer to the CPU than the
RAM.

Different types of cache memory, like L1, L2, and L3 cache, have different speeds and
amounts of space.

The Levels of Cache Memory: L1, L2, and L3

CPU Cache memory is divided into three "levels": L1, L2, and L3. The memory hierarchy
is again according to the speed and, thus, the cache size.

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L1 Cache

Level 1 cache is a computer's fastest memory. The CPU's most frequently accessed data
resides in the L1 cache. CPU determines L1 cache size. Some high-end consumer CPUs,
such as the Intel i9-9980XE, have a 1MB L1 cache, but they are expensive and rare.
Server chipsets like Intel's Xeon have 1-2MB L1 memory cache. Before buying, examine
the CPU specs to ascertain the L1 cache size. There is no "standard" amount.

Source: [1]

The L1 cache normally has two sections: the instruction cache, which stores CPU
operation information, and the data cache, which stores operation data.

L2 Cache
Level 2 cache is larger but slower than L1. Modern L2 memory caches are gigabytes, not
kilobytes. AMD's top-rated Ryzen 5 5600X has 384KB L1 and 3MB L2 caches and 32MB
L3 cache. The L2 cache size depends on the CPU but is usually 256KB to 32MB.
Nowadays, most CPUs have more than 256KB L2 cache, which is small. Some of the
most powerful current CPUs have L2 memory caches exceeding 8MB. In terms of speed,
the L2 cache is slower than the L1 cache but still faster than the system RAM. L2 caches
are 25 times faster than RAM, while L1 caches are 100 times faster.

L3 Cache

Level 3 cache. The L3 memory cache was originally on the motherboard. This was long
ago when most CPUs were single-core. The L3 cache on top-end consumer CPUs can
reach 32MB, while AMD's groundbreaking Ryzen 7 5800X3D CPUs have 96MB. CPU L3
caches in some servers can reach 128MB.

The largest and slowest cache memory unit is L3. Modern CPUs have an on-chip L3
cache. The chip's L1 and L2 caches serve each core, while the L3 cache is more like a
memory pool for the whole chip. The following images illustrate the CPU memory cache

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levels for a 2012 Intel Core i5-3570K CPU and a 2020 AMD Ryzen 5800X CPU. The
second image's bottom right corner contains CPU cache data.

Source: [1]

Note how both CPUs have a split L1 cache and larger L2 and L3 caches. On the AMD
Ryzen 5800X, the L3 cache is over five times greater than the Intel i5-3570K.

How cache memory works:

Hierarchy − Computers normally have L1, L2, and L3 caches are the several
layers of cache memory. The L1 cache is the smallest and fastest cache, located
closest to the CPU; L2 and L3 caches are larger and slower.

Cache Organization − Each block or line of cache memory contains a small bit
of data copied from the main memory. The CPU accesses cache memory in fixed-
size blocks, not bytes.

Cache Coherency − Cache coherency ensures cached data matches the main
memory data. Cache coherence techniques update other cores' caches when one
core writes to a memory location in a multi-core processor.

Cache Replacement Policies − A cache replacement policy decides which block

to evict when the cache is full and a new block is needed. LRU, FIFO, and
Random Replacement are common policies.

Cache Access − The CPU checks the cache before reading or writing data. When
data is cached, the CPU can quickly retrieve it. If data is not in the cache (cache
miss), the CPU must fetch it from the main memory, which may delay it.

Cache Hierarchy − Modern processors contain L1, L2, and L3 caches that grow
in capacity and latency farther from the CPU cores. Parallel access is achieved by
splitting the L1 cache into instruction and data caches.

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Cache Management − Optimization of cache utilization maximizes hit rates and

minimizes miss penalties. Prefetching, where the processor predicts memory
accesses and loads data into the cache, improves cache performance.
Cache memory buffers frequently access data between the CPU and main
memory to speed up processing and increase system performance. Modern
computer systems require effective management and structure for optimal
performance.

Register Memory
Register memory, which is also called processor registers or "registers," is the smallest
and fastest type of computer memory that is directly integrated into the CPU. Registers
are small, fast storage units inside the CPU that are used to quickly store data that is
being processed or instructions that are being run.

Registers serve several important functions in a computer system:

Instruction Execution − Registers hold the instructions that the CPU is

currently running. This includes the operation code (opcode) and associated
operands with it.
Data Storage − Registers store CPU-processed data. This can provide memory
addresses, intermediate values during arithmetic or logical operations, and other
data needed by the instructions being executed.

Addressing − Memory addresses are used to store or retrieve data from

memory locations in RAM or other parts of the computer's memory hierarchy.

Types of Registers

Program Counter (PC) − Stores the memory address of the next instruction to
be fetched and executed.

Instruction Register (IR) − Holds the current instruction being executed by

the CPU.

Memory Address Register (MAR) − Stores the memory address of data being
read from or written to memory.

Memory Data Register (MDR) − Contains the actual data being read from or
written to memory.

General-Purpose Registers (GPRs) − Used for general data storage and

manipulation during program execution.

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