PROGRAMMING PGR AUTOMATED INSTRUCTION

Francis Mechner
 P u b l i c ; rela-tions e x p e r t s h a v e e x p r e s s e d t h e opinion

that' t h e shock a p p e a l which propelled the t e a c h i n g m a c h i n e into

public view is in large moasuro due to the u s e of the word

"machine." The possibility of a machine replacing a human being,

a n d o f a l l h-oman b e i n g s t h e v e n e r a t e d t e a c h e r , f i r e d t h e imagina-

tions o f scientists and Journalists a l i k e . T h e whirlwind of this

excitement Is s t i l l g a t h e r i n g m o m e n t u m . B u t in t h e eye of the

storm a small group of serious scientists has been quietly reach-

ing the conclusion that t h e m a c h i n e is one of t h e less important

a s p e c t s of a u t o m a t e d i n s t r u c t i o n , t h a t it is at b e s t t h e c o n t a i n e r ,

t h e casing of the r e a l p r o d u c t . They have come to the realiza-

t i o n t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n c e p t is n o t t h e m a c h i n e b u t its

content: the program. They are also coming to a second realiza-

t i o n , that the power of the method is strongly dependent upon

t h e q u a l i t y o f t h i s p r o g r a m ; t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l t e x t b o o k is

possibly Just a case of extremely bad p r o g r a m m i n g , and that the

advantages of programmed instruction are m o r e a matter of degree

than of k i n d .

A c c o r d i n g l y , the art of p r o g r a m m i n g lies at the heart

of t h e m e t h o d , it is at p r e s e n t a p r i m i t i v e a r t , which no m a n

in the world has yet cultivated" for m o r e than a few y e a r s . No

programming orthodoxy has yet become strongly entrenched, and

new approaches a r e s t i l l emerging almost as rapidly as n e w pro-

grammers. But some tentative principles are beginning to be

Widely accepted. W h i l e these are not immutable, they are worthy

of c o n m u n i c a t l o n t o t h e n e w c o m e r s , if only as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t for

further advances.
 - 2 -

The programming philosophy advanced in this paper is

presented in that spirit. It is based on some considerations

loosely rooted in b e h a v i o r t h e o r y , and on several years of p r o -

gramming experience. It is not a simple f o r m u l a , but rather a

set of principles applicable to a broad variety of p r o b l e m s .

P e r this reason it is m o r e a p h i l o s o p h y t h a n a t e c h n i q u e .

GENERAL PEDAGOGIC: PRINCIPLES

1. Introductlng New Concepts; In teaching something n e w , build

on the student's present knowledge. Relate the new concept to

things h e already k n o w s , even if the relationships are somewhat

•far-fetched. A n a l o g i e s do n o t h a v e to b e p e r f e c t to b e u s e f u l .

In teaching atomic s t r u c t u r e , for i n s t a n c e , t h e electrons

s p i n n i n g around t h e n u c l e u s may b e likened to an o b j e c t being

twirled on a s t r i n g . S i m i l a r l y , living cells can be compared to

b r i c k s , t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f s o u n d t o w a v e s i n vjater, t h e exponen-

tial decay function to the draining of a bathtub or the height of

successive bounces of a b a l l . T h e purpose of such metaphors is

to g i v e t h e student an i n i t i a l r e p e r t o i r e of responses w i t h re-

spect to the new c o n c e p t . The metaphor gives the ihstructor a

starting point for the shaping p r o c e s s . One by o n e , the features

of the metaphor can be replaced by features of the concept being

taught: T h e hand twirling t h e string is t h e atomic n u c l e u s ; the

o b j e c t is t w i r l i n g so fast t h a t i t can n o t b e l o c a t e d ; and there

is no s t r i n g . Once it has served its heuristic p u r p o s e , the

metaphor can b e dropped.

One may question w h e t h e r it Is good strategy to establish

b e h u v i o r that w i l l later h a v e to b e eradicated.. T h e answer is

 -3-

that this is an i n e v i t a h l e aspect of learning any s k i l l , w h e t h e r

Intellectual or physical. T h e learner never starts out with the

ultimately-acceptable performance. The early appr-cxlmations

usually bear little resemblance to the finished p r o d u c t . They

m u s t n e v e r t h e l e s s b e r e i n f o r c e d if t h e l e a r n e r ' s b e h a v i o r is to

be maintained at a l e v e l w h e r e It c a n b e f u r t h e r s h a p e d . This

is t r u e w h e t h e r the s k i l l b e i n g learned is w a l k i n g , t a l k i n g ,

playing a musical instrument, or doing m a t h e m a t i c s .

2. Teaching New Terminology; D o not introduce a n a m e , w o r d , or

expression u n t i l the need for it has been established. Begin by

developing the concept. Introduce several specific instances of

i t , and then t e a c h t h e student what t h e specific instances have

in comnon. B e f o r e t h e g e n e r a l class is given a n a m e , its proper-

ties or characterizing features must b e d e s c r i b e d . Teaching the

n a m e can b e a l a t e stage in the teaching o f a c o n c e p t .

By t h e t i m e t h e t e r m Is i n t r o d u c e d , t h e student should almost

b e able to define the t e r m . H e should then learn several altern-

ative but equivalent definitions. The alternative definitions

must be explicitly taught. To "really understand" spmethlng

m e a n s to b e a b l e to e x p l a i n it in m a n y ways.

When there are several names for a concept, that I s , when

several terms have the same definition (e.g., addition, sxama-

tion, totalization) the student must learn them a l l . He must

learn t h a t they are a l l a c c e p t a b l e w h e n o n e of t h e m is called

f o r , and t h a t t h e s a m e p r o c e s s is d e s i g n a t e d w h e n any o n e of

them is u s e d .
 -4-

3. Insuring Good Retention; W h e n the student begins to forget

s o m e t h i n g , h e u s u a l l y begins to c o n f u s e it w i t h t h i n g s that are

similar. T h e m o r e s i m i l a r t w o c o n c e p t s a r e , t h e more t h e y in-

terfere with each other.

T h e r e are two ways of insuring the rentention of related

concepts: One is to focus on the d i f f e r e n c e between the concepts

and to m a k e s u r e that the s t u d e n t u n d e r s t a n d s t h e d i f f e r e n c e .

T h e o t h e r is to t i e each o n e o f t h e c o n c e p t s t o a d i f f e r e n t class.

P o r exar^jle, i n t e a c h i n g a c h i l d a b o u t w h a l e s a n d s h a r k s , o n e

would (a) point out-the differences between them (whales are

larger than s h a r k s , they spew up w a t e r , they eat smaller things,

e t c , ) and ( b ) p o i n t out how w h a l e s r e s e m b l e other m a m m a l s , and

how sharks resemble other fish.

In t e a c h i n g r e l a t e d c o n c e p t s , t h e best strategy is to con-

t r a s t and J u x t a p o s e t h e m r e p e a t e d l y . Alternating b a c k and forth

between them is frequently very u s e f u l . Pinally, the student

m u s t learn to E K P L A I N t h e d i f f e r e n c e s and similarities between

the two concepts. H e should b e capable of answering a question

of t h e form "compare Whales and s h a r k s " . It is also important

that h e b e a b l e to say it in each of s e v e r a l e q u i v a l e n t ways.

The student should never commit a particular sequence of words

to m e m o r y as t h e a n s w e r to s u c h a q u e s t i o n . H e should always

learn several ways of saying i t ,

4. Teaching Long.and Complex Sequences; In teaching any sequence,

w h e t h e r it is a w o r d , a p h r a s e , a s e n t e n c e , a f o r m u l a , an equation,

or a diagram, begin by letting the student fill in missing seg-

ments. M a k e the-mi.saing s e g m e n t s i n c r e a s i n g l y larger, until

 - 5 -

the student can produce the whole thing without s u p p o r t . For

i n s t a n c e , s a y y o u w a n t t o t e a c h t h e s e q u e n c e S'WXOMHB. The steps

might he:

1. T h e first letter of t h e s e q u e n c e S W X O M H B is ,

2. P i l l in t h e missing letter WXOMHB.

3. T h e last letter of S W X O M H B is .

4 . P i l l in the m i s s i n g letters WXOMH .

5. T h e m i d d l e letter of S W X O M H B is .

6 . P i l l in the missing letters WX MH

7 . -What w o r d d o t h e f i r s t , m i d d l e a n d l a s t l e t t e r s spell

out .

8 . T h e l e t t e r b e f o r e t h e 0 in S W X O M H B i s .

9. P i l l in t h e missing letters W MH .

1 0 . T h e letter after X O In S W X O M H B is ..

11. What are the three middle letters ?

12. Pill in the missing letters W H .

13. How many letters are there in the whole sequence?

14. T h e second letter in S W X O M H B is .

, 15. W comes before and after .

16. P i l l in t h e missing letters H

17. T h e n e x t t o l a s t l e t t e r in S W X O M H B is .

18. H comes after and b e f o r e .

19. Write the entire seven-letter sequence ,

HOW TO WRITE A PROGRAM

1. Outlining the Subject:

A. O u t l i n e t h e s u b j e c t i n t e r m s o f 5 t o 8 0 majfir h e a d i n g s .

T h e s e might correspond roughly to the chapter headings

 - 6 -

of a textbook. W r i t e t h e s e h e a d i n g s on red i n d e x c a r d s ,

and order them according to some rational sequence.

B. B r e a k down each of these headings into several sub-

headings. W r i t e t h e s e on y e l l o w i n d e x c a r d s and again

order them.

C. D o this again with g r e e n , and then once again with blue

index cards. T h e w o r d s , p h r a s e s , and concepts written

on the blue index cards should be the atoms ®f the sub-

j e c t , so to s p e a k . They should b e so elementary that a

new one can b e introduced approximately every f i v e to

ten frames of the program,

D. To introduce a new "blue" concept every ten frames does

not imply that ten consecutive frames are spent on each

c o n c e p t , or even that a t o t a l of ten frames are allocated

to that c o n c e p t ; a single frame m a y , and usually does

Involve more than one of the "blue" concepts. It merely

m e a n s t h a t t h e a v e r a g e r a t e at w h i c h b l u e c o n c e p t s are

introduced is a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n c e every ten f r a m e s .

RED: T h e concept of n u m b e r , manipulations of, postulatlonal,

numbers, arith e t c . systems

YELLOW:
set, number, number, etc,
theory systems theory

GREEN:
ets, isomorph, union, intersection, ordering, etc.

BLUE:
collection, "set", elements, brackets, order.
 - 7 -

SAMPLE OUTLINE FOR SET THSORI (illustrative only)

1. collection 25, s y m b o l i z i n g a s e t

examples of sets diagram of union

set elements in union was in

set = collection A or B or both

5, members union = or

elements union ~ sum

elements = members 30, c o m m o n elements

letters stand for elements overlap in diagram

separated by commas Junction

10. brackets intersection

p i c t u r e of a set element in I n t e r s e c t i o n of

order within brackets irrelevant A and B

arrangement within enclosure 35. d i a g r a m o f intersection

irrelevant examples of intersection

empty set etc.

15, examples of empty sets

null

n u l l = empty

no element is repeated

combining two sets into one

20. examples of combining two sets into one

union

union symbol

union = comblnatios

number of members in union

 - 8 -

2. The glow Chart;

A. Wxen a nevJ b l u e c o n c e p t i s i n t r o d u c e d d o n o t s p e n d too

many consecutive frames on i t . If you d o , previously

learned m a t e r i a l w i l l begin to slip a w a y . Review Itans

of previous material must b e interspersed. It will

rarely b e possible to spend more than three to six

c o n s e c u t i v e frames on any s i n g l e b l u e c o n c e p t . The

i n t e n s i t y w i t h w h i c h a c o n c e p t is t r e a t e d s h o u l d diminish

gradually following its initial introduction, u n t i l it

is finally reviewed no m o r e than once every hundred

frames or s o .

B. To make this "thinning out" process systematic, a s t e n c i l ,

or template has been developed. It c o n s i s t s of a series

of holes punched into an I B M c a r d . The series thins out

a c c o r d i n g to an e x p o n e n t i a l d e c a y f u n c t i o n . I t is simply

a d i g i t i z e d f o r m o f t h e f u n c t i o n _dy = K Y . For this func-

ax
t i o n , the ratios of successive ordlnates are equal. On

the card, there are six digital exponential functions.

F o r the first f u n c t i o n , t h e ratio of successive ordlnates

is . 9 6 . F o r t h e others it Is .92, .88, .84, .80, and .76

respectively. W h e n a c o n c e p t is d i f f i c u l t and requires

intensive Initial treatment, the programmer might choose

t h e first f u n c t i o n . I f t h e concept is very t r i v i a l and

easy, h e might choose the last o n e . In any c a s e , t h e

programmer must m a k e two d e c i s i o n s ; When to introduce

t h e n e w c o n c e p t , a n d VJhlch o f t h e s i x s e r i e s t o u s e .
 - 9 -

T h e actual succession of concepts in the program is

d e t e r m i n e d "by t h e o r i g i n a l outline.

Every dot in this flow c h a r t r e p r e s e n t s a "response"

by t h e s t u d e n t , p o r any given d o t , t h e s t u d e n t is r e -

quired to u s e or w r i t e t h e c o n c e p t • a l o n g s i d e w h i c h the

dot a p p e a r s . Sometimes there may be several dots verti-

cally above each o t h e r . This would mean that several

concepts should b e Integrated in that f r a m e . F r e q u e n t l y ,

a convenient way of accomplishing such integration is

to ask "essay" questions which tap all of the concepts

involved. N o t e t h a t it is not' s u f f i c i e n t to h a v e the

student merely read t h e concept called for by the d o t .

H e must actually use i t .

Successive Frames

1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
collection . . . . . .

set .,, . . .

set=collection ...

nujnbers

elements ....

elements - members . . . .

etc.

"While p r o g r a m m i n g , a l w a y s f e e l f r e e t o m o d i f y the

b l u e c o n c e p t s e q u e n c e as y o u s e e f i t . It w i l l h a v e been

i m p o s s i b l e to forsee all the problems w h i l e m a k i n g up

the original outline. A concept which may have seemed

pretty elementary at that s t a g e m a y p r o v e to n e e d some

b r e a k i n g d o w n , and v i c e versa.
 - 10 -

T h e choice of t h e exponential decay function for the

t h i n n i n g out s e q u e n c e , t h o u g h not q u i t e a r b i t r a r y , is not

b a s e d o n a n y Irntnutable l a w o f b e h a v i o r . It is m e r e l y the

simplest formula available to describe a systematic thin-

ning o u t . T h e r e is no need to a d h e r e r i g i d l y t© the

s e q u e n c e dictated by the s t e n c i l . Review items may be

moved around freely ( i . e . , several frames in either

direction) in accordance with the requiranents of the

program. T h e p u r p o s e of t h e s t e n c i l is n o t so m u c h to

c o n s t r a i n t h e p r o g r a m m e r to rigid a d h e r e n c e to an im-

m u t a b l e s e q u e n c e , as i t i s t o r e m i n d h i m o f w h a t h e m u s t

review w h e n and to aid h i m in s c h e d u l i n g t h e review-items

systematically. R e m e m b e r that "forgetting" on t h e part

o f t h e s t u d e n t s h o u l d n o t b e thoiught o f a s a l e a k through

w h i c h k n o w l e d g e d r a i n s away as a f u n c t i o n of t h e m e r e

p a s s a g e of t i m e . R a t h e r , it is a p r o c e s s of "mixing u p "

old knowledge with n e w . The more similar the new things

a r e t o t h e old o n e s , t h e m o r e forgetting w i l l ensue.

Accordingly, review is most necessary when something new

t h a t m a y g e n e r a l i z e w i t h t h e old is b e i n g t a u g h t . The

stencil does not forsee this type of exigency. In such

a c a s e , the stencil may not suggest enough review items,

and additional ones might have to b e Included.

3. General Principles of Frame Construction: The student should

h a v e to read every p a r t of the f r a m e to arrive at t h e a n s w e r . The

fact that h e answered correctly does not necessarily mean that he

learned what you intended. A student can go through an entire

prograra w i t h o u t error and also without learning anything about

 - 11 -

the subject. After writing a frame, you should always ask y o u r -

self how much of the frame the student would h a v e to read

m i n i m a l l y in order to a r r i v e at t h e correct a n s w e r . It should be

a s s u m e d t h a t t h e s t u d e n t f i r s t l o o k s at t h e b l a n k , i f t h e r e i s

one. Then h e reads away from the b l a n k in ever widening circles

until he can answer the question. The possible pitfalls are

best illustrated by examples.

A. Cows are m a m m a l s . Cows are ,

H e r e the student copies the word mammals because of the formal

p a r a l l e l i s m bety/een t h e t w o s e n t e n c e s . H e does not learn "cows"

are m a m m a l s , " h e only learns to copy t h e word m a m m a l s . The same

function would h a v e b e e n served by t h e sentence "X Y m a m m a l s " .

Better ways of writing this frame would h a v e been

Cows are m a m m a l s . W h a t are cows?

b . Cows are m a m m a l s , To put it another w a y . Cows are one

example of .

B. Cows are often brown. Horses are also often .

H e r e t h e student is cued by t h e word " o f t e n " . Since often

is p r e c e d e d by "also" t h e s e c o n d t i m e it a p p e a r s , t h e student

automatically copies the previous successor of "often" without

necessarily reading the rest of the sentence. Better would he:

a. Cows are often brown. So are horses. How does this

m a k e cows and horses similar?

b . Cows are often b r o w n . Horses teo are often b r o w n . In

other w o r d s , both and are often

C. T h e planets orbit around the s u n . T h e earth is a p l a n e t . The

earth orbits around the

 - 12 -

T h e s t u d e n t is cued by t h e w o r d s " o r b i t a r o u n d t h e " and

t h e r e f o r e does not h a v e to read a n y t h i n g else in t h e f r a m e . Some

remedies might be:

a. T h e planets orbit around the s u n . T h e e a r t h Is, a p l a n e t .

Therefore the earth ,

b . The planets orbit around the sun. T h e e a r t h is a p l a n e t .

rniat can we therefore say about the earth's movement

in relation to the sun?

D. There are nine planets. T h e earth is o n e of t h e p l a n e t s . The

l a r g e s t p l a n e t is J u p i t e r , Therefore is

larger than the earth.

T h e s t u d e n t h a s n o r e a s o n t o r e a d t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e X'Jhlch

should h a v e been omitted h e r e , and reserved for another frame.

At this p o i n t t h e q u e s t i o n m a y b e raised w h e t h e r t h e r e is

any harm in including m a t e r i a l W h i c h the student does n o t need

in order to answer t h e q u e s t i o n . After all h e m i g h t read it any-

w a y , even if h e does not learn it very securely at that time.

T h e r e are two answers to t h i s . One is that the student may feel

i n s e c u r e and g u i l t y if h e d o e s n o t m a s t e r t h e e n t i r e c o n t e n t ©f

the frame. F o r all h e k n o w s , you are c o u n t i n g on him to learn it

and a n , t h e r e may never b e another occasion to review i t . He

W a s i n s t r u c t e d n o t to go b a c k o v e r c o m p l e t e d f r a m e s . You are

therefore Inadvertently putting aversive pressures on the student

to learn any extra m a t e r i a l w h i c h t h e f r a m e might c o n t a i n . The

student has no way of ascertaining what portion of a frame's

content is relevant to the m a t e r i a l h e i n g l e a r n e d . So he Will

l e a r n t o "play i t s a f e " and m e m o r i z e b o t h t h e r e l e v a n t as well

 - 13 -

as the Irrelevant content of every f r a m e . This would waste time

and lower the student's morale. T h e student s h o u l d h e a b l e to

a s s u m e that if he can respond c o r r e c t l y , h e has learned the

r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l , a n d w i l l be able to p r o g r e s s s e c u r e l y . Unless

t h i s c o n d i t i o n is m e t , p r o g r a m m e d i n s t r u c t i o n w i l l f a l l f a r short

of its f u l l p o t e n t i a l power.
 -14-

THB FQRIM OF THE FRAME

T h e p r o g r a m m e r is f r e q u e n t l y t e m p t e d to put too m a n y blanks

into a single frame. T h o u g h this is not bad in i t s e l f , it

can cause trouble. O n e k i n d o f t r o u b l e i t c a n c a u s e is to

create a hidden amhigulty, that i s , a situation where there

are several alternative correct a n s w e r s . This ambiguity is

often not apparent to the p r o g r a m m e r , who has a certain set,

( s i n c e h e presxmiably k n o w s t h e a n s w e r ) , b u t w h i c h w i l l cause

the student unnecessary conflict. An extreme example of

this error would b e a frame of the form, "The

is the of the the , and

the Clearly there are many possible

ways to complete this s e n t e n c e , though it m a y h a v e seemed to

the programmer writing the frame that there existed only one.

In g e n e r a l , it is safest to avoid m u l t i p l e b l a n k s . When they

are u s e d , the frame should be carefully scrutinized for pos-

sible ambiguity.

A second t r o u b l e w h i c h m u l t i p l e h l a n k s can occasion

i s t h a t t h e y may pose a riddle to the s t u d e n t . There may

only b e a single correct way to c o m p l e t e the s t a t e m e n t . Yet

it may t a k e a great d e a l of thought and effort to f i g u r e out

what it i s . T h o u g h t and effort expended in this way does not

a d v a n c e t h e student's k n o w l e d g e of the s u b j e c t . It only irri-

t a t e s h i m , and wastes his t i m e . Though the programmer must

always b e c a r e f u l not to g i v e away t h e a n s w e r by inadvertent

p r o m p t s , h e s h o u l d n e v e r h e s i t a t e to g i v e a w a y t h e question

by any m e a n s whatever.
 -15-
•4

T h e r e is a l i m i t t o w h a t a s t u d e n t c a n b e t a u g h t by

having him fill in b l a n k s . It is a v e r y u s e f u l d e v i c e for

the i n i t i a l learning s t a g e s , and provides a convenient path

along which small steps can b e taken toward the final desired

performance. But complete comprehension generally requires

something m o r e . Here are some of the types of questions the

s t u d e n t s h o u l d l e a r n t o a n s w e r if h e is to b e g i v e n a t h o r -

ough understanding of the concept.

1. E x p l a i n t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n A and B.

2. C o m p o s e a s e n t e n c e u s i n g t h e e x p r e s s i o n s . A , B , and 0,

3. Compare A and B naming two similarities and two differences.

4. P i l l in the m i s s i n g parts in the following table.

5. W h a t i s a n . A?

6. Define the term A.

7. In three short s e n t e n c e s , say what you h a v e learned so

far about A.

8. F i l l in the missing parts of the diagram.

9. S o m e o n e says to you that A seems to be a c a s e of B ,

E x p l a i n to h i m w h y h e is mistaken.

10. E x p l a i n h o w y o u w o u l d g o a b o u t f i n d i n g o u t w h e t h e r A is B.

11. U s i n g information A , B , and 0 p r o v e / d e r i v e / d e m o n s t r a t e D.

12. List n conditions under which A could occur/be true.

13. Give n examples of A.

14. E x p l a i n w h a t an A i s .
 -16-

N o n e of t h e s e is h a t t e r than any o t h e r . The form of

a particular frame should be dictated only by the r e q u i r e -

m e n t s of t h e subject and t h e stage in t h e student's progress

A p r o g r e s s i o n leading to ability to explain an abstract

c o n c e p t , for I n s t a n c e , m i g h t b e g i n w i t h a series of examples

With the student filling in the key w o r d s . T h e n , again by

m e a n s of f i l l - i n s , t h e s t u d e n t m i g h t learn w h a t t h e examples

had in common. T h e student is then ready to f i l l in increas

ingly larger segments of the generalization u n t i l h e can

answer open-ended q u e s t i o n s o f t h e t y p e shov/n a b o v e .

 -17-

Concurrent Development of Several Concepts

O n e of t h e r e s o u r c e s of p r o g r a m m e d instruction is

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t e a c h i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y several concepts

which are prerequisites for a succeeding concept. This can

be accomplished b y switching back and forth between two

concurrently-developing sequences. The two sequences may

be entirely unrelated. A l t e r n a t i n g b e t w e e n t h e m , w i l l of

c o u r s e . Interrupt the continuity of each o n e . This apparent

d i s a d v a n t a g e is o u t w e i g h e d b y a n u m b e r o f considerations,

however. T h e m a i n one is t h a t the s k i l l b e i n g t a u g h t in

e a c h sequence is b r o u g h t u n d e r the control of a b r o a d e r

r a n g e of s t i m u l i . If the student acquires, any given skill

o n l y in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e t o p i c in q u e s t i o n , t h e r e always

r e m a i n s t h e p r o b l e m of I n s u r i n g t h a t t h e s k i l l w i l l a l s o be

a v a i l a b l e t o h i m w h e n t h e c o n t e x t is c h a n g e d . He may "for-

g e t " his skill w h e n the situation is in some w a y altered.

O n e w a y o f c o u n t e r a c t i n g t h i s e f f e c t is t o i n t e r t w i n e the

l e a r n i n g of s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t skills.

A s e c o n d a r g u m e n t i n f a v o r of d e v e l o p i n g several

sequences c o n c u r r e n t l y is t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of u t i l i z i n g cross-

t i e s t h a t m a y d e v e l o p as t h e t w o s e q u e n c e s u n f o l d . An ex-

a m p l e of t h i s is t h e m u t u a l stx'engthenlng t h a t a r i s e s in

t h e t e a c h i n g of c h e m i s t r y w h e n t h e t o p i c s of a t o m i c struc-

ture and descriptive chemistry are developed simultaneously.

T h e t e a c h i n g of a t o m i c s t r u c t u r e is f a c i l i t a t e d if t h e stu-

dent already knows about hydrogen, oxygen, reactions, and

the chemical similarities between the halogens. Similarly,

 -18-

t h e t e a c h i n g o f d e s c r i p t i v e c h e m i s t r y Is g r e a t l y a i d e d i f

s u c h c o n c e p t s as a t o m , m o l e c u l e , e l e c t r o n , a n d v a l e n c e can

be Invoked,

A t h i r d a r g u m e n t f o r c o n c u r r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t is the

e c o n o m y i n h e r e n t In t h e simultaneous "maturation" of two

c o n c e p t s w h o s e s y n t h e s i s f o r m s t h e b a s i s of t h e n e x t con-

cept to be t a u g h t . To return to the chemistry example,

both descriptive chemistry and atomic structure are pre-

requisites for understanding the periodic t a b l e . If the

d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e s e t w o t o p i c s is c o n c u r r e n t , t h e y b o t h b e -

come available when they are n e e d e d . This strategy is

superior to the less economical alternative of first teach-

ing atomic structure, then descriptive chemistry, and r e -

viewing atomic structure all through the descriptive chem-

istry sequence.

A simple e x a m p l e of the c o n c u r r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t princi-

p l e Is g i v e n b e l o w . Frames labeled A represent one sequence,

and frames labeled B , another. The frames labeled A B are

the synthesis of the t w o . Sequences A and B alternate approx-

imately every two f r a m e s . T h i s a l t e r n a t i o n rate is arbitrary,

and could Just as w e l l have b e e n every three or every four

frames. O f t e n , an a l t e r n a t i o n r a t e of e v e r y f i f t y o r o n e

hundred frames is appropriate. In any case, the specific

s w i t c h i n g points s h o u l d c o r r e s p o n d to n a t u r a l discontinui-

t i e s in t h e u n f o l d i n g of t h e topic.
 , SUPPLELiEHT I

P R O G R ^ i v u . i I N G P''OR A U T O w i i i T L D lilSTRaCTIOR

Francis Mechner
¥Vhat is a F r a m e ?

The above statement is a n e x a m p l e of a f r a m e , t h o u g h a

difficult one a t this p o i n t i n t h e p r o g r a m . Other examples of

frames are:

Quadrupeds have legs.

(hov/ m a n y )

T o be or n o t to b e , t h a t is the ^ .

In a short p a r a g r a p h , summarize Hamlet's speech.

E x p l a i n how a i r f o i l - s h a p e d wings keep a plane aloft.

M o z a r t w a s b o r n i n the y e a r .
Give three proofs of t h e P y t h a g o r e a n theorem.

C o m p l e t e the d i a g r a m of t h e c i r c u l a t o r y s y s t e m shown
b e l o w , a n d f i l l i n the m i s s i n g l a b e l s ,

T o r r e c e l l i u s e d his m e r c u r y c o l u m n a p p a r a t u s to
demonstrate .

A p l a n e is f l y i n g a t a n a l t i t u d e of 2 m i l e s . A
p a r a c h u t i s t jumps o u t . A f t e r I4. s e c o n d s , b e f o r e h i s
p a r a c h u t e has o p e n e d , he has f a l l e n 256 f e e t . Over
w h i c h p l a n e t w a s the p l a n e f l y i n g ? E x p l a i n y o u r ansv/er.

M a k e a table showing the f i r s t four periods of t h e

periodic table.

D a m a g e t o the h e a r t m u s c l e due to o c c l u s i o n of a
coronarj'" b l o o d v e s s e l is c a l l e d .

Hame a l l t h e . f u n g i that can cause onychomycosis.

If A U B equals A A B , w h a t c a n you say about A a n d B?

Vi/rite the d e c i m a l n u m b e r 2 9 i n the b i n a r y system,

Vvhy a r e w h a l e s c l a s s i f i e d as m a m m a l s rather than fish?

 - 2 -

In g e n e r a l , a frame is a q u e s t i o n or a n i n s t r u c t i o n . I t is a

statement which requires a response. T h e r e n e e d n o t b e a ipiique

correct response. The important feature of a frame is t h a t it

enlists the s t u d e n t ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Consider the follov/ing

statement:

O c c l u s i o n or b l o c k a g e of a c o r o n a r y b l o o d v e s s e l , if
p r o l o n g e d , c a u s e s d a m a g e to t h e h e a r t m u s c l e , or m y o c a r d i u m .
The m e d i c a l term for m y o c a r d i a l damage produced b y occlusion
o f a c o r o n a r y b l o o d v e s s e l is m y o c a r d i a l I n f a r c t i o n .

T h i s is n e i t h e r a f r a m e n o r a p r o g r a m ; i t is a l e c t u r e . The

student c o u l d r e a d o n w i t h o u t h a v i n g l e a r n e d the c o n t e n t s of

that p a s s a g e . H e has n o w a y of k n o w i n g w h e t h e r he h a s i n f a c t

l e a r n e d v/hat the a u t h o r w a s c o u n t i n g o n h i m to h a v e learned.

T h e s a m e s t a t e m e n t c o u l d b e b r o k e n d o w n i n t o f r a m e s as f o l l o w s :

1. M y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n is the m e d i c a l t e r m f o r d a m a g e to the

h e a r t m u s c l e , or m y o c a r d i u m . Vshich p a r t of t h e w o i d

"myocardium" means heart? Vvhich p a r t m e a n s m u s c l e ?

2. Damage to the m y o r e s u l t s f r o m o c o l u s i o n or blockage

of a c o r o n a r y b l o o d v e s s e l .

3. 0 or b l o c k a g e o f a c o r o n a r y b l o o d v e s s e l , if

p r o l o n g e d , causes damage to the .

ij.. M y o c a r d i a l d e s t r u c t i o n d u e to of a c o r o n a r y

b l o o d v e s s e l is c a l l e d infarction.

5. Myocardial arction is t h e t e c h n i c a l n a m e f o r d a m a g e to.

the myocardi-um.

-6. O c c l u s i o n of the c o r o n a r y a r t e r y is one of the possible

causes of inf
7. , is the m e d i c a l t e r m f o r d a m a g e of

the m y o c a r d i u m caused b y o c c l u s i o n of a

8. D e f i n e the t e r m MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION.

T h e p r o g r a m m e d v e r s i o n o f t h e stateraent c o n t a i n s about

t h r e e t i m e s , as m a n y w o r d s as t h e o r i g i n a l s t a t e m e n t . On the

o t h e r h a n d , , if the s t u d e n t h a s a n s w e r e d a l l e i g h t f r a m e s , h e

h a s u n e q u i v o c a l e v i d e n c e t h a t he h a s m a s t e r e d the.relevant

i n f o r m a t i o n a n d that he c a n p r o c e e d securely,

T h e e x p e r i e n c e d s t u d e n t , v/ho 1-mows hov t o l e a r n f r o m a

textbook, improvises a p r o g r a m for himself as he reads along.

He underlines the passages or e x p r e s s i o n s he f e e l s a r e important,

he m a k e s u p l i t t l e q u e s t i o n s w h i c h he a s k s h i m s e l f as, he p r o c e e d s ,

h e g o e s b a c k a n d r e v i e w s w h e n he f e a r s that previously learned

m a t e r i a l is b e g i n n i n g t o s l i p av>ray, a n d he p e r i o d i c a l l y tests

himself to make sure t h a t h i s g r a s p of w h a t h e has l e a r n e d is

firm. N a t u r a l l y , very few students succeed in acquiring this

difficult skill during their academic c a r e e r s , a n d those that d o ,

f r e q u e n t l y l a c k t h e d i s c i p l i n e a n d s e l f - c o n t r o l w h i c h is n e e d e d

to exercise it. I t is so m u c h e a s i e r t o j u s t r e a d along.

P i n a l l y , the s t u d e n t is n o t v e r y w e l l q u a l i f i e d t o p r o g r a m

m a t e r i a l w h i c h h e is j u s t l e a r n i n g . H e c a n n o t alv/ays k n o w which

questions to a s k h i m s e l f . H e is n o t y e t a b l e to discriminate

the important f r o m t h e u n i m p o r t a n t , o r to p l a c e t h e emphases

where they belong. T h e I n d i v i d u a l b e s t q u a l i f i e d t o d o the

programming is t h e t e x t b o o k ' s author.

 - k -

I N A D V E R T E N T C U E S A N D PROiYlPTS

A p s y c h o l o g i s t w o u l d s a y t h a t the f u n c t i o n o f a n

i n s t r u c t i o n a l prograra is to b r i n g the s t u d e n t ' s b e h a v i o r u n d e r .

t h e c o n t r o l of the p r o p e r s t i m u l i . This m a y s o u n d like a

rather narrow objective. A c t u a l l y i t c o v e r s a l l of learning.

Q u e s t i o n s , i n s t r u c t i o n s , a n d a l l the e x a m p l e s of f r a m e s listed

a b o v e , are s t i m u l i . The responses to the q u e s t i o n s and

instructions constitutfe the b e h a v i o r . I f the student gives the

r i g h t ans¥/ers to the r i g h t q u e s t i o n s , t h e n his b e h a v i o r has been

b r o u g h t u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of t h e p r o p e r stimuli.

O n e of the g r e a t e s t p r o b l e m s that confronts the programmer

is t o i n s u r e t h a t the s t u d e n t ' s r e s p o n s e s a r e c o m i n g u n d e r the

c o n t r o l of the i n t e n d e d s t i m u l i . A s t u d e n t m a y g i v e the right

a n s w e r f o r the w r o n g r e a s o n . The a n s w e r m a y be cued b y cues and

prcxnpts t h a t a r e e x t r a n e o u s to t h e s u b j e c t . Such undesired cues

and prompts can take i n n u m e r a b l e f o r m s . Before a programmer is

r e a l l y c o m p e t e n t , he m u s t b e a b l e t o r e c o g n i z e s u c h p r o m p t s and

to a v o i d t h e m i n his w r i t i n g . This requires not only experience,

but also great verbal s e n s i t i v i t y , for there exists an almost

e n d l e s s v a r i e t y of e x t r a n e o u s prompts.

I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n v/hich f o l l o w s , the e x p r e s s i o n "extraneous

c u e s " v/ill r e f e r to c u e s w h i c h a r e n o t i n h e r e n t i n the subject

being taught. Extraneous cues c a n , of c o u r s e , be u s e f u l in

constructing a new behavioral chain. T h e t e c h n i q u e known as

"fading" i n v o l v e s t h e e l i c i t a t i o n of c e r t a i n d e s i r e d responses

b y the i n i t i a l u s e o f e x t r a n e o u s c u e s , and the gradual replacement

 - 5 -

of t h e s e c u e s b y new o n e s w h i c h a r e m o r e p e r t i n e n t to t h e s u b j e c t .

So extraneous c u e s are n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n a d v e r t e n t ; t h e y m a y b e

used deliberately. The examples given below illustrate some of

the m o s t f r e q u e n t types of e x t r a n e o u s cues. T h e y are n o t an

exhaustive catalogue. T h e y are m o r e l i k e a c o l l e c t i o n of

a r c h e t y p i c a l c a s e s s e l e c t e d to s a m p b t h e r a n g e of c l a s s e s v;hich

a r e of p r a c t i c a l importance.

gormal Cues

This is t h e s i m p l e s t a n d m o s t p r i m i t i v e k i n d of cue which

does n o t e v e n r e q u i r e k n o w l e d g e of the l a n g u a g e for its

utilization. I t is m o s t f r e q u e n t l y s e e n i n f r a m e s that involve

b l a n k s , a n d it u s u a l l y d e r i v e s f r o m the s t r u c t u r e or the

immediate v e r b a l eiivironment of the b l a n k .

A, F u n g i live on the dead cells of t h e s k i n , h a i r , a n d n a i l s .

Therefore the , , and

are the i n f e c t e d a r e a s in c a s e s of s u p e r f i c i a l m y c o s e s .

E v e n without knowing E n g l i s h , a student could recognize the

f o r m a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the three-v/ord s e r i e s implied by

the b l a n k s a n d t h e one t h a t a p p e a r s i n the p r e c e d i n g sentence.

B. T o p u l l h a r d e r m e a n s to p u l l w i t h a f o r c e of g r e a t e r size

or m a g n i t u d e . I n g e n e r a l , the s t r e n g t h o f a f o r c e is its

or .

A g a i n , the o n l y two words i n the top l i n e s e p a r a t e d b y the word

or are s i z e a n d m a g n i t u d e . Therefore the w o r d _or b e t w e e n the

two blanks is the c u e ?;hich g i v e s a w a y the a n s w e r , a n d the

 - 6 -

programmer c a n n o t c o u n t o n the s t u d e n t t o b e a f f e c t e d b y the

remainder of the context.

Sequential Prompts

Prom a programmer's p o i n t of v i e w , these a r e a m o n g the

most insidious. They are difficulb to d e t e c t b e c a u s e their

effects extend across s e v e r a l f r a r e s , and because examination

of a n y s i n g l e frame does not r e v e a l them.

The m o s t o b v i o u s type of s e q u e n t i a l p r o m p t is a s e r i e s of

f r a m e s r e q u i r i n g the s a m e r e s p o n s e . T h e follov;ing s e q u e n c e is

an example:

1. A c o l l e c t i o n of d i s h e s is c a l l e d a s e t of d i s h e s . Six

cups m i g h t be c a l l e d a of c u p s .

2. Several pieces of c l o t h i n g m i g h t b e c a l l e d a

of clothes.

3. A p a c k of c a r d s c a n a l s o b e c a l l e d a d e c k or a

of c a r d s .

Ij.. Things do n o t e v e n h a v e to b e o f the s a m e k i n d to b e called

a set. A n y c o l l e c t i o n o f t h i n g s m a y be c a l l e d a

T h e f i r s t t w o f r a m e s a r e g o o d , b u t i n the c a s e of the t h i r d and

f o u r t h f r a m e s , the cue f o r the a n s w e r " s e t " I s a l r e a d y n o longer

the f r a m e itself... T h e a c t u a l cue is l i k e l y to b e the answier just

g i v e n i n the p r e v i o u s f r a m e . The student begins to b e h a v e in

a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the a t t i t u d e , " T h e a n s w e r s e e m s to b e 'set' every

time". Vvhile t h i s m a y l e a d the s t u d e n t to the r i g h t ansvv'er, it

t e a c h e s h i m l i t t l e a b o u t the m e a n i n g o f the w o r d " s e t " ; it d o e s

n o t t e a c h h i m to u s e the v;oi>d in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e interverbal

context.

Suppose this particular defect were eliminated b y rewriting

t h e p r o g r a m as f o l l o w s :

1. A c o l l e c t i o n of d i s h e s is c a l l e d a s e t of d i s h e s . Six cups

might be called a of cups.

2. Several pieces of c l o t h i n g m i g h t b e c a l l e d a

of c l o t h e s ,

3. A p a c k of c o u l d a l s o b e c a l l e d a d e c k or a

s e t of c a r d s .

Ip. T h i n g s d o n o t e v e n h a v e to b e of t h e same k i n d t o b e called

a set. A n y c o l l e c t i o n of t h i n g s m a y b e c a l l e d a

H e r e the c o n t i n u i t y is b r o k e n . I n the t h i r d f r a m e the answer

is n o t " s e t " b u t soraething e l s e , a n d the s t u d e n t d o e s n o t learn

t o w r i t e the w o r d " s e t " a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n f r a m e a f t e r frame.

B u t n o w t h e r e is s t i l l a n o t h e r c r i t i c i s m . T h e r e is still

s e q u e n t i a l p r o m p t i n g i n the f o u r f r a m e s . Vvhat t h r e e w o r d s in

all cases precede the w o r d " s e t " w h e r e v e r it a p p e a r s ? T h e v/ords

are "be called a " . This type of p r o m p t is e x c e e d i n g l y difficult

f o r t h e programi'aer t o c a t c h . T o a v o i d i t consist''dhtly-3'-''a

prograaimer n e e d s l o n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d a s h a r p eye.
 - 8 -

S^pntactlc Prompts

I n the e x a m p l e s p r e s e n t e d belov/, the p r o m p t is n e i t h e r of

the f o r m a l n o r o f the s e q u e n t i a l v a r i e t y . It derives f r o m the

logical equivalence o f c e r t a i n t y p e s of s t a t e m e n t s .

Example 1.

M y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n is c a u s e d b y o c c l u s i o n of a coronary
b l o o d v e s s e l . H o w is m y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n c a u s e d ? ••'

T h e s t u d e n t m e r e l y has t o r e c o g n i z e t h e l o g i c a l e q u i v a l e n c e of

"X is c a u s e d b y " a n d " H o w is X c a u s e d ? " Both statements

require the s a m e a n s w e r . To a r r i v e at i t , the s t u d e n t can

r e g a r d X as a n a r b i t r a r y s y m b o l (he c a n I g n o r e i t s f o r m a l or

semantic c o n n o t a t i o n s ) , and only needs to c o p y t h e relevant

w o r d s , i n the p r e s e n t c a s e " o c c l u s i o n of a c o r o n a r y blood

vessel". A b e t t e r w a y t o w r i t e the f r a m e virould b e :

M y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n is c a u s e d b y o c c l u s i o n of a c o r o n a r y
b l o o d v e s s e l . L h a t m i g h t b e t h e r e s u l t of a b l o o d c l o t b l o c k i n g
the c o r o n a r y a r t e r y ?

H e r e t h e s t u d e n t m u s t c o n s i d e r w/hether a b l o o d c l o t b l o c k i n g the

c o r o n a r y a r t e r y is a n i n s t a n c e of o c o l u s i o n o f a c o r o n a r y b l o o d

vessel.

Example 2.

A s e t is a c p l l e c t i o n of e l e m e n t s . Vvhat is a s e t ?

T h i s c a n b e f o r m u l a t e d as " X is Y . W h a t is X ? " The student,

k n o w i n g f r o m h i s e x p e r i e n c e with the E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e that

" X is _" a n d " W h a t is X ? " a r e s a t i s f i e d b y the s a m e answer,

s i m p l y c o p i e s Y , w i t h o u t e n r i c h i n g his c o n c e p t of e i t h e r X or Y .
 - 10 -

The o n l y w a y t h e s t u d e n t HOT; h a s of a r r i v i n g a t t h e a n s w e r is

to. count the c o n t i n e n t s . This not only makes for better

r e t e n t i o n of t h e n u m b e r 5 j b u t a l s o m a k e s the s t u d e n t more

aware of w h a t k i n d o f t h i n g he is enumerating.

E x a m p l e Ip.

A l i n e is d e f i n e d b y its s l o p e a n d y - l n t e r c e p t . H o w is a
line defined?

One p o s s i b l e r e m e d y i s :

I n o r d e r t o b e a b l e t o d r a w t h e g r a p h of t h e l i n e
y = m x 4- h , y o u h a v e t o k n o w m a n d b , m is the s l o p e of the
l i n e a n d b is its y - i n t e r c e p t . S o a l i n e is d e f i n e d b y

W h e n the f r a m e is w r i t t e n in this m a n n e r , the s t u d e n t must

r e a l i z e that the i n f o r m a t i o n that "defines the l i n e " is the

s a m e a s " w h a t y o u h a v e to k n o w t o b e a b l e t o d r a w the g r a p h of

the l i n e " . T h e r e f o r e , the frame forces him to think about

T\?hat t h e w o r d " d e f i n e s " m e a n s . T h e n h e has t o e x t r a c t t h e fact

that the slope a n d the y - i n t e r c e p t , w h i c h are r e p r e s e n t e d by

m and b , constitute the d e f i n i n g information.

 SUPPIEMENT II

PROGRAMMING FOR AUTOMATED INSTRUCTION

Francis Mechner, P h . D .

C o p y r i g h t I96I
Basic Systems, Inc.
42 E a s t 52nd s t r e e t
New Y o r k , New York
 - 1 -

MONITORING THE SHAPHVG PROCESS

In the following excerpts from programs, the answer which the student has

to give changes gradually. F i l l in the answer in each case, and observe the

way in which it changes from one frame to the n e x t ,

I. 1. Manufacture means to make or build. Chair factories manufacture

chairs. ' Copy the word here:

2. Part of the word is like part of the word factory. Both parts come
f rem an old word meaning "to make or biiild".
m a n u u r e

3. Part of the word is like part of the word m a n u a l . Both parts come
from an old word for "hand". Many things used to be made by h a n d .
_ _ f a c t u r e

h. The same letter goes in both spaces:

m_nuf__^cture

5. The same letter goes in both spaces:

m a n _ f a c t _ _ r e

6. Chair factories ^ _ _ chairs.

_ (After B . F . Skinner)

II. 1 , ilie electrocardiogram is analyzed in terms of five deflections from

the base l i n e . These ____________ deflections are labeled with the
(how many)
letters P , Q , R , S , and T .

2, Label the five deflections of the normal tracing below, using the
letters P , Q , R, S , T in that order, going from left to right.
 - 2-

3, The S deflection is sometimes totally absent. In one of the tracings

below the S deflection is absent. Show where it wonld be if it were
present.

-/rf.i

h. Label this normal tracing, indicating by arrows which deflection is

designated by each letter. Also, show vheve the S wave would be if
it were present.

5. The five deflections of the electrocardiogram are called w a v e s .

Label the five waves of this normal tracing.

6. In the tracing shown below.

the R wave is about times as large as the Q w a v e .

(how many?)
How large is the S wave?

7. The Q , R , and S waves are missing in this diagram. Drax^r them in

as they might appear in the normal electrocardiogram.
 - 3 -

8. Compare the P and T x-^aves i n t h i s diagram.

litiich i s longer, the P-Q segment or the S-T segment?

9, I n t h i s diagram, the P and T x^aves are missing. Draw them i n as

they xTOXild appear i n the normal tracing".

s~r s-f,
5-
10. \Tm.t i s the r e l a t i o n of the S-T segment to the base line? -/I,

11. Draw the complete normal EGG tracing wi-ftt a l l parts labeled,
including the S-T segment.

I l l , 1 . There are certain plant-like organisms that can caxxse disease. The
one we are studying here i s called a fungus. So we can say that one
type of p l a n t - l i k e organism which can cause disease i s called a

2. A fungus i s a - l i k e organism tliat can caxise disease.

3 . Just as the plxrral of alimmus i s alumni, so the p l u r a l of fxmgus i s

4. The exposed parts of the skin, hair, and nails of the human body are
made up of dead c e l l s . Most disease-causing fxxngi l i v e on dead cells,
Therefore, most disease-causing fungi l i v e on
 - 4 -

5. Disease-causing ftmgi l i v e on dead c e l l s . The reason why fungi are

found on the skin, hair, and n a i l s , i s that they contain cells
which are

6 . Disease-causing fungi l i v e on the exposed and _ c e l l s of

the skin, hair, and n a i l s .

7 . The horns of a b u l l are made of a substance called keratin. Your

f i n g e r n a i l - and toenails, l i k e the horns of the b u l l , contain the
substance known as
8. A l l of the dead cells of the exposed ijarts of the body are said to
be keratinized. The dead cells of the hair, f o r example, contain
the substance called

9. I n addition to the hair and n a i l s , the dead cells of the exposed

skin also contain keratin, and are therefore called k ed
cells.

1 0 . ¥h3.t are the dead c e l l s containing keratin called?

11. Compose a meaningful sentence V7hich uses the folio-wing words:
dead, c e l l s , skin, hair, n a i l s , keratin, keratinized.

The above are a l l examples of sequences where the student's answer

gradually builds up i n length and complexity.

I t i s not always easy f o r the programmer to keep track of the shaping

process, which may extend over dozens and sometimes even hundreds of frames.

As he -writes the program, he can easily lose track of the s-tage he has

reached. But even more d i f f i c u l t f o r the programmer i s t o keep track of

the rate at which he develops concepts. Unless he monitors himself

carefully, the speed -with which he builds up d i f f e r e n t concepts may fluctuate

widely.

The simplest way f o r the programmer to monitor the speed and direction

of the shaping process x^hile he i s w r i t i n g , i s t o keep a record of the

ansxT-ers f o r consecutive frames. He can keep t h i s record on a separate sheet

of paper, writing down each successive anssfer as soon as he has written the

fraue. The resulting record allows him to survey at a glance the evolution

of the behavior being established. This method of surveying the learning

process is based on the principle that the student is not expected to have

learned anything he has not written. The only thing this record does not

specify is the stimuli under whose control the indicated behavior is being

brought. Though that aspect of the story is also important, its inclusion

would make the record too unwieldy. The best compromise between a complete

record and a useful one is the list of successive ans&xers.

 SIJPPLEKENT III

PROGRAI«NG FOR AUTOMATED INSTRUCTION

F r a n c i s Mechner, Ph.D.

c o p y r i g h t 1961
B a s i c S^Etems, I n c .
42 E a s t 52nd S t r e e t
New York, New York
 - 1 -

HOW TO TEACH CONCEPTS

W e s a y that a child has l e a r n e d w h a t a horse Is v/hen he

s a y s t h e w o r d "ho»erBv on the r i g h t occasions. These might

Include the presence of a h o r s e , the s o u n d o f n e i g h i n g , a

pictxire o f a h o r s e , e t c . B u t is t h i s a sxxfficlent condition

for saying that this child knows w h a t a horse is? Suppose he

s a i d t h e w o r d " h o r s e " n o t o n l y o n the o c c a s i o n s l i s t e d a b o v e ,

b u t a l s o w h e n o t h e r a n i m a l s , s u c h a s cov/s, d o g s , a n d b i r d s

a p p e a r e d o n the s c e n e . C l e a r l y , we would then say that this

c h i l d d o e s n o t k n o w v/hat a h o r s e I s , s i n c e he d o e s not

"discriminate" between horses and other a n i m a l s . So we

require not only that the term "horse" be a p p l i e d to large

foxir-legged h o o f e d a n i m a l s t h a t h a v e m a n e s a n d n e i g h , b u t

a l s o t h a t it n o t b e a p p l i e d to a n i m a l s t h a t do n o t m e e t these

specifications,

P s y c h o l o g y h a s a g r e a t d e a l to s a y a b o u t h o w c o n c e p t s are

taxight m o s t e f f i c i e n t l y . Suppose a psychologist wanted to

t e a c h h i s c h i l d the c o n c e p t of r e d n e s s . The child can already

s a y the w o r d " r e d " , b u t does n o t yet a p p l y it appropriately.

T h e p s y c h o l o g i s t m i g h t p o i n t in s u c c e s s i o n to p i c t u r e s or objects

aroxind the r o o m , a n d a s k e a c h t i m e , "^What c o l o r is t h i s ? " Every

time the child gives the right a n s w e r , the p s y c h o l o g i s t provides

s o m e s o r t of c o n f i r m a t i o n or o t h e r s u i t a b l e r e i n f o r c e m e n t . He

d o e s n o t p o i n t t o t h e o b j e c t s s a y i n g " T h i s is r e d , t h i s is

green, etc," He lets the c h i l d m a k e t h e r e s p o n s e s himself.

 - 2

T h e p s y c h o l o g i s t laight f i r s t p i c k s e v e r a l r e d o b j e c t s in

a r o w , to l e t h i s s t u d e n t r a c k u p a l i t t l e confidence. T h e n he

would o c c a s i o n a l l y point to a green o b j e c t , accepting "not red"

a s a c o r r e c t ansv/er v/hen one of t h e s e is s h o w n . In choosing the

r e d o b j e c t s , he v/ould b e c a r e f u l t o i n c l u d e l a r g e o n e s as v/ell

a s s m a l l o n e s , d i s t a n t as w e l l as n e a r o n e s , d a r k as w e l l a s

l i g h t , and coarse as w e l l a s s h i n y o n e s . This i s to prevent

any other attribute than redness from becoming associated with

the r e s p o n s e "red" through inadvertent fortuitous selection*

The child learns to g e n e r a l i z e a m o n g objects that have in

common n o t h i n g other than r e d n e s s .

Once the child s h o w s signs of g e n e r a l i z i n g v/ithln t h e class'

o f r e d o b j e c t s a n d dis c r i m ina t i n g >-these f r o m g r e e n o n e s , a nev/

class, say yellow objects, may be brought in. T h e s e , like the

g r e e n o b j e c t s , v/ould a l s o b e c a l l e d " n o t r e d " . The psychologist

continues to a l t e r n a t e among the r e d , g r e e n , and yellow objects

in a r a n d o m or u n s y s t e m a t i c way. A s s o o n a s this n e w discrimi-

n a t i o n is a l s o l e a r n e d , b l u e , b l a c k , p u r p l e , and o r a n g e objects

are s u c c e s s i v e l y I n t r o d u c e d I n t Q t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s . 'When t h e

child no longer makes any mistakes—that i s , no longer says

" r e d " to t h i n g s t h a t are n o t r e d — h e has a c q u i r e d the concept

of r e d n e s s .

I n s h o r t , w e s a y t h a t a n I n d i v i d u a l has l e a r n e d a concept

w h e n he a p p l i e s the t e r m ( e . g . r e d , h o r s e , c h a i r , g i r l , h a t e ,

aldehyde, annelid, gyroscope, Lagrange integral) selectively to

certain objects or s i t u a t i o n s , He m u s t a p p l y the t e r m to the

entities t h a t f a l l w i t h i n the c a t e g o r y , and, n o t to t h o s e that

f a l l o u t s i d e the c a t e g o r y . A psychologist would s a y t h a t he

m u s t l e a r n to g e n e r a l i z e w i t h i n a c l a s s , a n d t o discriminate

b e t w e e n that class and other classes.

The psychologist t e a c h i n g h i s c h i l d t h e c o n c e p t of r e d n e s s ,

was applying certain principles of c o n c e p t f o r m a t i o n t h a t h a v e

been worked out by experimental psychologists in the learning

laboratory. P o r one t h i n g , h e w a s l e t t i n g t h e c h i l d m a k e the

responses. W h e n e v e r a d e s i r e d r e s p o n s e o c c u r r e d , he rewarded

i t i n a w a y he c o n s i d e r e d e f f e c t i v e (confirmation, approval,

praise, etc.). He established the generalization w i t h i n the

c l a s s of r e d o b j e c t s b y f i n d i n g a w i d e r a n g e of o b j e c t s from

that class—objects t h a t v a r i e d as m u c h as p o s s i b l e In p r o p e r t i e s

other than c o l o r . This was to m a k e s u r e t h a t the w o r d "red"

becomes a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the c o l o r , rather than w i t h a n y other

p r o p e r t y w h i c h these objects m i g h t s h a r e . T h e n he established

a discrimination between r e d objects and objects having other

c o l o r s b y a l t e r n a t i n g the o t h e r o b j e c t s w i t h the r e d objects.

H e d i d n o t f i r s t s h o w a l l the r e d o b j e c t s , a n d t h e n a l l t h e

g r e e n , yellow, and blue objects. R a t h e r , h e allternated b a c k

a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n a l l the v a r i o u s colors Involved. Research

h a s s h o w n t h a t the m o r e f r e q u e n t this a l t e r n a t i o n , t h e m o r e

r a p i d l y the d i s c r i m i n a t i o n is learned.
 - 4 -

I n general, the student must f i r s t be shown a v a r i e t y of

s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s or examples of the concept being taught.

These should be a l t e r n a t e d v/ith the non-instances from v h i c h

the concept i s t o be d i s c r i m i n a t e d . The a b s t r a c t or general

statement cannot be properly understood without these p r e l i m i -

n a r i e s , and should therefore be deferred u n t i l the necessary

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s have been formed.

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t the p r i n c i p l e of examples before the

r u l e i s not often a p p l i e d by t e a c h e r s . I n h i s "Rules" a r t i c l e ,

Lloyd Homme points out t h a t most people, when e x p l a i n i n g something,

f i r s t State the general r u l e and then i l l u s t r a t e i t with examples:

"...a t u t o r w i l l t y p i c a l l y enunciate a p r i n c i p l e and „

follow t h i s with a s e r i e s of i n s t a n c e s of the p r i n c i p l e .
The s t a t i s t i c s t u t o r , f o r example, i s l i k e l y to say:
'The mean i s simply defined as Ex/N. For example, i n
the d i s t r i b u t i o n b e l o w , . The f o r e i g n language teacher
might say: 'Such and such takes the o b j e c t i v e case.
For example,...'. The psychology p r o f e s s o r s a y s : 'The
d i s c r i m i n a t i v e stimulus i s a stimulus which s e t s the
occasion f o r a r e i n f o r c e d response. For example, i f we
have a Skinner box...'."

Homme's observation i s accurate, of course. I t i s also a

provocative one i n view of the f a c t t h a t the a l t e r n a t i v e , which

i s to give the examples before the r u l e , i s so much more e f f e c t i v e ,

at l e a s t according t o behavior theory. bJhy do so many people use

the l e s s e f f e c t i v e method? Should t h i s l e a d us to reexamine our

the ory?
 A c t u a l l y , the explanation i s f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . It is

more u s e f u l t o remember the general statement t h a t mammals a r e

warm-blooded animals t h a t bear t h e i r young a l i v e and nurse them,

than i t i s t o remember t h a t each s p e c i f i c s p e c i e s such as cows,

monkeys, horses, c a t s , dogs, rhinoceroses, sheep, e t c , ad infinitvum,

i s a mammal. Similarly, i t i s more u s e f u l t o remember t h a t the

square of any number ending i n f i v e , such as X5 where X i s every-

t h i n g t o the l e f t of t h e f i v e , i s equal t o X times X+1 followed

by 25, than i t i s t o remember the squares of any s p e c i f i c numbers

ending i n f i v e , such as 15 x 15 225, 25 x 25 = 625, 35 x 35 = 1225,

etc. I n general, one i s b e t t e r o f f remembering a body of information

i n a condensed and t h e r e f o r e a b s t r a c t form, than i n the form of

innumerable s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s . T h i s i s a l s o why s c i e n t i s t s p r e f e r

to s t o r e t h e i r knowledge i n the form of g e n e r a l svimmary statements

c a l l e d t h e o r i e s , r a t h e r than i n the form of huge masses of specific..-

i n d i v i d u a l disconnected observations.

I t i s t h e r e f o r e easy t o see v;hy the general statement i s so

often the f i r s t one given by the teacher. I t i s simply the one

which he remembers b e s t and v/hich i s t h e r e f o r e the most a c c e s s i b l e

t o him. The general r u l e , being the form i n which an i n d i v i d u a l

s t o r e s h i s knowledge, i s a l s o the form i n which he can most e a s i l y

produce i t . once he has s t a t e d the general r u l e , and while the

"student" i s asking "yjhat do you mean?" or "Please e x p l a i n " , he

has time t o conjure up examples. T h i s i s s o c i a l l y much more

d i g n i f i e d than the a l t e r n a t i v e , which i s t o pause and t h i n k of

the examples before saying anything a t a l l , and then t o break the

pregnant s i l e n c e with some i n t e l l e c t u a l l y p r o s a i c i l l u s t r a t i o n s .

To s t a t e the r u l e before g i v i n g examples i s simply e a s i e r and

more p l e a s a n t f o r the teacher.

The g r e a t t e a c h e r s and w r i t e r s of the p a s t knew the p r i n c i p l e s

of concept formation i n t u i t i v e l y . T h e i r w r i t i n g s provide us- with

some of the most powerful demonstrations of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of

g i v i n g the examples before the r u l e . L a Fontaine teaches us a

code of e t h i c s through a s e r i e s of a l l e g o r i c a l f a b l e s . I t is

s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h i s connection t h a t Kant and Spinoza, who a l s o

had a g r e a t many ideas on the s-ubject of e t h i c s , are l e s s widely

read than L a Fontaine. I n h i s L i t t l e B l a c k G i r l i n Search of God,

Shaw conveys h i s message through a s e r i e s of episodes. The l i t t l e

b l a c k g i r l i s d i s i l l u s i o n e d i n s u c c e s s i o n by Moses, Freud, Pavlov,

and s e v e r a l other " f a l s e gods". I n t e r e s t i n g l y , these episodes are

a l l non-instances of the concept being e s t a b l i s h e d . They b u i l d up

the reader's concepts of what "God" i s not, thereby preparing the

reader f o r Shaw's concept of God as the r e s i d u a l category. I f

the p s y c h o l o g i s t teaching h i s c h i l d the concGpt of r e d had

employed the same procedxire, he would f i r s t have taught the c h i l d

t h a t green, blue, yellow, e t c . are a l l "not red", and would have

deferred the p r e s e n t a t i o n of a red o b j e c t xontil l a t e r . This

type of negative d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t r a i n i n g i s e f f e c t i v e when the

l e a r n e r ' s response i s already a t considerable strength but has

not y e t been properly focused.

A l l e g o r i e s , p a r a b l e s , s a t i r e s , and metaphors are exceedingly

i n t e r e s t i n g concept formation d e v i c e s . L a Fontaine's f a b l e s

involve t a l k i n g a n i m a l s — s p e c i f i c animals who even have names.

Had L a Fontaine used s p e c i f i c people, a l l would be w e l l and

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d from the reader's p o i n t o f view. The reader

would never need t o ask h i m s e l f whether the p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e s t o

people i n g e n e r a l . But s i n c e the c h a r a c t e r s are t a l k i n g animals,

the reader i s induced t o g e n e r a l i z e , obviously, these animals

a c t very much l i k e people. Any p a r t i c u l a r person? Nowhere does

L a Fontaine say i t . The f a c t t h a t L a Fontaine leaves i t up t o

the reader t o p i c k a p a r t i c u l a r person, implies t h a t he does not

c a r e which p a r t i c u l a r person i s chosen, and therefore any person

w i l l do. so t h e parable i s a subtle device f o r conveying the i d e a

t h a t the p r i n c i p l e being exemplified has widespread a p p l i c a b i l i t y .

F o l k sayings exemplify the same p r i n c i p l e . "A s t i t c h i n time

saves n i n e " i s obviously not d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y a t seamstresses.

I t s very s p e c i f i c i t y encourages i n d u c t i o n . T h i s i s one p o s s i b l e

reason why i t i s somewhat more t e l l i n g than the equivalent, but

more g e n e r a l i z e d saying, "An ounce of prevention i s worth a pound

of cure". S i m i l a r l y , "The e a r l y b i r d catches the worm" and "Birds

 - 8 -

of a feather f l o c k together" obviously have a p p l i c a t i o n s beyond

ornithology. I n a way, t h i s device i s used i n a l l great literat\ire.

Oedipus i s obviously not a r e a l king, nor does Hamlet seem l i k e a

r e a l prince. By choosing a s l i g h t l y a r t i f i c i a l , unreal, or

v m - n a t u r a l i s t i c s e t t i n g f o r a s t o r y , the author can convey the

v m i v e r s a l i t y of h i s theme. I n t h e i r t h e a t e r , the ancient Greeks

applied t h i s p r i n c i p l e r a t h e r e f f e c t i v e l y , i f crudely: they

used masks.

I n Crime and Punishment, Dostoyevsky develops our concept of

Raskolnikov's p e r s o n a l i t y through a s e r i e s of i n c i d e n t s , many of

which involve i n t e r a c t i o n with S v i d r i g a i l o v . Dostoyevsky lases

S v i d r i g a i l o v i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y ingenious manner. I n some ways

S v i d r i g a i l o v resembles Raskolnikov, as a s o r t of "Doppelganger",

and i n other ways he i s h i s opposite. So he f u r n i s h e s a second

p e r s o n i f i e d example of the p e r s o n a l i t y concept being e s t a b l i s h e d ,

and a t the same time prov'ides a c o n t r a s t i n g non-instance from

which i t may be d i s c r i m i n a t e d . Faust, i n h i s opening speech,

does not say t h a t he i s an e r u d i t e s c h o l a r who s u f f e r s from

1

i n t e l l e c t u a l f r u s t r a t i o n , d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , and s e l f - h a t r e d .

Rather, he f i r s t enumerates the d i s c i p l i n e s he has mastered

(philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence, and theology) and culminates

the l i s t with the statement, "Here I stand, a wretched man, and

am no w i s e r than before". Also, t h i s i s the f i r s t of a s e r i e s of

 - 9 -

episodes by which Goethe g i v e s the reader a sense o f the f u t i l i t y

of F a u s t ' s s t r i v i n g s . These episodes a t the same time provide

the c o n t r a s t i n g non-instance o f the next concept t o be introdxiced,

namely, Mephistophele's p r o p o s i t i o n . I n general, the g r e a t

masters of c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n do not describe t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s i n

a b s t r a c t terms. They develop them by means of a s e r i e s o f w e l l -

chosen s p e c i f i c i n c i d e n t s v/hich provide examples o f the c h a r a c t e r s *

behavior. The more e f f e c t i v e these examples are, the l e s s

necessary i s a f i n a l a b s t r a c t summary, which i s , i n f a c t , frequently

omitted altogether.

I n poetry too, the poet f r e q u e n t l y b u i l d s a concept or mood

tlirough a s e r i e s of images which may be q u i t e concrete. I n "The

Second Coming", f o r i n s t a n c e , Yeats develops a mood of general

d i s i n t e g r a t i o n and chaos by means of such images as "The f a l c o n

cannot hear the f a l c o n e r " , "The c e n t e r cannot hold", "The blood-

dimmed t i d e i s loosed upon the e a r t h " , e t c . By the time he i s

through, t h e reader i s f u l l y persuaded t h a t t h i n g s a r e going

r a t h e r badly, and i s almost g r a t e f u l when Yeats t e l l s him

"...the second coming i s a t hand". Baudelaire's thesis i s that

t h i s i s , i n f a c t , the b a s i s of a l l p o e t r y — t h a t a b s t r a c t images

are conveyed by appealing t o the experience of the separate

senses. I n h i s preface t o "The Flower of E v i l " , he s a y s :

"...poetry i s 1 lice the a r t s of p a i n t i n g , cooking, and cosmetics

 - 10 -

i n i t s a b i l i t y t o express sensations of sweetness or b i t t e r n e s s ,

beatitude or h o r r o r , by coupling a c e r t a i n novm w i t h a c e r t a i n

a d j e c t i v e , i n analogy or c o n t r a s t . . . "

The concept formation p r i n c i p l e of exaxrples before g e n e r a l i -

z a t i o n s extends even t o music. I n the c l a s s i c a l sonata form, the

development s e c t i o n may be thought of as a s e r i e s of s p e c i f i c

examples of the f i r s t and second themes. The movement ends with

a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n which i s a k i n d of summary statement o f those

themes, a sunmiary which the l i s t e n e r can by t h a t time appreciate

as such by v i r t u e of having heard the various " s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s "

i t subsumes. Beethoven, the great master of form, was p a r t i c u l a r l y

adept a t t h i s type of summarization. Among the most powerful

examples a r e the coda of the f i r s t movement of the Piano Concerto .

Ntstnber 3 i n C Minor, where t h e r e are a c t u a l l y three s u c c e s s i v e

summaries of i n c r e a s i n g t e r s e n e s s , the f i n a l one being only f i v e

notes i n length; the f i n a l s t a c c a t o chord passage toward the end

of the t h i r d movement of the Appassionata Sonata; the t h i r d s

passage near the end of the Archdxilce T r i o ; and the end of t h e

f i r s t movenent of the Ninth Symphony. I n a l l these examples the

summary theme ccxitalns the k e r n e l or essence of a l l t h a t came

before*

I n sxjm, t h e concept formation p r i n c i p l e , which s t a t e s t h a t a

general or a b s t r a c t concept i s learned by the establishment of

 - 11 -

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s among s p e c i f i c i n s t a n c e s of the c l a s s and

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s between i n s t a n c e s and non-instances of the c l a s s ,

manifests i t s e l f i n a l l e g o r i e s , p a r a b l e s , f o l k - s a y i n g s , novels,

p l a y s , poetry and music. I t s r a m i f i c a t i o n s extend beyond

teaching and education i n t o the most d i v e r s e realms of hvunan

communication.

The p r i n c i p l e has i n p o r t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n s i n programmed

instruction. Whenever a r u l e or p r i n c i p l e needs t o be i l l u s t r a t e d

with examples, the examples should come f i r s t . T h i s i s not to say

t h a t every g e n e r a l statement must be preceded by examples. Rather,

i f examples are given a t a l l , they should come before the rule

r a t h e r than a f t e r it.

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n s , v a r i o u s t o p i c s a r e programmed

the r i g h t way, with the examples given before the r u l e , and the

wrong way, with the examples f o l l o w i n g the r u l e :

RIGHT

1. A c o l l e c t i o n of dishes can a l s o be c a l l e d a s e t of d i s h e s .
S e v e r a l crayons can be c a l l e d a of crayons.

2- Every member of the s e t of crayons i s c a l l e d an element

of t h a t s e t . Every member of the s e t of d i s h e s , s i m i l a r l y ,
woxxld be c a l l e d .

3. I n g e n e r a l , the members of a s e t a r e c a l l e d i t s ___________

4. A c o l l e c t i o n of elements isa .

5. Make a sentence using the words s e t and element.

 - 12 -

WRONG

1. A s e t i s defined as a c o l l e c t i o n of elements. A collection

of crayons, f o r example, would be a of crayons.

2. The members of the s e t are c a l l e d the elements of the s e t .

Bach crayon would be an of the s e t of crayons
of which i t i s a member.

3. Each d i s h i s an of t h e of d i s h e s .

4. The members of the s e t are c a l l e d .

5. A c o l l e c t i o n of elements i s c a l l e d ,

RIGHT

1. When wood i s burned i n the f i r e p l a c e t o h e a t the room,

t h i s wood i s being used as f u e l . The wood t h a t burns
during a f o r e s t f i r e would not be c a l l e d , ,
because i t i s not b e i n g burned f o r h e a t .

2. The f u e l which i s commonly used t o heat homes i s o i l .

O i l i s a f u e l because i t i s burned f o r _^ .

3. Gasoline i s used as automobile f u e l . When i t i s burned,

i t provides the energy t o move the c a r . I n a i r p l a n e s ,
g a s o l i n e i s a l s o used as a source o f .

4. Suppose a house i s on f i r e . I^^Shy v/ouldn't the house be

considered f u e l ?

5. Anything which i s burned f o r heat or energy i s c a l l e d a

6. E x p l a i n hov7 you would decide vhether something t h a t i s

burned should be c a l l e d a f u e l .

WRONG

1. A f u e l i s something t h a t i s burned f o r h e a t or energy.

Something which i s burned t o g e t r i d of i t , l i k e garbage,
would not be a
 - 13 -

2. Wood i s sometimes burned i n the f i r e p l a c e t o h e a t t h e

room. When wood i s burned i n t h i s manner, i t i s being
used as a ,

3. Gasoline i s used as automobile f u e l . VYhen i t i s burned,

i t provides t h e energy which moves the c a r . I n a i r p l a n e s ,
g a s o l i n e i s a l s o used as a source of ,

4. The f u e l which i s commonly used t o heat homes i s o i l .

O i l i s a f u e l because i t i s burned f o r ' ,

5. Anything which i s burned f o r heat or energy i s c a l l e d a

6. Suppose a house i s on f i r e . Viihy wouldn't the house be

considered f u e l ?

7. E x p l a i n what a f u e l i s .

* * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

RIGHT

A g l u c o - c o r t i c o i d i s a c o r t i c o i d involved i n the metaboldLsm

of _ ^ Similarly, a mineralo-corticoid i s a
1.
c o r t i c o i d involved i n the metabolism of .

The c o r t i c o i d s involved i n the metabolism of glucose a r e

called - c o r t i c o i d s , and those concerned with
2.
the metabolism of minerals are c a l l e d - ^-

Complete t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :
3. Metabolic function o f
Corticoid c l a s s i f i c a t i o n corticoids i n that c l a s s

a.

b.

4. These two c l a s s e s of c o r t i c o i d s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n terms

of t h e i r ., . function.
 - 14 -

WRONG

1. C o r t i c o i d s are c l a s s i f i e d i n tentis of t h e i r metabolic

function. There are two c l a s s e s of c o r t i c o i d s . How do
c o r t i c o i d s of one c l a s s d i f f e r from c o r t i c o i d s of the
other c l a s s ?

2. For example, g l u c o - c o r t i c o i d s are involved i n the metabolism

of and m i n e r a l o - c o r t i c o i d s are involved i n
the metabolism of .

3. A . _ _ - c o r t i c o i d i s a c o r t i c o i d which p a r t i c i p a t e s
i n the metabolism of glucose. S i m i l a r l y , a ^-
c o r t i c o i d p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the metabolism of m i n e r a l s .

4, Complete the f o l l o w i n g t a b l e ;
Metabolic fvmction of
Corticoid c l a s s i f i c a t i o n corticoids in that class

a.

b.

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * A * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

1. Each s t e p of a program e n l i s t s the student's a c t i v e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n by r e q u i r i n g him to a question,
. an i n s t r u c t i o n , or • a blank.

2. His . may be j u s t a s y l l a b l e or an entire

paragraph.

3. Whether the student ansv/ers a question, follows an

i n s t r u c t i o n , or f i l l s i n a blank, h i s response always
requires participation.

4. I n reading a book, l i s t e n i n g to a l e c t u r e , or watching a

f i l m , the student can remain p a s s i v e . I n working through
a program, on the other hand, he has to be ____________•

5. I n general, an important d i f f e r e n c e between a program

and other means of i n s t r u c t i o n i s t h a t a program
 - 15 -

WRONG

1. An important d i f f e r e n c e between a program and other means

of i n s t r u c t i o n i s t h a t a program r e q u i r e s the student t o
p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y . L i s t e n i n g t o a lectvire or watching
a f i l m , f o r example, does not r e q u i r e , ^

2. At each step of the program the student must make an

a c t i v e response. He may be r e q u i r e d to . a
question, . an i n s t r u c t i o n , or ..
a blank,

3. His . may be just; a s y l l a b l e or an e n t i r e

paragraph.

4. I n reading a book, l i s t e n i n g t o a l e c t u r e , or watching a

f i l m , the student can remain p a s s i v e . I n working through
a program, on the other hand, he has t o be .

5. TJhether the student answers a question, f o l l o w s an

i n s t r u c t i o n , or f i l l s i n a blank, h i s response always
requires , participation.

The p r i n c i p l e of examples before the g e n e r a l r u l e should a l s o

be a p p l i e d t o the sequence of t o p i c s i n a program, t h a t i s , t o the

syllabus. Before i n t r o d u c i n g the concept of e v o l u t i o n i n a biology

course, f o r example, the student rnxost be taught the v a r i o u s s p e c i f i c

"examples" of e v o l u t i o n , i n other words, the data on which the

theory i s based. Before he i s taught the concept of homeostasis,

he must l e a r n about d i f f e r e n t kinds of p h y s i o l o g i c a l e q u i l i b r i a .

The beginning chemistry student i s not ready f o r the concept of

"element" u n t i l he has l e a r n e d about s e v e r a l kinds of elements,.

Before a p h y s i c s student can understand the concept of a f i e l d ,

he must be given experience w i t h v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n t k i n 4 s of

 ~ 16 -

f i e l d s , and the data and observations t h a t lead \is to speak of a

field. I n mathematics, the student i s not ready to vinderstand

what a proof i s x i n t i l he has seen a l a r g e nvimber of d i f f e r e n t

kinds of proofs, ranging from s y l l o g i s m s to long d e r i v a t i o n s , and

u n t i l he has learned t o d i s c r i m i n a t e between the proof of a theorem

and a demonstration of i t s c o r r e c t n e s s . He cannot understand what

an operation i s u n t i l he can add, subtract, multiply, etc. The

mathematics student cannot appreciate the general concept of a

group u n t i l he has had experience with s e v e r a l p o s t u l a t i o n a l

systems t h a t conform t o the group p o s t u l a t e s , as w e l l as with

some t h a t do not. Finally, a person cannot adequately understand

what a s c i e n c e i s u n t i l he has been exposed to s e v e r a l s c i e n c e s .

 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING

by

Francis Mechner, P h . D ,
Director of Programming
Basic Systems Incorporated

Copyright c \962 Basic Systems, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Neither this program nor any port thereof may be reproduced in

an^' form whatsoever without permission of the copyright owner.
 tNTRODUCTiON

Public relations experts have expressed the opinion that the teaching machine was

propelled into public view in part by the shock appeal of the word "machine". The possibility

of a machine replacing a human being, and of all human beings the venerated teacher, fired the

imaginations of scientists and {ournalists alike. The whirlwind of this excitement is still gather-

ing momentum. But in the eye of the storm a small group of serious scientists has quietly been

reaching the conclusion that the machine is one of the less important aspects of automated instruc-

tion, and that Skinner's revolutionary concept is not the machine but its content — the program.

They ore also coming to a second realization: that the power of the method is strongly dependent

upon the quality of this program, that the conventional textbook is possibly just a cose of extreme-

ly bod programming, and that the advantages of programmed instruction ore more a matter of

degree than of kind.

Accordingly, the art of programming lies at the heart of the method. It is at present

o primitive art, which no one has yet cultivated for more than a few years. Currently, the main

source of ideas for this art is the body of knowledge which behavioral scientists hove generated

during the past few decades. This source is gradually being replaced, however, by contemporary

research which is rapidly gaining in importance, and will continue doing so In the foreseeable

future. And yet, the application of behavioral science to programming technology is hardly a

mechanical process. So far, w e hove witnessed dnJy'the bore beginnings of it. The domain of

programmed instruction is as large as the domain of education. In fact, it is the domain of b e -

havioral science. From this point of view, there is a wide gap between the current range of a p -

plications of programmed Instruction and the eventual range. This gap wilt hove to be bridged

by research, ingenuity, and imagination.

 W H A T IS A P R O G R A M S U P P O S E D T O A C C O M P L I S H ?

A knowledge of plane geometry Is the ability to solve certain problems and give the

proofs of certain propositions. A knowledge of biology includes the ability to explain w h y it

is that leaves look green, how a caterpillar is related to a butterfly, w h y eating salt mokes you

thirsty, how to breed fish, or w h y man bears such a striking resemblance to other mammals. A

knowledge of French includes the ability to give a suitable reply to the question "Comment vous

oppelez-vous?". In all of these coses it is possible to specify what constitutes a knowledge of

the subject. The knowledge can be measured by means of on examination or some other practical

test situation.

Frequently the question is asked, " H o w con a program teach originality and creativ-

ity?", " H o w con it teach the rigors of study?", " H o w con it instill a thirst for knowledge?",

" H o w con it teach the student to cope with real life?", " H o w con it teach him values?". The

answer to all of these questions is the same: Programmed instruction con be used to teach anything

that is clearly specified. The terminal behavior (the knowledge or ability which the student must

end up with) must always be corefully defined. Originality, creativity, rigors of study, thirst

for knowledge, coping with real life, and having good values, ore not easily definable abilities.

The programmer, not knowing what knowledge or behavior he must establish, does not know how

to proceed.

O n c e the terminal behavior is specified, on the other hand, establishing it is c o m -

paratively mechanical. Almost any terminal behavior con be established through the application

of behavioral technology. The present paper deals with some of the approaches that hove been

developed.

- 2-
 S H A P I N G THE STUDENT'S KNOWLEDGE

The guiding principle of learning theory is that behavior must occur before it can be-

come established. The student does not learn anything he does not actually do. He does not un-

derstand something if he has not learned to explain it.

Stated in its most general terms, then, the programmer's.task is to get the student to

emit the desired behavior under the appropriate conditions.

Suppose the programmer wonts to teach the student to make the correct response to

the following stimulus:

Draw the complete normal electrocardio-

gram tracing. Label all its parts, includ-
ing the S-T segment.

The desired response to this stimulus is:

P
T

V
Q

This behavior could be shaped as follows:

1, The diagram at the right shows a normal

J .electrocditdiogrdm tracing. Using the
letters P, Q , R, S , T in that order, label y
the five deflections from the baseline, go- V
ing from left to right.

2. Label the five deflections in this normal

electrocardiogram tracing using consecu-
tive letters of the alphabet beginning
with P. Use arrows to show which tetter
designates which deflection.

3. The five deflections of the electrocardio-

gram are colled waves. Label 4he-waves
of this normal electrocardiogram tracing,

-3-
 4, In the tracing shown at the right, the R wave
is about times as large as the Q wave
and about times as large as the S w o v e .

5 . Draw in the Q , R, and S waves in the diagram

below, as they might appear in the normal elec-
trocardiogram.

6, What is the relation of the S-T segment to the

baseline?

7, Compare the P and T waves in this electro-

cardiogram tracing. Which is longer, the /y
P - Q segment or the S-T segment?

8 . In the diagram below, the P and T waves ore

missing. Draw them in as they might appear
Y I
in the normal electrocardiogram tracing.

9, Draw the complete normal electrocardiogram

tracing. Label all its ports including the
S-T segment.

Note that the lost item of this short program calls for the terminal behavior which the programm

set out to establish.

N o w suppose the programmer wanted to teach the student to answer the question;

"Write a short paragraph explaining from which parts of the human body disease-causing fungi

obtain their nourishment,"

1. Fungi do not "belong to the animal kingdom;

they belong to the kingdom.

plant y^ 2. F ore plant-!ike organisms that

con cause disease.
(F)ungt 3. Just as the singular of alumni is alumnus,
/ so the singular of fungi is

fungus 4. The exposed parts of the skin, hair, and

nails of the human body are made up of
2 dead ceils. Most disease causing fungi
live cn dead cells. Therefore most disr .: .
ease-causing fungi live on
/ •
the exposed ports of ^ 5. Disease-causing fungi con live on the e x -
the skin, hair, and posed parts of the , ,
nails of the human and because these parts of the
body ^ body contain dead cells.
/

skin, hair, and noils ^ 6. W h y con disease-causing fungi live on the

exposed parts of the skin, hair and noils?

Skin, hair, and noils 7. The horns of a bull are mode of a substance
contain dead cells. called keratin. Your fingernails and toe-
nails ore similar in composition to the horns
of a bull. You might guess that they too
contain

keratin 8. All of the dead cells of the exposed parts of

the body contain keratin. N o m e the ports of
the body where you think keratin con be found.

fingernails, toenails, 9, W h a t portions of the skin, hair and noils con-

skin, and hair tain keratin?

the exposed portions 10. What is a fungus?

which are made up
of dead cells

A fungus is a plant- 11. Write a short paragraph explaining from what

like organism that portions of the human body disease-causing
con cause disease. fungi obtain their nourishment.

W h e n fungi infect the

body, they live on the
dead cells of the e x -
posed parts of the skin,
hair, and nails. They
feed on the keratin of
these dead cells.

-5-
Here again, the last two items of the program demand the terminal behavior.

In the next example the behavior being shaped is a mathematical skill. The student

learns to square any number ending in five by a technique which enables him to do it mentally if

the number is not too large (soy, below 165).

1. In the number 6 5 , which digit precedes

the 5? In the number 15?

6; 2. Which digits precede the 5 in the n u m -

1 ber 305? In the number 105?

30; 3. In the number 9 5 , the digit preceding 5

10 is . As you count from 1 to 10,
9 is followed by

9; 4. In the number 115, the digits preceding

10 ore 1 1 . As you count, the n u m -
ber 11 precedes the number

5; 5. In the number 135, the digits 13

12 . These
(complete the statement)
digits form the number 13, Which number
follows it as you count?

precede the number 5; ' 6, The digits 10 precede the number 5 in

14 . The number 10 is
the number 1 1 ,

105; 7. In each of the numbers below find the digits

following preceding 5 . Then find the numbers which
follow these digits as you count.

15, 35 , 6 5 , 6 8 5 , 3895

1,2; 8. N o w do it for 25; for 5 .

3,4;
6,7;
68,69;
389, 390

2,3; 9. In the number 115, the digits precede

0,1 the 5 . 11 is followed by . A4jltlply
11 by 12.

- 6 -
 11; 10. 9 follows which precedes theSdlgil
12; 5 in the number . Miltiply 9 by the
132 number it follows as you count.

8; 11, Again multiply the digit preceding the 5 in

85; the number 55 by the number which follows
72 it as you count.

30 12. N o w do this kind of multiplication for the

number 15; for 35; 45; 9 5 .

2; 13. Square 25 the long way: 25 x 25 =

12; The 2 in 25 is followed by 3 as you count.
20; Again, do the multiplication 2 x =
90 . The first digit of 625 was also
•

625; 14. For each of the numbers below multiply the

2 x 3 = 6; digits preceding the 5 by the number which
6 follows it:
5 X =
15 X.
35 X =
65 X =
125 X

5 0x1=0 15i N o w square each of the numbers In the left

15 1 x 2 = 2 hand column:
35 3 x 4 = 12 5 0x1=0
65 6 x 7 = 42
15 1X 2=2
125 12x13=156
35 3 x 4 = 12
65 6 X 7 = 42
125 12x13=156

25; 16. The squared numbers all end in

225;
1225;
4225;
15,635

25 17. What relationship do you notice between

the two sets of circled numbers?
5
15
Ox 1 =
F\ /625 \
1 X 2 = '•2 \ .225 \
35 3 x 4 = 12 1225
65 6 x 7 = 42 4225
125 1 2 x 13 = 156 \15,625y

-7-
w
 The second set con- 18. Can you guess what the squares of the
sists of each of the missing numbers might be?
numbers in the first 5 0 x 1 = 0 025
set followed by 25. 15 1 x 2 =2 225
25
35 3 X 4 = 12 1225
45
55
65 6 X 7 = 42 4225
85
105
125 12x13 = 156 15,625

25 2x 3= 6 625 1 9 . Square 95 mentally. Square 75 mentally.

45 4 X 5= 20 2025
55 5X 6 = 30 3025
85 8X 9 = 72 7225
105 10x11= 110 11,025

95 9 X 10 = 90 9025 2 0 , 25 X 26 = 650. Which number squared is

75 7 X 8 = 56 5625 equal to 65025?

255

Here, the last two frames call for the terminal behavior. This terminal behavior dif-

fers from the type illustrated in the previous examples in that it is not a specific response or se-

quence of responses, but a skill — the ability to make the right responses in 0 large, though re- •

sfricted range of situations.

It might also be noted that this last example — the mathematical one — is designed

for a somewhat more elementary level than the previous two examples. The medico! examples ore

suitable for college graduates; the mathematical example would work for the average fourteen year-

old.

-8-
 THE I M P O R T A N C E O F S M A L L STEPS A N D A C T I V E R E S P O N S E

Read the following statement:

Occlusion of a coronary blood vessel, if prolonged, causes damage to

the heart muscle, or myocardium. The medical term for myocardial
damage produced by occlusion of a coronary blood vessel is myocardial
infarction.

N o w without looking back, try to define the term M Y O C A R D I A L I N F A R C T I O N . You would

probably find this difficult. Undoubtedly, you read the above statement without really learning

its contents. This was not unreasonable, since you did not know what aspect of the statement

would be Important, In that type of situation, most people tend to scan lightly until they reach

a point where some specific response is demanded of them. They they go back and focus their

attention on the relevant parts. If you had known that you would be called upon to define the

term "myocardial infarction" before you started reading the statement, you would have been able

to proceed much more efficiently,

A program increases the efficiency of learning by focusing the student's attention on

the significant points as he learns. If the student has answered a frame correctly, he knows that

he has mastered the relevant information and can proceed securely. Here is what the above state-

ment might look like in a programmed form:

f Myocardial infarction is the m e d i c a l term for damage

to-the heart muscle, or myocardium. -Which part of
the word myocardium means heart? Which part means
muscle?

cordium: heart "Myocardium" is the medical term for

myo: muscle

heart muscle Damage to the m y o results from occlusion

or blockage of a coronary blood vessel.

m y o cordium Oc or blockage of o coronary blood vessel,

if prolonged, causes damage to the ,

-9-
 oc elusion; Myocardial destruction due to (which
myocardium or means blockage) of a coronary blood vessel is called
heart muscle al infarction.

occlusion; Myocardial arction is the technical term for

myocordi al damage to the

inf arction; Occlusion of the coronary artery is one of the possible

heart muscle causes of inf

myocardial is the medical term for damage

inf arction to the myocardium caused by of a
« .

Myocardial Define the term M Y O C A R D I A L INFARCTION.

infarction;
occlusion;
coronary artery

Damage to the m y o -
cardium caused by
occlusion of a coro-
nary artery.

The programmed version of the statement contains about four times as many words as

the original statement. O n the other hand. If the student has answered all nine frames correctly,

he has unequivocal evidence that he has learned the relevant material, and that he will not have

to go back to patch up the gaps in his knowledge.

The experienced student, w h o knows how to learn from a textbook, improvises a pro-

gram for himself as he reads along. H e underlines the passages or expressions he feels are impor-

tant, he makes up little questions which he asks himself as he proceeds, he goes back and reviews

when he fears that previously learned material is beginning to slip a w a y , and he periodically tests

himself to moke sure that his grasp of what he has learned is firm. These practices are sometimes

called "good study hobfts". Naturally, very few students succeed in acquiring this difficult skill

during their academic careers, and those that do frequently lack the discipline and s6|f-control

-10-
-whieb is needed to exercise it, H is sotfiiffi eosier lo^^j^ Finally, the student is

not very well qualified to progrq/n material which he is just learning. He cannot always know

which questions to ask himself. He is not yet able to diseriminate the important from-the unimporr'

tant, or to place the emphases where they belcng. He spends time on many things that ore unnec-

essary or irrelevant. The individual best qualified to do the programming is the textbook's author.
 THE F R A M E

What is a Frame of o Program?

The above statement is an example of a frame. Other examples of frames are:

Quadrupeds have legs.

(how many)

To be or not to be, that is the

In a short paragraph, summarize Hamlet's speech.

Explain how oirfoU-shaped wings keep a plane aloft.

Mozart was born in the year .

Give three proofs of the Pythagorean theorem.

Complete the diagram of the circulatory system shown below, and fill
in the missing labels,

Torrecelli used his mercury column apparatus to demonstrate

A plane is flying at an altitude of 2 miles. A parachutist jumps out.

After 4 seconds, before His parachute has opened. He Has fallen 256 feet.
Over which planet was the plane flying. Explain your answer.

M o k e a table shewing the first four periods of the periodic table.

Damage to the heart muscle due to occlusion of a coronary blood vessel

Is catted ,

N o m e all the fungi that con cause onychomycosis.

If A n B equals A U B , what con you soy about A and B?

Write the decimal number 29 in the binary system.

W h y ore whales classified as mammals rather than fish?

In general, a frame is a question, o statement with a blank in it, or an instruction to do somethin

A frame always requires a response from the student. Usually, the student is informed of the

- 12 -
correct answer immediately after he has made his response. Naturally, there heed not be a unique

correct response. The confirmation may take the form of a paraphrase, or an outline of how the

answer should have been developed. The important feature of a frame is that it enlists the stu-

dent's active participation.

Which Response to Require

At every frame, the programmer must decide which response to require of the student.

It m a y be a question of which word to leave blank, which question to ask, which instruction to

give, or in general, what the student must d o .

If the programmer remembers that the student only learns that which he says, and not

that which he merely reads, his problem becomes comparatively easy. It is then only a matter of

deciding through what steps to shape the desired behavior, that is, of finding the shortest and

most strategic route.

It is very easy for the programmer to forget that the student must actually display the

the performance he is acquiring. O n e experienced programmer, in teaching the

comparative electrolytic properties of salt and sugar solutions, wrote the following frame:

A salt solution is capable of conducting while a sugar

solution is not,

where he meant to write:

A solution is capable of conducting electricity white a

salt/sugar
solution Is not.
salt/sugar
or

Which is capable of conducting electricity/.a/solt or a sugar solution?

The programmer must be careful never t o lose sight of the terminal behavior toward which he is
working.

- • • The" Form of the Frame

The overriding obiective of o program is always to shape the student's knowledge In

the desired direction. The form of any particular frame is always subordinate to this objective.

The sample programs in the preceding pages illustrate a few of the possible forms that

frames con take* "Fill in the blank" items ore frequently useful in the early stages of the forma-

tion of a concept, and often provide convenient stepping stones toward the final desired knowledge

or performance. But thorough comprehension generally requires something more.

A progression leading to the student's ability to explain an abstract concept, for in-

stance, might begin with his filling in the key words in a series of examples. Then, agoin by

means of fill-ins, the student might learn what the examples hod in c o m m o n . He is then ready to

fill in increasingly larger segments of the generalization until he can answer open-ended questions

of the type(s) shown belcwj

1. Explain the relation between A and B.

2. Compose a sentence using the expressions A , B, and C .

3 . Compare A and B, naming two similarities and two differences.

4 . Fill in the missing parts in the following table,

5 . What is an A ?

6 . Define the term A ,

7 . In three short sentences, say what you have learned so far

about A .

8 . Fill in the missing parts of the diagram.

9 . Someone says to you that A seems to be a cose of B. Bcploin

to him w h y he is mistaken.

- 14-
 10. Explain how you would go about finding out whether A is B.

11. Using information A , B, and C prove/derive/demonstrate D ,

12. List n conditions under which A could occur/be true.

13. Give ti examples of A .

14. Explain what an A is.

N o n e of these forms is better than any other. The form of a porticulor frame should

be dictated only by the requirements of the subject and the stage of the student's progress*

If the student has never done anything other than fill in blanks, he will be able to

exhibit his knowledge only when confronted with a fill-in item. He will be at a loss if someone

happens to ask him on open-ended question about the subject such as, "What is a cardinal n u m -

ber?" or " W h y is foccera useful concept in physics?" or, for that matter, if he asks himself a

question such as "Let's see, what have t learned so for about sets?" or " H o w do I know that the

sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees?" W h e n the student is unable to reply to such self-

questioning, he feels that he "has not learned anything". It has been observed that students,

after completing a program consisting exclusively of fillrin items, do, in fact, report that they

did not learn anything. This observation is rather puzzling v/hen one considers that these students

obviously learned o great deal, since they were able to fill in answers at the end of the program

which they could not fill in before. The observation is less puzzling, however, when one con-

siders the manner in which the student tests himself to find cut whether he has in fact learned any-

thing. He does not give himself a fill-in item to d o . He tests himself the w a y he would test a n y -

one else — by asking himself open-ended questions.

- 15
 MULTIPLE C H O I C E ITEMS

Learning theory tells us that multiple choice items are pedagogicolly unsound. W h e n

reading a multiple choice item, the student at best constructs what he considers the correct answer,

and then looks for that onswer among the alternatives given. If all goes well he finds it there,

and receives his confirmation. But more often, all does not go well. The student, in looking

through the alternatives reads several false, though plausible-sounding statements. For the item

to have any value, the three or four errors that are suggested to the student must be plausible

statements. To some extent he will learn them. Alternatives that would never have occurred to

him begin to sound pretty good. Skinner tells the story of the child confronting the question

"What is Pasteurized milk?". This was something the child knew pretty well. But among the in-

correct alternatives was "Milk from cows that have been fed on the pasture". This plausible -

sounding answer had never occurred to the child. The child may finally have chosen the correct

answer. But months later; the child would already be considerably less certain as to which of

these two plausible sounding answers, both of which he "read some time ago" was correct. By

reading and studying incorrect alternatives, the student inevitably learns them to some extent.

Unsound as it is, the multiple choice item addresses itself to a problem with which

the programmer must be concerned. It is the problem of teaching the student to avoid errors.

H o w will the student learn to avoid errors if he never gets a chance to make any? Behavior

theory tells us: Not by making them. You should not teach a student to avoid errors by setting

trops for him and then punishing him for falling into them. Rather, the student should first be

taught the correct behavior until this behavior is secure. Then the student should learn to iden-

tify and even analyze the various possibilities of error. H e i*>%fft be instructed to explain w h y a

false statement is false, and perhaps how it might be changed to make it true. He might be asked

- 16-
to trace the error in a problem which has an error in it. He might even be asked to construct a

certain type of error. The important difference between this type of contact with false statements

and the type of contact involved in doing multiple choice questions is that the student knows from

the beginning that the statement is false. He links it in his behavioral repertoire with the response

"This is a false statement" or something equivalent. In this w a y , the student can learn to ovoid •

an error without making it. He need never stop answering the questions correctly. In a multiple

choice item, on the other hand, the student will read and study the incorrect alternative as a pos-

sible correct answer before he decides that It is not. O f course, he m a y actually end up choosing

the incorrect alternative. In that event he is reprimanded. W e know from learning theory that

negative reinforcement Is not a very effective w a y of obof ishrng unwanted behavior. Positive

reinforcement for the correct behavior has much more lasting effects. Finally, the student may

merely read and study the incorrect alternative, and not choose it at all. In that case, it will

have been learned to some small extent, and wilt never have become tagged as "false" either by

punishment or through positive reinforcement. The programmer spends a great deaf of time and

effort thinking up good traps. The student, even if he does not fall into any of them, comes away

with his knowledge blurred by latent errors and misconceptions which linger in his repertoire wait-

ing to emerge on future occasions.

There is still another argument against multiple choice items. A multiple choice item

only teaches the student to recognize the right answer. It does not necessarily teach him to give

the right answer. The ability to recognize a correct statement is very different from the ability to

construct it. In ordinary life, it is usually the latter ability that is called for. The Individual

m a y have to formulate the statement to himself in order to cope with a certain situation, or he

may have to explain it to someone. He m a y have to state a principle in answer to a question, or

as the {ustification for doing something. It Is very difficult to think of practicol situations in

- 17-
w h i c h a p e r s o n is a s k e d " W h i c h o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s is t h e t r u e o n e ? " E v e n i n s o f a r as m u l t i p l e

c h o i c e i t e m s d o s u c c e e d i n t e a c h i n g , v / h a t t h e y t e a c h is r a t h e r i m p r a c t i c a l .

18-
 THE INCLUSION OF EXTRANEOUS SUBJECT MATTER W I T H I N THE FRAME

In a n e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n t h e p o i n t w a s m o d e t h a t t h e s t u d e n t c o n l e a r n most e f f i c i e n t l y

w h e n h e k n o w s w h a t k n o w l e d g e h e is e x p e c t e d t o g l e a n f r o m t h e m a t e r i a l h e is s t u d y i n g . The

passage o n m y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n w a s used t o i l l u s t r a t e h o w a p r o g r a m focuses t h e s t u d e n t ' s a t t e n -

t i o n u p o n t h a t w h i c h is i m p o r t a n t f o r f u r t h e r p r o g r e s s . In r e a d i n g a passage o f o r d i n a r y p r o s e , the

s t u d e n t w h o h a s n o t y e t d e v e l o p e d a b r o o d p e r s p e c t i v e o v e r t h e m a t e r i a l Is l i k e l y t o g e t h u n g up

on irrelevant or incidental details. This s l o w s h i m d o w n , r e d u c e s his e f f i c i e n c y , sops his energy,

a n d o f t e n l o w e r s his m o r a l e . I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t v e r y f e w i n d i v i d u a l s a r e a b l e t o r e a d t h r o u g h

text books.

A g o o d program permits the student t o a d o p t the a t t i t u d e that i f he can respond cor-

r e c t l y h e has l e a r n e d t h e r e l e v a n t m o t e r i o l a n d w i l l n o l o n g e r h a v e t o w o r r r y w h e t h e r h e has

" g o t t e n the p o i n t " . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e p r o g r a m m a y b e t h o u g h t o f as a b e h a v i o r a l t r e e m a r k e r ,

w h i c h charts the student's trait through the forest of ideas,

Corrsider t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e :

1. There are nine plonets i n the solar system. T h e e a r t h is a p l a n e t .

J u p i t e r is t h e l a r g e s t p l a n e t . Therefore is l a r g e r
than the eai+h.

Now the program con proceed in one of t w o ways:

2a. How many planets ore there in 2'o. The planets o f the solar sys-
the solar system? tern a r e M e r c u r y , Venus, Earth,
Mars, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus,
Jupiter and Pluto, How many
planets are there in the solar sys-
tem?

T h e d i f f e r e n c e is c r u c i a l . F i r s t l e t us c o n s i d e r 2 a / t h e l e f t h a n d v e r s i o n . The programmer

-19
expects the student t o have learned the contents of the previous frame. W h e n t h e s t u d e n t sees

t h a t frame he w i l l soy t o h i m s e l f e i t h e r , " A h , it's a good thing I read the previous frame care-

f u l l y ; there ore n i n e , " , or " O h , oh, I guess 1 d i d n ' t r e a d t h e lost f r a m e c a r e f u l l y e n o u g h , " In

e i t h e r c a s e t h e e f f e c t is t h e s a m e : the student w i l l read frames more " c a r e f u l l y " i n the f u t u r e ,

so c a r e f u l l y t h a t h e w i l l l e a r n n o t o n l y e v e r y t h i n g t h e p r o g r a m m e r w o n t s h i m t o l e a r n , b u t a l s o a

g r e a t d e a l o f m a t e r i a l w h i c h is i r r e l e v a n t . One or t w o incidents of this type are sufficient t o

m a k e t h e student f e e l insecure a n d g u i l t y i f he does n o t master t h e e n t i r e c o n t e n t — relevont and

irrelevant — of every frame henceforth. For a l l h e k n o w s , t h e p r o g r a m m e r is c o u n t i n g o n h i m t o

learn i t a l l and w i l l not give him another chance to review i t . By r e q u i r i n g t h e s t u d e n t t o d o more

t h a n just a n s w e r t h e questioni, t h e p r o g r a m m e r i n a d v e r t e n t l y puts pressure on t h e s t u d e n t t o l e a r n

the e n t i r e content — relevant and irrelevant — of every frame. The s t u d e n t , w h o has n o w a y of

a s c e r t a i n i n g w h a t a s p e c t o f t h e f r a m e is i m p o r t a n t , p l a y s I t s a f e a n d l e a r n s i t a l l . This gives t h e

p r o g r a m some o f t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e x t .

Consider a l t e r n a t i v e 2b on t h e o t h e r h a n d ;

The planets o f the solar system a r e V e n u s , M e r c u r y , Earth, Mars,

Saturn, Neptune, Jupiter, Uranus, and Pluto, How many planets
ore there in the solar system?

In this case t h e s t u d e n t does not e x p e r i e n c e t h e c o n t i n g e n c y of being rewarded for having learned,

or punished for not having learned the irrelevant statement in the previous frame. Granted, he

gets t h e answer " n i n e " by c o u n t i n g the p l a n e t s . But h e d o e s m a k e t h e response " n i n e " t o a rea-

sonably n o n - t f l v i a l stimulus, and when asked " H o w m a n y planets are there i n the solar system" a

f e w frames l a t e r , the chances are he w i l l answer w i t h o u t d i f f i c u l t y .

The a b o v e discussion makes one s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t : Do not teach important facts or

c o n c e p t s b y s t a t i n g t h e m i n one f r a m e a n d t h e n a s k i n g t h e s t u d e n t t o m a k e t h e r e l e v a n t response i n

a subsequent f r a m e . This p r a c t i c e , w h i l e i t m a y w o r k , w i l l also damage the student's efficiency

in g o i n g through the program,

- 20 -
 It goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t e v e r y f r a m e must, o f n e c e s s i t y , contain a certain amount

o f m a t e r i a l w h i c h is i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e r e q u i r e d a n s w e r . For e x a m p l e , the number of words in the

f r a m e , a n d t h e o v e r a g e n u m b e r o f e's per w o r d , a r e i r r e l e v a n t a t t r i b u t e s w h i c h e v e r y f r a m e ,

p o s s e s s e s , r e g a r d l e s s o f h o w m a s t e r f u l l y i t is d e s i g n e d . The s t u d e n t c o u l d v e r y e a s i l y be t a u g h t

t o focus his a t t e n t i o n u p o n these aspects o f t h e frames. If t h e p r o g r a m m e r a s k e d t h e s t u d e n t on

t w o or three occasions, " H o w many words were there in the previous f r a m e ? " the student w o u l d

q u i c k l y learn to count the number of words i n each frame. The e x a m p l e is e x t r e m e t o t h e p o i n t

of b e i n g absurd, but It illustrates the point; If t h e p r o g r a m m e r does n o t w o n t t h e s t u d e n t t o a t t e n d

t o i r r e l e v a n t d e t a i l s , h e s h o u l d n e v e r ask t h e s t u d e n t t o a t t e n d t o a n y t h i n g w h i c h is i r r e l e v a n t t o

the question, since the student cannot y e t discriminate detail from n o n - d e t a i l . W h i l e t h e r e is

l i t t l e h a r m i n i n c l u d i n g i r r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l i n a f r a m e , t h e r e Is g r e a t h a r m i n r e q u i r i n g t h e s t u d e n t

to learn I t ,

In therabove e x a m p l e , i t w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r i g h t h a n d v e r s i o n o f f r a m e ^ 2 is

satisfactory. This f r a m e c o u l d h a v e b e e n p r e c e d e d i n o n e o f t w o w a y s :

I, There are nine planets i n t h e solar 1, T h e e a r t h is a p l a n e t , Jupiter

system. The e a r t h is a p l a n e t . is t h e l a r g e s t p l a n e t , There-
J u p i t e r is t h e l a r g e s t p l a n e t . There- fore is l a r g e r t h a n
fore is l a r g e r t h a n t h e the earth,
the earth,

2, The p l a n e t s o f t h e s o l a r system a r e
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Saturn,
Jupiter, Neptune, Uranus, and Pluto,
How many planets are ther in the solar
system?

Here, both alternatives are equally good. The statement "There are n i n e planets In t h e solar sys-

t e m " as i t a p p e a r s i n t h e l e f t h a n d v e r s i o n o f f r a m e ^ 1 , i s i n n o c u o u s . The s t u d e n t m a y or m a y not

remember i t in the f o l l o w i n g frame. W h e t h e r h e d o e s o r n o t i s u n i m p o r t a n t , s i n c e f r a m e ^ 2 is s e l f -

- 21 -
suj i f f c i e m t . The only advantage t h e s t u d e n t w i l l r e a p f r o m r e m e m b e r i n g t h e s t a t e m e n t i s t h ' a t Tt'

w i l l e n a b l e htiti t o answer frame ^2.somewhat faster. W h e t h e r t h i s is s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n f o r i p p L y f l i j . . ; ;

irtg t h e s t a t e m e n t i n t h e frame is a m a t t e r o f t h e programmaf's style.

 I N A D V E R T E N T CUES A N D PROMPTS

A psychologist w o u l d soy t h a t t h ef u n c t i o n o f o n i n s t n j c t i o n o l program is t o b r i n g t h e

the student's behovior under the control of t h eproper s t i m u l i . This m a y sound l i k e a rather narrow

objective. A c t u a l l y I t covers a l l o f l e a r n i n g . Questions, instructions, a n d a l l t h e examples o f

frames listed above a r e s t i m u l i * T h e responses t o t h e q u e s t i o n s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e t h e

behavior. If t h e student gives t h e r i g h t answers t o t h e r i g h t questions, t h e n h i s b e h a v i o r is u n d e r

the control of theproper stimuli.

O n e o f t h e greatest problems t h a t confronts t h e programmer is t o insure t h a t t h e s t u -

d e n t ' s responses c o m e u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e i n t e n d e d c u e s . { T h e terms l^cue" a n d -^stimulus"

are synonymous.) A student may give t h e r i g h t answer f o r t h ewrong reason. The answer m a y be

c u e d b y cues a n d prompts t h a t a r e extraneous t o t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . Such undesired cues a n d

prompts c o n take innumerable forms. B e f o r e a p r o g r a m m e r is r e a l l y c o m p e t e n t , h e must recognize

such prompts a n d a v o i d them i n his w r i t i n g . This requires n o t o n l y e x p e r i e n c e , b u t a l s o v e r b a l

sensitivity.

In t h e discussion w h i c h f o l l o w s , t h e expression " e x t r a n e o u s c u e s " w i l l r e f e r t o cues

which are n o t inherent In thesubject matter being taught. Extraneous cues c a n , o f course, b e

useful i n constructing a n e w behavioral c h a i n . T h e t e c h n i q u e k n o w n as " f a d i n g " , f o r e x a m p l e ,

i n v o l v e s t h e e l i c i t a t i o n o f c e r t a i n d e s i r e d responses b y t h e i n i t i a l use o f e x t r a n e o u s c u e s , a n d

t h e g r a d u a l r e p l a c e m e n t o f these cues b y n e w ones w h i c h a r e m o r e p e r t i n e n t t o t h e s u b j e c t . Ex-

traneous cues a r e n o t necessarily Inadvertent; t h e y m a y b e used d e l i b e r a t e l y .

I t is i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e p r o g r o m m e r t o t a k e t h e a t t i t u d e t h a t t h e s t u d e n t is w o r k i n g

against h i m a t a l l times. T h i s a t t i t u d e Is c o n d u c i v e t o g o o d p r o g r a m m i n g . I t assumes t h a t t h e

Student's o n l y c o n c e r n is t o g e t t h e r i g h t a n s w e r e a c h t i m e k The student should n o t be e x p e c t e d

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t o w o r r y about w h e t h e r he gave the right answer for the intended reason. I n f a c t , i t Is d e s i r a b l e

f o r t h e s t u d e n t t o t a k e t h e a t t i t u d e t h a t i f h e a n s w e r s c o r r e c t l y , h e is o n f i r m g r o u n d . In t h i s

w a y , he w i l l a t t a i n the o b j e c t i v e w i t h the maximum speed and e f f i c i e n c y . T h i s p o i n t is d i s c u s s e d

more f u l l y i n the next chapter.

After w r i t i n g a frame, the programmer should always check i t by asking himself how

much of i t the student w o u l d have t o read m i n i m a l l y to arrive a t the correct answer. For example

i f t h e r e is a b l a n k i n t h e f r a m e , t h e p r o g r a m m e r s h o u l d assume t h a t t h e s t u d e n t w i l l f i r s t l o c k a t

t h e b l a n k , a n d t h e n r e a d a w a y f r o m t h e b l a n k i n e v e r - w i d e n i n g c i r c l e s u n t i l he c o n a n s w e r t h e

question. It should n e v e r be assumed t h a t t h e student w i l l a t t a c k a frame by r e a d i n g i t f r o m the

first word to the lost. T h e s t u d e n t w i l l use o n l y t h e c u e s h e n e e d s . The programmer should never

e x p e c t h i m t o respond t o a n y others.

The e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w i l l u s t r a t e some o f t h e most f r e q u e n t types o f extraneous

cues. They ore n o t on exhaustive c a t a l o g u e . They ore more l i k e a c o l l e c t i o n o f a r c h e t y p i c a l

cases s e l e c t e d t o s a m p l e t h e r a n g e o f classes w h i c h a r e o f p r a c t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e .

Formal Prompts

T h i s is t h e s i m p l e s t a n d m o s t p r i m i t i v e k i n d o f c u e w h i c h d o e s n o t e v e n r e q u i r e f o r i t s

u t i l i z a t i o n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e language.. I t is m o s t f r e q u e n t l y s e e n i n f r a m e s t h a t i n v o l v e blanks,

and i t usually derives from the structure of the immediate verbal environment of the b l a n k .

A. Fungi l i v e on t h e d e a d celts of t h e s k i n , h a i r , a n d n a i l s . There-

fore the _, , and are the infect-
e d a r e a s i n t h e cases o f s u p e r f i c i a l m y c o s e s .

Even w i t h o u t k n o w i n g English, a student could recognize the formal correspondence between the

t h r e e - w o r d series i m p l i e d b y t h e blanks a n d t h e one t h a t appears In t h e p r e c e e d l n g sentence.

- 2 4 -
B, To p u l l h a r d e r means t o p u l l w i t h a f o r c e o f g r e a t e r s i z e o r m a g n i t u d e
I n g e n e r a l , t h e s t r e n g t h o f a f o r c e is i t s or ,

Again, the only t w o words in.the top line separated by the w o r d or ore size and magnitude. There-

f o r e t h e w o r d o r b e t w e e n t h e t w o b l a n k s Is t h e c u e w h i c h g i v e s a w a y t h e a n s w e r , a n d t h e p r o g r a m -

mer cannot c o u n t on the student t o be e f f e c t e d by the remainder of the c o n t e x t .

C. The p l a n e t s o r b i t a r o u n d t h e s u n . T h e e a r t h is a p l a n e t . Therefore
the earth orbits around the .

T h e s t u d e n t Ts c u e d b y t h e w o r d s " o r b t t a r o u n d t h e " a n d t h e r e f o r e d o e s n o t n e e d t o r e a d a n y t h i n g

else in the f r a m e . Some remedies m i g h t b e :

The p l a n e t s o r b i t a r o u n d t h e s u n . T h e e a r t h is a p l a n e t . Therefore
the earth .

The planets o r b i t a r o u n d the s u n . T h e e a r t h is a p l a n e t . What can

w e t h e r e f o r e say a b o u t t h e e a r t h ' s m o v e m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s u n ?

Sequential Prompts

From a programmer's p o i n t o f v i e w , these are a m o n g t h e most Insidious. They are

d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e c t because t h e i r e f f e c t s e x t e n d across several frames, a n d because e x a m i n a t i o n

of a n y single f r a m e does not r e v e a l t h e m .

A. T h e m o s t o b v i o u s t y p e o f s e q u e n t i a l p r o m p t is o s e r i e s o f f r a m e s r e q u i r i n g t h e s a m e

response. The f o l l o w i n g s e q u e n c e is o n example:

1. A c o l l e c t i o n o f d i s h e s is c a l l e d a s e t o f d i s h e s . Six cups m i g h t be
called a of cups.

2. Several pieces o f c l o t h i n g m i g h t be c a l l e d a of clothes,

3. A pack o f cards can also be c a l l e d a d e c k or a of cords.

4. Things d o n o t e v e n h a v e t o be of t h e same k i n d t o be c a l l e d a set.

A n y c o l l e c t i o n of things may be c a l l e d a .

- 2 5 -
The f i r s t t w o frames ore g o o d , b u t i n t h e cose of t h e t h i r d a n d f o u r t h f r a m e s , t h e c u e f o r t h e a n -

s w e r " s e t " is a l r e a d y n o l o n g e r t h e f r a m e i t s e l f . The a c t u a l c u e is l i k e l y t o b e t h e a n s w e r [ust

given in the previous frame. The s t u d e n t begins t o b e h a v e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the a t t i t u d e , "The

a n s w e r seems t o b e I'set* e v e r y t i m e . " W h i l e this may lead the student t o the right answer, i t

t e a c h e s h i m l i t t l e a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d " s e t " ; i t d o e s n o t t e a c h h i m t o use t h e w o r d in

t h e a p p r o p r i a t e Sn'tsrverbal context.

S u p p o s e t h i s p a r t i c u l a r d e f e c t w e r e e l i m i n a t e d b y r e w r i t i n g t h e p r o g r a m as f o l l o w s :

1. A c o l l e c t i o n o f d i s h e s is c a l l e d o s e t o f d i s h e s . A collection of
six cups m i g h t be c o i f e d a of cups.

2. Several pieces o f c l o t h i n g m i g h t be c o i l e d a of
clothes.

3. A pack of c o u l d a l s o b e c a l l e d a d e c k o r a set o f
cords.

4. Things d o n o t e v e n h a v e t o be of t h e some k i n d t o be c o l l e d a
set. A n y c o l l e c t i o n of things may be c a l l e d a .

H e r e t h e c o n t i n u i t y is b r o k e n . In t h e t h i r d f r a m e t h e a n s w e r is n o t " s e t " b u t s o m e t h i n g e l s e , and

the student does not l e a r n t o w r i t e the w o r d " s e t " a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n frame a f t e r f r a m e .

B, But t h i s s t i l l does n o t e l i m i n a t e o i l t h e s e q u e n t i a l p r o m p t s i n these f o u r f r a m e s . What

three words precede t h e word " s e t " w h e r e v e r i t appears? The words a r e " b e c o l l e d " . This t y p e of

p r o m p t is e x c e e d i n g l y d i f f i c u l t for the programmer t o c a t c h . To o v o i d i t c o n s i s t e n t l y / r a program-

mer needs l o n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d a sharp e y e .

Ci.. A p a r t i c u l a r l y dramatic example of this type of sequential prompt appeared in a pro-

gram on optics. In t h e s e c t i o n o f the program w h e r e t h e student learned t o d i s c r i m i n a t e between

r e f l e c t i o n a n d r e f r a c t i o n , t h e r e was a l o n g series of frames in w h i c h t h e answer t o be f i l l e d i n was

e i t h e r " r e f l e c t i o n " or " r e f r a c t i o n " . T y p i c a l frames w e r e ;

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 Y o u s e e y o u r s e l f m t h e m i r r o r b e c a u s e l i g h t is f r o m its
surface.

W h e n you stand in shallow w a t e r , your foot appears foreshortened

because t h e l i g h t rays are i n passing t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r -
air boundary.

Token by themselves, these frames are g o o d . But i n t h e b l o c k o f f r a m e s i n w h i c h t h i s d i s c r i m i n a -

t i o n w a s t a u g h t , e v e r y b l a n k w h i c h r e q u i r e d " r e f l e c t i o n " as t h e a n s w e r w a y f o l l o w e d b y t h e w o r d

" f r o m " o r " b y " , w h i l e e v e r y b l a n k w h i c h r e q u i r e d " r e f r a c t i o n " as t h e a n s w e r w a s f o l l o w e d e i t h e r

immediately or several words later by the w o r d " t h r o u g h " , A student could go through that sec-

t i o n w i t h o u t m a k i n g a n y e r r o r s , a n d w i t h o u t l e a r n i n g a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n p u t t i n g ?h t h ^ w b r d ; , " f e -

f f e c t i o n " w h e n t h e b l a n k is f o l l o w e d b y " f r o m " o r " b y " , and the word "refraction" in all other

coses, e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e w o r d " t h r o u g h " appears i n t h e same s e n t e n c e . C l e a r l y , this was n o t the

only discrimination the programmer intended to teach.

D* V e r c i n g e t c r i x , k i n g of the G a u l s , was conquered

by Julius Caes ,

Caes_ar V e r c i n g e t o r i x , k i n g of the G a u l s was

by Julius Gaesar,

conquered V e r c i n g e t o r i x , king of the Gauls was

by Julius ,

- *• ^. conquered; Vercingetorix, k i n g of the was

Caesar by .

Gauls;
conquered;
Julius Cdesar

etc.

The s t u d e n t l e a m s t o r e c i t e t h e s e n t e n c e m e c h a n i c a l l y . He w i l l q u i c k l y learn i t b y

heart. But i f h e s h o u l d h a v e t h e m i s f o r t u n e t o b e a s k e d " W h a t w a s t h e o u t c o m e o f C a e s a r ' s cam-

p a i g n against t h e G a u l s ? " , he w o u l d p r o b a b l y answer t h a t he does not know,

- 2 7 -
 The s t u d e n t s h o u l d b e t a u g h t t h e h i s t o r i c f a c t b y l e a r n i n g t o soy i t in each o f several

v/Qys,

V e r c i n g e t o r i x , k i n g of the G a u l s , was conquered

by Julius Caesar, This m a r k e d t h e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f
t o t h e Romans,
(which nation)

Gaul W h a t was V e r c i n g e t o r i x i n r e l a t i o n t o the G a u l s ?

king l e d t h e Roman a r m y against

Vercingetorix.

Julius Caesor Julius Caesar f i n a l l y d e f e a t e d , king of

the Gauls.

Vercingetorix The G a u l s w e r e c o n q u e r e d by

Julius Caesar What was t h e outcome o f Caesar's c a m p a i g n against

the Gauls?

Vercingetorix,
king of the Gauls
was defeated.

etc.

Syntactic Prompts

I n t h e e x a m p l e p r e s e n t e d b e l o w , t h e p r o m p t is n e i t h e r o f t h e f o r m a l n o r o f t h e s e q u e n -

tial variety. It derives from the logical equivalence o f c e r t a i n types of statements.

Example 1. Myocardial I n f a r c t i o n is c a u s e d b y o c c l u s i o n of a
coronary blood vessel. H o w is m y o c a r d i a l infarc-
tion caused?

The s t u d e n t has m e r e l y t o r e c o g n i z e the logical equivalence of " X is c a u s e d b y " and "How

is X c a u s e d ? " Both s t a t e m e n t s r e q u i r e t h e same a n s w e r . To arrive at i t , the student can regard

X as a n a r b i t r a r y s y m b o l (he con Ignore its f o r m a l or semantic c o n n o t a t i o n s ) , a n d o n l y needs t o

28
c o p y t h e r e l e v a n t w o r d s , i n t h e present case " o c c l u s i o n of a c o r o n o r y b l o o d v e s s e l " . A better

w a y to write the frame w o u l d be:

Myocardial i n f a r c t i o n is c a u s e d b y o c c l u s i o n o f a
coronary blood vessel. W h a t m i g h t be t h e result
of a blood c l o t b l o c k i n g the coronary artery?

H e r e t h e s t u d e n t m u s t c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r a b l o o d c l o t b l o c k i n g t h e c o r o n a r y a r t e r y Ts a n i n s t a n c e o f

occlusion of a coronary blood vessel.

Example 2. A s e t is a c o l l e c t i o n o f e l e m e n t s . W h a t is a s e t ?

This f r a m e c a n be f o r m u l a t e d as " X is Y , W h a t is X ? " The s t u d e n t , k n o w i n g f r o m his experience

w i t h the English language that " X Is " a n d " W h a t is X ? " a r e s a t i s f i e d by t h e same answer,

simply copies Y , w i t h o u t e n r i c h i n g his c o n c e p t of e i t h e r X o r Y.

The f o l l o v / i n g w a y s o f w r i t i n g t h a t f r a m e w o u l d b e p r e f e r a b l e :

a, A set is a c o l l e c t i o n o f e l e m e n t s . In a set o f dishes, o n i n d i v i d u a l

dish w o u l d be a ( n ) o f t h a t set o f dishes.

b, A s e t 15 a c o l l e c t i o n o f e l e m e n t s . So a c o l l e c t i o n o f d i c e could
also be c a l l e d a(n) o f d i c e , a n d a d i e w o u l d be a{n)
of that col lection.

c, A s e t is a c o l l e c t i o n o f e l e m e n t s . So a i l t h e e l e m e n t s o f a c o l l e c -
t i o n , taken together, moke up o .

d, Red, green, b l u e , a n d y e l l o w crayons make u p a set o f crayons.

Cups, saucers, a n d plates make u p a set of dishes. A set of tools
m i g h t consist o f a h a m m e r , s c r e w d r i v e r , a n d d r i l l . A brush and
paints c o u l d be c a l l e d a .

TIrese f o r m s a r e a l l p r e f e r a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y f o c u s t h e s t u d e n t ' s a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e

r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e set a n d its e l e m e n t s . Example (d) Is e s p e c i a l l y g o o d b e c a u s e t h e s p e c i f i c

examples precede t h e statement of t h e general case, and because the relationship between the

s e t a n d i t s e l e m e n t s is s t a t e d i n s e v e r a l w a y s : " e l e m e n t s m o k e u p t h e s e t " , " s e t consists of e l e -

ments", a n d "elements c o u l d be c a l l e d the s e t " .

- 2 9 -
Examples. There are f i v e c o n t i n e n t s . How many continents
are there?

The student k n o w s t h a t " T h e r e a r e X's" and "How many X's are t h e r e ? " h a v e t h e same

answer, v/hich con simply be c o p i e d w i t h o u t regard t o t h e a c t u a l q u a n t i t y i n v o l v e d . A better

form would be:

The e a r t h ' s c o n t i n e n t s a r e A f r i c a , A s i a , America,

Europe, and Australia. Hov/ m a n y c o n t i n e n t s a r e
there?

T h e o n l y w a y t h e s t u d e n t n o w h a s o f a r r i v i n g a t t h e a n s w e r is t o c o u n t t h e c o n t i n e n t s .

This n o t o n l y makes f o r b e t t e r r e t e n t i o n o f t h e number 5, b u t a l s o makes t h e student more a w a r e of

w h a t k i n d o f t h i n g h e is e n u m e r a t i n g .

Example 4 . A l i n e is d e f i n e d b y i t s s l o p e a n d y - i n t e r c e p t . How
is a l i n e defined?

O n e possible remedy is:

In o r d e r t o be a b l e t o d r a w t h e g r a p h o f t h e l i n e
y = mx + b , you hove t o know m and b . m is
the slope of the l i n e o n d b is i t s y - i n t e r c e p t . So
o l i n e is d e f i n e d b y .

W h e n t h e f r a m e is w r i t t e n : i n t h i s m a n n e r , the student must r e a l i z e t h a t t h e I n f o r m a -

t i o n t h a t " d e f i n e s t h e l i n e " is t h e s a m e as " w h a t y o u h a v e t o k n o w t o b e a b l e t o d r a w t h e g r a p h

of the l i n e " . Therefore, the frame forces h i m t o t h i n k about w h a t the w o r d " d e f i n e s " means.

T h e n h e hos t o e x t r a c t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s l o p e a n d t h e y - i n t e r c e p t , w h i c h a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y m

and b , constitute the defining information.

Example 5. The h y d r o g e n a t o m has electron.

(how many)

Most students are r i g i d - e n o u g h grammarians t o c h o o s e " o n e " as t h e i r a n s w e r . It m i g h t be t e m p t i n g

-30 -

4
to e l i m i n a t e this s y n t a c t i c prompt by changing the frame t o :

The h y d r o g e n a t o m has electron{s).

(how many)

By p u t t i n g i n t h e p a r e n t h e s i z e d ' s ' , t h e p r o g r a m m e r s a y s t o t h e s t u d e n t , i n e f f e c t ,

" I w i l l n o t t e l l y o u w h e t h e r i t is ' o n e ' o r a n u m b e r g r e a t e r t h a n o n e " . The s t u d e n t asks h i m s e l f

"^ATiy d i d t h e p r o g r a m m e r g o t h r o u g h s o m u c h t r o u b l e t o l e a v e ' o n e ' as a p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e ? If

the a n s w e r w e r e some n u m b e r g r e a t e r t h a n o n e , h e w o u l d n o t h a v e b o t h e r e d , a n d w o u l d s i m p l y

have left 'electrons' plural. S o t h e a n s w e r is p r o b a b l y ' o n e ' " . In such a cose, a s i m p l e w a y

o u t f o r t h e p r o g r a m m e r is w r i t e t h e f r a m e i n t h e f o r m o f a q u e s t i o n :

H o w m a n y e l e c t r o n s does t h e h y d r o g e n a t o m h a v e ?

Example 6 . Mushrooms a r e sometimes poisonous. Berries a r e

also sometimes .

T h e w o r d " s o m e t i m e s " is a f o r m a l p r o m p t . O n t o p o f t h a t , i t is p r e c e d e d b y t h e w o r d " a l s o " t h e

second time i t appears. T h i s a d d s a s y n t a c t i c p r o m p t t o w h a t is a l r e a d y a f o r m a l p r o m p t . The

student a u t o m a t i c a l l y copies t h e previous successor of " s o m e t i m e s " w i t h o u t necessarily r e a d i n g

the rest o f t h e s e n t e n c e . Better w o u l d be:

Mushrooms ore sometimes poisonous. Berries a r e

also sometimes poisonous. H o w does this m a k e
mushrooms a n d berries s i m i l a r ?

or

Mushrooms ore sometimes poisonous. Berries o r e

also sometimes poisonous. In o t h e r w o r d s , b o t h
ond ore sometimes

Example 7 , The r a n g e o f t h e v i s i b l e s p e c t r u m e x t e n d s f r o m 4 5 0 0 uu
to 7500 rnu. W h a t is t h e r a n g e o f t h e v i s i b l e s p e c t r u m ?

- 31 -
O n c e t h e s t u d e n t h a s r e a l i z e d t h a t " t h e r a n g e e x t e n d s f r o m " m e a n s t h e s e m e t h i n g as " t h e r a n g e

T s " , h i s p r o b l e m is s o l v e d . The p r o g r a m m e r ' s i n t e n t i o n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w a s t o g e t t h e s t u d e n t

t o respond t o t h e a c t u a l values, e n d t o the f a c t t h a t t h e y d e l i m i t the v i s i b l e p o r t i o n o f the l i g h t

spectrum, A good solution would be:

The r a n g e o f t h e v i s i b l e s p e c t r u m e x t e n d s f r o m 4 5 0 0 m u
-t0'75QO mv. W h a t is t h e r a n g e o f t h e i n v i s i b l e s p e c t r u m ?

L o g i c a l l y , t h e q u e s t i o n is t h e s a m e , s i n c e t h e i n v i s i b l e r a n g e i s t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f t h e v i s i b l e

range. But p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , i t i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . In t h e second version t h e student's o t t e n t i o n

is f o c u s e d o n t h e i n t e n d e d s t i m u l i .

32::
 AMBJGUCUS FRAMES

E a r l i e r , i t w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e frame-:

The p l a n e t s o r b i t a r o u n d t h e sun. T h e e o r i h is a
planet. Therefore the earth orbits around the

could be corrected by changing i t t o

The planets o r b i t a r o u n d t h e sun. T h e e a r t h is a

planet. Therefore the earth .

This m e t h o d i n v o l v e s i n c r e a s i n g the n u m b e r o f words l e f t b l a n k a n d t h e r e b y e l i m i n a t i n g the words

that provided the prompt. N o w suppose w e t r i e d t o a p p l y this m e t h o d t o t h e o t h e r e x a m p l e used

earlier:

Fungi l i v e on the dead cells of the skin, hair and

nails. Therefore the , ,
and a r e t h e i n f e c t e d a r e a s i n coses o f
superficial mycoses.

a n d changed this to

Fungi l i v e on the dead cells of the skin, hair, and

nails. Therefore the
a r e t h e i n f e c t e d o r e a s i n coses o f s u p e r f i c i a l m y c o s e s .

T h o u g h t h e f o r m a l p r o m p t has b e e n e l i m i n a t e d , a n e w d i f f i c u l t y has b e e n c r e a t e d i n i t s p l a c e .

T h e f r a m e is n o w s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s . A m o n g t h e p o s s i b l e onsv/ers o r e " d e a d c e l l s " , "deod

body areas", " c u t e r portions of the b o d y " , and even "keratinized c e l l s " . Therefore a different

t y p e o f s o l u t i o n must be f o u n d .

The o m b i g u i t y c r e a t e d b y m u l t i p l e b l a n k s is o f t e n n o t a p p a r e n t t o t h e programmer,

w h o has a c e r t a i n " s e t " ( s i n c e h e p r e s u m a b l y knows the answer), b u t w h i c h w i l l cause t h e student

unnecessary c o n f l i c t . Extreme examples of this error w o u l d be frames like:

- 33 -
 o. The rs t h e of the , the ,
and the ,

b. The are rf a n d o n l y i f and

, a n d sometimes if .

C l e a r l y , t h e r e o r e many possible w a y s of c o m p l e t i n g these frames, though i t may h a v e seemed t o

the programmer a t t h e t i m e of w r i t i n g that there exists o n l y o n e . I n g e n e r a l . I t is s a f e s t t o a v o i d

multiple blanks. W h e n t h e y are used, t h e frame should be c a r e f u l l y s c r u t i n i z e d f o r possible am-

biguity.

A s e c o n d t r o u b l e w h i c h m u l t i p l e b l a n k s c a n o c c a s i o n is t h a t t h e y m a y p o s e a r i d d l e t o

the student. There m a y o n l y be a single c o r r e c t w a y t o c o m p l e t e the s t a t e m e n t . Yet i t may take

a great deal of thought and effort t o figure out w h a t i t is. Thought and effort expended in this

w a y do< not advance the student's knowledge of the subject. It o n l y irritates h i m , and wastes

his t i m e . Though t h e p r o g r a m m e r must a l w a y s be c a r e f u l n o t t o g i v e ov/ay t h e a n s w e r b y i n a d v e r t -

e n t prompts, he should never hesitate t o g i v e a w a y the question by a n y means w h a t e v e r .

The c o n c l u s i o n , t h e n , is t h a t p r o m p t s c a n n o t o l v / a y s b e c u r e d b y l e a v i n g b l a n k t h e

words that did the prompting, because of the ambiguities that may ensue.

Suppose a n I n e x p e r i e n c e d p r o g r a m m e r tries t o e l i m i n a t e t h e p r o m p t i n t h i s w a y and

d i s c o v e r s t h a t h i s f r a m e is n o w a m b i g u o u s . He started w i t h the frame:

D i g e s t e d f o o d is a b s o r b e d into the bloodstream. The

s m a l l i n t e s t i n e is t h e p o r t i o n o f o u r d i g e s t i v e s y s t e m
w h e r e m o s t o f o u r f o o d is .

T h e i n t e n t o f t h e f r a m e is t o t e a c h t h e e x p r e s s i o n " f o o d is a b s o r b e d " . The words " f o o d is" consti-

tute a formal prompt, however. So t h e p r o g r a m m e r t r i e s :

D i g e s t e d f o o d is a b s o r b e d Into the bloodstream. The

s m a l l i n t e s t i n e is t h e p o r t i o n o f o u r d i g e s t i v e s y s t e m
w h e r e most o f o u r

- 3 4 -
 But n o w h e r e a l i z e s t h a t " f o o d is d i g e s t e d " , " d l g e s ^ r a n takes p l a c e " , "bellyaches

o r e l o c a l i z e d " , a n d " b i l e is s e c r e t e d " a r e o i l p o s s i b l e a n s w e r s . So, t o e l i m i n a t e these a l t e r n a -

t i v e s , h e resorts t o t h e following expedient:

D i g e s t e d f o o d is a b s o r b e d into the bloodstream. The

s m a l I i n t e s t i n e is t h e p o r t i o n o f our d i g e s t i v e s y s t e m
w h e r e most of our f i a

T h i s d e v i c e is r a r e l y e f f e c t i v e . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e r e is now a new prompt. ('"Which three words

t h a t I just read b e g i n w i t h f, I, and a respectively?.") E v e n i f t h e p r o m p t is n o t a n e a s y o n e to

u t i l i z e , t h e s t u d e n t is c h a l l e n g e d b y a t i m e c o n s u m i n g riddle. A more d i r e c t solution t o the p r o -

grammer's problem would be:

D i g e s t e d f o o d is a b s o r b e d into the bloodstream. An-

o t h e r w a y o f s a y i n g " m o s t o f o u r f o o d passes i n t o t h e
b l o o d s t r e a m t h r o u g h t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e " is " m o s t o f
our food through the small
intestine",

35-