Microsensors & Nanosensors

Week 2: Characteristics of Sensors

Lecture-1

Dr. Ravindra Kumar Jha

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering
IIT Guwahati
1
 Sensor Characteristics

By considering some specifications, there are various characteristics of a sensor -

• Transfer Function
• Sensitivity
• Calibration • Output Impedance
• Span (Full Scale Input) • Output Format
• Full Scale Output • Excitation
• Accuracy • Reliability
• Hysteresis • Uncertainty
• Nonlinearity
• Saturation
• Repeatability
• Dead Band
• Resolution
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 Sensor Characteristics

▪ Transfer Function

• It is an I/O (stimulus-response) relationship for a sensor

• It can be tabular form/ graph / mathematical relation

• The relation between stimulus “s” and output electrical signal “S”, is
established by transfer function – S = f(s)

• It can be Linear or Non Linear

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 Transfer Function

Output (S) f(s)

Input (s)
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 Transfer Function

Output (S)
• Linear transfer function can be – f(s)
S = A + Bs

Where, A = intercept, i.e. the output signal when input = 0

B = slope, which is also called Sensitivity of the device

For Non Linear transfer function, B is not a fixed.

Input (s)
𝑑𝑆 (𝑠𝑜 )
At any input s0, B =
𝑑𝑠

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 Transfer Function

• Nonlinearity can’t be ignored always

• A non linear transfer function can be approximated by multitude of linear

mathematical functions

• Linear piecewise approximation is an effective method to solve nonlinearity

issue
• It involves breaking of nonlinear function of any shape into sections and consideration
of each section as linear

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 Sensor Characteristics

Output (S) f(s)

Input (s)

Linear piecewise approximation

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 Sensor Characteristics

Calibration

Understand with an example:

• To measure temperature with accuracy ±0.1℃, with the sensor having a rated
accuracy of ±1℃

• Is it possible to use?

• Yes!

• Sensor needs to be calibrated

8
 Calibration

• Calibration of sensor minimizes errors

• Calibration – determination of specific variables that describes overall

transfer function

• It also adjusts sensor to perform accurately and consistently

9
 Sensor Characteristics

• Example: For a temperature sensor, voltage, V = a + bT, where T =

Temperature

• It is not essential to calibrate a sensor at many input points

• For a known reference source, it is sufficient to calibrate a few input stimuli

• Input-output points lies on actual transfer function

10
 Sensor Characteristics

Methods of Calibration

There are three standard methods of calibration –

• One point calibration

• Two-point calibration

• Multi-Point Curve Fitting

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 Sensor Characteristics

One Point Calibration:

Actual
• It requires a single point for calibration, which Response

can be applied for the rest once offset is Ideal

Response
Sensor
adjusted Output Offset

• This is mostly used for linear sensor, limited

upto certain range of measurement
Measured Parameter

• Example: Temperature sensor; control system

keeps the same temperature for certain period
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 Sensor Characteristics

Two Point Calibration:

• It is complex than single point Reference Raw High

• It rescales a sensor output for two points instead

Sensor
Output
one Raw Low

• It helps to correct both offset and slope and can

be used for linear output sensor Measured Parameter

• Example: Temperature sensor calibration with ice

bath (0.01°C) and boil water (100°C at sea-level).
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 Sensor Characteristics

Multi Point Calibration:

• It requires some curve fitting and used for the sensor with nonlinearity over
the range of measurement

• Example: Thermocouple; measured in extremely hot or extreme cold

conditions

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 Sensor Characteristics

Few Types of Calibration of a Sensor

• Linearity Calibration: It is used to measure the linearity over the full range
of its measurement

• Span Calibration: It is used to determine the full range of measurement

• Zero calibration: It is used to determine offset

• Sensitivity Calibration: It is used to determine sensitivity

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 Sensor Characteristics

• Temperature Calibration: It is used to determine effect of temperature on

performance of a sensor

• Hysteresis Calibration: It is used to measure hysteresis (difference in output at a

given input, if input approached from different directions)

• Non-linearity Calibration: Its is used to measure nonlinearity over the range of

measurement

• Repeatability Calibration: It is used to measure repeatability (degree at which

sensor produce same output for same input over time)

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 Sensor Characteristics

Reference Standard:

• This is required to calibrate a sensor

• It is another calibrated tool which is used to make reference readings for

comparison

• Example: Calibration of a thermistor

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 Sensor Characteristics

Thermistor Calibration using Reference Standard:

Thermometer
and Ohm-meter
• A thermistor is immersed with fluid
(nonconductive) bath with controlled temperature Grinder

• Temperature of the bath is monitored by

precision reference thermometer

• Resistance of the thermistor is measured by an Reference Thermistor

Temperature
temperature
sensor fluid bath
Ohm-meter (part of calibration instrument)
Fig 3: Calibration of thermistor

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 Sensor Characteristics

• A grinder removes some material from the

Thermometer
and Ohm-meter
thermistor and changes its electrical resistance at
specific bath temperature. Grinder

• The grinding stops and the calibration is finished

when the thermistor resistance matches a
predetermined value. Reference Thermistor
temperature Temperature
sensor fluid bath
• Now the thermistor response matches the ideal
Fig 3: Calibration of thermistor
trans function.
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 Sensor Characteristics

Calibrations Error

• It is inaccuracy permitted by a manufacturer when a sensor is calibrated in the

factory

• Systematic Error – it is added to all possible real transfer function

• It shifts the accuracy of transduction for each stimulus point by a constant

• This is not necessarily a uniform error over the range

• It may change depending on the type of error in the calibration

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 Sensor Characteristics

Span ( Full scale input)

• A dynamic range of stimuli that may be covered by a sensor is called a

span or an input full scale (FS).

• It represents the highest possible input value, which can be applied to

the sensor without causing unacceptably large inaccuracy

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 Sensor Characteristics

• It should be emphasized that decibels do not measure absolute values,

but a ratio of values only.

• By definition, decibels are equal to ten times the log of the ratio of powers

• In a similar manner, decibels are equal to 20 times the log of the force, or
current, or voltage

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 Sensor Characteristics

FSO (Full-Scale Output)

• Full-scale output is the algebraic difference between the electrical output

signals measured with the maximum input stimulus and the lowest input
stimulus applied.

• This must include all deviations from the ideal transfer function.

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 Sensor Characteristics

Accuracy and Precision

• An essential characteristic of a sensor is accuracy

• Inaccuracy is measured as the highest deviation of a value represented

by the sensor from the ideal or true value of a stimulus at its input

• Accuracy has to do with how “right” your answer is.

• Precision has to do with how “consistent” your answer is.

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 Sensor Characteristics

Accurate Accurate
Precise Not Precise

Not Accurate
Precise Not Accurate
Not Precise

Fig 4: Example of Accuracy and Precision

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 Hysteresis

Output, S
▪ Hysteresis:

• It is the deviation from sensor’s

output at a given input, when the
input is approached from the
opposite directions

Full
Zero balance Scale

0 Stimulus, s
Hysteresis 26
 Hysteresis
Curve-2
Output
• Hysteresis is the non-coincidence Variable decreasing

between loading and unloading curve

• Maximum input hysteresis– Maximum output Curve-1

hysteresis Variable
Percentage of full scale input increasing
Measured variable

Maximum input
Example: Spring-based instruments, hysteresis
Dead space
direction – dependent friction, magnetic
Hysteresis
field hysteresis 27
 Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is the maximum
difference in output when the value is
approached with an increase or
Sensing material
decrease in concentration of the
Electrode Electrode
analyte

Electrical Resistivity Measurement

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 Hysteresis

Typical causes for Hysteresis:

• Geometry of design

• Friction

• Structural changes in the materials

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 Linearity and Nonlinearity

Linearity and Nonlinearity: Output

• Nonlinearity is the maximum deviation +

+ +
of output from a straight line
+ Gradient =
+
• It is usually expressed as the + Sensitivity of
measurement
+
percentage of full scale reading +
+
+
+
Measured value
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑁𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 % = x 100 %
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
30
 Saturation

Output
• Every sensor has its operating limits.

• Even in linear sensors, at some levels of the

input stimuli, its output signal will no longer be
responsive.

• Further increase in stimulus does not produce Linear

span Saturation
a desirable output.
Stimulus
• It is said that the sensor exhibits a span-end
nonlinearity or saturation
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 Stability

• It is the ability of a sensor to provide

reproducible results for a certain period of
time.

Current
• This includes retaining the sensitivity,
selectivity, response, and recovery time
Time

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 Repeatability

• It is the ability of a sensor to show a certain response value when

subjected to certain concentration of analyte

Current

Time

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 Repeatability Error

• It is caused by the inability of a sensor to

Measured Pressure
represent the same value under presumably
identical conditions.

Actual Pressure

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 Repeatability Error

➢ The repeatability is expressed as a maximum difference between the output

readings as determined by two calibrating cycles unless otherwise specified as

➢ It is usually represented as % of FS

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 Repeatability Error

Possible sources of the repeatability error may be

• Thermal noise,

• Build up charge,

• Material plasticity, etc.

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 Dead Band

➢ Dead band is the insensitivity of a

Output
sensor in a specific range of the input
signals.

Stimulus

➢ In that range, the output may remain

near a certain value (often zero) over Dead band

an entire dead band zone.

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 Resolution

The smallest increments of stimulus that can be sensed

• Accuracy is the sensor’s degree of veracity – how close a measurement

gets to the actual or known value.

• Resolution is the smallest distinguishable change the sensor can detect

and display. The higher the resolution– the more specific are the values.

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 Output Impedance

• Output impedance Zout is important to know

Zout
for better interfacing of a sensor with the V Zin
(a)
Vs
electronic circuit
Interfacing
Sensor
Circuit

• The output impedance is connected to the Is

I
input impedance Zin of the circuit either as (b) Zout Zin

voltage connection or as current connection.

Sensor interface circuit

(a) sensor has voltage output
(b) sensor has current output
39
 Output Impedance

• The output and input impedances generally should be represented in a

complex form, as they may include active and reactive components.

• To minimize the output signal distortions,

➢ a current generating sensor should have an output impedance as high as
possible while the circuit’s input impedance should be low.

➢ For the voltage connection, a sensor is preferable with lower Zout while the circuit should
have Zin as high as practical.

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 Excitation

• It is the electrical signal needed for the operation of an active sensor.

• It is specified as a range of voltage and/or current.

• Spurious variations in the excitation may alter the sensor transfer function
and cause output errors.

• An example of excitation signal specification is as follows:

• Maximum current through a thermistor

• In air 50 μA
• In water 1 mA

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 Response and Recovery Time

Current

Time

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 Environmental Factor

Storage conditions

• Usually, storage conditions include the highest and the lowest storage
temperatures and maximum relative humidities at these temperatures.

• Depending on the sensor’s nature, some specific limitation for the storage may
need to be considered.

• For instance, maximum pressure, presence of some liquids, gases or

contaminating fumes.

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 Environmental Factor

Short-term stability

➢ The is manifested as changes in the sensor’s performance within minutes,

hours, or even days.

➢ Eventually, it is another way to express repeatability as drift may be bi-

directional.

➢ That is, the sensor’s output signal may increase or decrease, which is, in
other terms, may be described as ultralow frequency noise.

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 Environmental Factor

Long-term stability

• This is related to the aging of the sensor materials, which is an irreversible

change in the material’s electrical, mechanical, chemical, or thermal
properties.

• That is usually unidirectional.

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 Noise

Noise:
• It is a spurious current or voltage irrelevant to the signal current or voltage in
an electrical circuit.

Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N):

𝑆 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑉 2

= =
𝑁 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑉 )2

• If the unwanted signal is lesser in magnitude than the signal of interest, then
S/N is large and noise becomes negligible.
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 Noise

𝑆 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

Also, =
𝑁 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

Sources of Noise:

• Noise can be caused by either internal or external sources

• External Sources: EM signal, produced by transmission/reception circuits

and power supplies, mechanical vibrations, ambient temperature, etc
• These can cause systematic error

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 Noise

• Internal Sources: Its nature is quite different.

• Its broadly 3 types –

1. Generated Noise

2. Conducted Noise

3. Radiated Noise

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 Noise

• Generated Noise:
Input signal Output
Amplifier
(Without noise) (Signal + Noise)

➢ Input signal doesn’t contain any noise

➢ Power supply serves as energy source for the amplifier

➢ Output signal = Amplifier gain X (Input signal + Noise)

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 Noise

Sources of Generated Noise ?

• Noise is generated inside the amplifier

• One of the possible sources is the internal components of the amplifier like
resistors, capacitors, and transistors

50
 Noise

Johnson Noise

• Conductive portion of a resistor consists of regularly arranged groups of atoms

• Due to temperature and thermal effects, they are in a state of rapid vibratory
motion.

• This vibratory motion of atoms is transferred to the conduction electrons, which

produces noise component of current.

• This noise increases with internal heating (temperature dependent) and called
Johnson noise

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 Noise

• Johnson noise is also known as Johnson–Nyquist noise (thermal noise,

Johnson noise, or Nyquist noise)

• It was first measured at Bell Labs in 1926 by John B. Johnson

• Harry Nyquist was able to explain the results to whom Johnson described his
findings

• The amount of Johnson noise generated by an electronic resistor depends on

its operational temperature and applied the range of frequencies (bandwidth)

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 Noise

• Johnson noise level is calculated using Boltzmann constant as –

/2
V(noise) = 2(kTRB)1

Where,

V(noise) = Open circuit Johnson noise (V)

K = Boltzmann constant

T = Temperature in K

R = Resistance of the resistor

B = Applied range of frequencies (bandwidth)

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 Noise

The noise power Pn is generated

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑘𝑇Δ𝑓

Where 𝑘= Boltzmann constant= 1.38 x 10-23 J/oK

T= Absolute temperature of resistor; oK

Δ𝑓=bandwidth of noise signal; Hz

• The noise generation system can be represented by a voltage source of

magnitude in series with an equivalent resistance

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 Noise

• If the noise generator is connected to an

external load resistance, RL, the noise
Rn
Load
energy will be transferred to the load resistance RL
+
En
-
• Under conditions of maximum power
transfer (RL = Rn), the noise power is
delivered to the load
En2
PnL=
4Rn

55
 Noise

En2
PnL=
4Rn
Rn
Load
resistance RL
+
En
-

56
 White Noise

• The vibrations produced by thermal effects within a resistor cover a wide

frequency range, and therefore the noise generated consists of a wide
spectrum of frequencies.

• This wideband noise is sometimes called White noise

• The power spectrum density Sn is defined as the noise power per unit of

Pn
frequency bandwidth, Sn= = kT
𝑑𝑓

57
 Noise

• Thermal noise in an ideal resistor is approximately white

• That means the power spectral density is nearly constant throughout the
frequency spectrum, but does decay to zero at extremely high
frequencies

• When limited to a finite bandwidth, thermal noise has a nearly Gaussian

amplitude distribution
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 Noise

Shot Noise

• The internally generated noise in semi-conductor and vacuum tube devices

on account of random movement of charges is called Shot Noise.

• The random fluctuations are caused by the carriers’ random arrival time,

produce shot noise.

• These signal carriers can be electrons, holes, photons, and phonons.

59
 Noise

Shot Noise

• It is a random and quantized event

• Shot noise depends on the transfer of the individual electrons across the

junction.

60
 Noise

Shot Noise

• The shot noise, can be defined as

i rms = 2 Ief

• Where I = Average current passing through the junction

Δ𝑓= bandwidth
e= charge of an electron

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 Noise

Shot Noise

• Not much can be done to reduce the internally generated noise in semi-
conductor devices as this noise is on account of acceleration of charges.

• Solution?

• Selective filtering may be helpful to some extent in reduction of this noise

62
 Noise

Generation – Recombination Noise (g-r noise)

• This noise is produced from the generation and recombination of electrons and
holes in semiconductors

• They are observed in junction electronic devices.

63
 Noise

Pink Noise

• Here the components of the frequency spectrum of the interfering signals are
inversely proportional to the frequency.

• The pink noise is stronger at lower frequency and each octave carries an equal
amount of noise power.

• The origin of the pink signal is not completely understood.

64
 Noise

Conducted Noise

• The power supply to the amplifier could be the source of noise since it may
have spikes, ripples, or random deviations that are conducted to the amplifier
circuit through power wiring.

• This type of noise is called Conducted noise.

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 Noise

Radiated Noise

• There may be electric or magnetic fields or disturbances in the environments

around the amplifier because of which unwanted signals are radiated into the
interior of the amplifier and this is called Radiated noise.

66
 Error

Limiting Error

• The sensor manufacturer has to specify the deviations from the nominal

value of a particular quantity

• The limits of these deviations from the specified value are defined as Limiting

Errors

67
 Error

• The magnitude of a quantity having a nominal value As and a limiting

error of ±δA

• A magnitude Aa , must have to be in between the limits As - δA and As +

δA

68
 Error

Relative Error

• The relative (fractional) error is defined as the ratio of the error to the specified

(nominal) magnitude of a quantity

Actual value −nominal value

• Relative Error =
Nominal value

A 0
• Relative limiting error, r = =
A As
 0 =  A =  r As
69
 Error

Sum of two quantities

• Let X be the final result which is the sum of measured quantities x1 and x2

X = x1 + x2
dX d ( x1 + x2 )
• The relative increment of the function is given by =
X X
dx1 dx2
• The final result dX x1 dx1 x2 dx2 = +
= + X X
X X x1 X x2
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 Error

• If the limiting errors in the component quantities are represented by ±𝛿x1

and ±𝛿x2, then the corresponding relative limiting error in X is given by

X  x1  x1 x2  x2 
=  + 
X  X x1 X x2 

• This equation shows the resultant limiting relative error is equal to the sum
of the products formed by multiplying the individual relative limiting errors
by the ratio of each term to the function.

71
 Error

Difference of two quantities

X = x1 − x2
X dx1 dx2
= −
X X X

• Expressing the result in terms of relative increments of component quantities,

we get
dX x1 dx1 x2 dx2
= −
X X x1 X x2

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 Error

• If the errors in x2 and x2 are ±𝛿x1 and ±𝛿x2 respectively, the signs may be
interpreted to give worst possible discrepancy, when the error in x1 is +𝛿x1
the error in x2 is -𝛿x2 and vice versa, then the relative limiting error in X is
given by :

X  x1  x1 x2  x2 
=  + 
X  X x1 X x2 

73
 Error

Product of two quantities

X = x1 x2
log e X = log e x1 + log e x2
• Differentiating the above equation with respect to X, we can get

1 1 dx1 1 dx2 dX dx1 dx2

= . + . = +
X x1 dX x2 dX X x1 x2

• The relative limiting error in X is given by

X   x1  x2 
=  + 
X  1x x2 
74
 Error

Quotient
x1
X= or log e X = log e x1 − log e x2
x2
• Differentiating the above expression with respect to X

1 1 dx1 1 dx2 or dX dx1 dx2

= . − . = −
X x1 dX x2 dX X x1 x2

• Relative limiting error in X is :

X   x1  x2 
=  + 
X  x1 x2 
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 Error

Power of a factor

X = x1n or log e X = n log e x1

• Differentiating the above expression with respect to X
1 1 dx or dX  x1
= n. . 1 = n.
X x1 dX X x1

Relative limiting error in X is :

X  x1
=  n.
X x1
76
 Errors

Types of Errors:

Errors arises from different sources are classified as –

Errors

Gross Errors Systematic Errors Random Errors

• Instrumental Errors
• Environmental Errors
• Observational Errors

77
 Errors

Gross Errors:

• These mainly include human mistakes in reading sensor output, recording and
calculating sensing data

• The experimenter may grossly misread the scale of the sensing device

• Example: Due to oversight, an experimenter may read temperature from a

temperature sensor as 34.5°C while the actual reading may be 24.5°C

• Gross error may be any amount Their mathematical analysis is impossible!

78
 Errors

Gross errors can be avoided by adopting two ways –

✓ Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data

✓ More than one readings should be taken for the quantity under
measurement.

79
 Errors

Systematic Errors:

These can be divided into three categories :

• Instrumental Errors.

• Environmental Errors.

• Observational Errors.

80
 Errors

Instrumental Errors:

These errors arise due to three main reasons :

i. Inherent shortcomings in the sensing device

ii. Misuse of the sensor

iii. Loading effects of the sensor

81
 Errors

i. Inherent shortcomings in the sensing device

They may be due to –

➢ Construction,

➢ Calibration or

➢ Operation of the sensing device

• These errors may cause the sensor to read too low or too high

82
 Errors

ii. Misuse of the sensor

• Errors occurs in measurements are due to the fault of the operator than
that of the device

• A good sensor used in an unintelligent way may give erroneous results

• Example: A failure to adjust the zero of sensor, poor initial adjustments

83
 Errors

ii. Loading effects of the sensor

• When the sensor tries to modify the electrical properties of a circuit in

which it is attached

84
 Errors

Environment Errors:

• These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device

• It includes - conditions in the area surrounding the sensing device.

• These may be effects of temperature pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of

external magnetic or electrostatic fields.

85
 Errors

Environment Errors can be reduced by following corrective measures -

• Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as

possible

• Using equipment immune to these effects

• If it is suspected that external magnetic or electrostatic fields can affect the

readings of the sensor, magnetic or electrostatic shields may be provided.

• Applying computed corrections

86
 Errors
Pointer
reflection
Observational Errors: 150 150

• Many sources for these errors

(Incorrect
reading)
• Example: Pointer of a analog sensing
device rests slightly above the surface Mirror

of the scale.
(Correct reading) 150
➢ An error on account of PARALLAX
will be incurred unless the line of
vision of the observer is exactly No reflection

above the pointer.

87
 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors

➢ Sensors are subjected to inputs, which are not static but are dynamic in nature

➢ The input varies from instant to instant, and therefore, so does the output.

➢ The behavior of the sensor under such conditions is described by its dynamic response

The dynamic (varying with time) inputs are of two types :

(a) transient and

(b) steady state

88
 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors

The response of a sensor subjected to a time varying input like a sudden change in
temperature can be divided into two parts:

transient response, and the steady state response

If c(t) is the total time response of a system, then

where ct(t) and css(t) denote respectively the transient and steady state portions of the response.

89
 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors

For Sensors, the steady-state response is simply the response when time reaches infinity.

• Transient response is defined as the part of response which goes to zero as time
becomes large. Therefore, ct(t) has the property,

Therefore, after a time t= infinity, the sensor response is,

the sensor response is the steady state response

90
 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors

The dynamic characteristics of a sensor is :

(a) Speed of response

(b) Measuring lag

(c) Fidelity

(d) Dynamic error

91
 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors
❑ Speed of response

It is defined as the rapidity with which a sensor responds to changes in

the measured quantity.

Response Time

Recovery Time

92
 Dynamic Characteristics of Sensors

Measuring Lag

It is the retardation or delay in the response of a sensor to changes in the

measured quantity
The measuring lags are of two types :

(a) Retardation type.

(b) Time delay Lag

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(a) Retardation type. In this case, the response of the sensor begins immediately after a
change in measured quantity has occurred.

(b) Time delay Lag

• In this case, the response of the sensor begins after a dead time after the application of the
input.
• Dead time simply shifts the response of the system along the time scale
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Fidelity.

• It is defined as the degree of closeness to which a sensor indicates changes in the measured quantity
without any dynamic error.

• Supposing if a linearly varying stimuli is applied to a sensor and if the output is also a linearly varying
quantity, the sensor is said to have 100 percent fidelity.

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Fidelity.

• Ideally a sensor should have 100 percent fidelity, and the output should appear in the
same form as that of input and there is no distortion produced in the signal by the
system.

• In the definition of fidelity any time lag or phase difference between output and
input is not included.

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Dynamic Error

➢ It is the difference between the true value of the quantity (under measurement)
changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error
is assumed.

➢ It is also called Measurement Error

➢ the total dynamic error of the sensor is the combination of its fidelity and the time lag or
phase difference between the input and output of the sensor 97
Thank You

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