Python course

What is Python?
Python is a popular programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum, and
released in 1991. It is used for:
 web development (server-side),
 software development,
 mathematics,
 system scripting.
What can Python do?
 Python can be used on a server to create web applications.
 Python can be used alongside software to create workflows.
 Python can connect to database systems. It can also read and modify files.
 Python can be used to handle big data and perform complex mathematics.
 Python can be used for rapid prototyping, or for production-ready software
development.
 Python Indentation
 Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.
 Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability only,
the indentation in Python is very important.

Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

 Example
 if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")
 Example
 Syntax Error:
 if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Python Variables

 In Python, variables are created when you assign a value to it:

 Example
 Variables in Python:
 x=5
y = "Hello, World!"
 Python has no command for declaring a variable.
 Creating a Comment

Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example

#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")

A comment does not have to be text that explains the code, it can also be used to prevent
Python from executing code:

Example

#print("Hello, World!")
print("Cheers, Mate!")

Multiline Comments

Python does not really have a syntax for multiline comments.

To add a multiline comment you could insert a # for each line:

Example

#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")

Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.

Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable, you can add a
multiline string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your comment inside it:

Example

"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")
 Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.
Creating Variables Python has no command for declaring a variable. A variable is created the
moment you first assign a value to it.
Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x)
print(y)
Variables do not need to be declared with any particular type, and can even change type
after they have been set.
Example
x= 4 # x is of type int
x = "Sally" # x is now of type str
print(x)
Casting
If you want to specify the data type of a variable, this can be done with casting.
Example
x = str(3) # x will be '3'
y = int(3) # y will be 3
z = float(3) # z will be 3.0

Single or Double Quotes?

String variables can be declared either by using single or double quotes:
Example
x = "John"
# is the same as
x = 'John'
Case-Sensitive
Variable names are case-sensitive.
Example
This will create two variables:
a=4
A = "Sally"
#A will not overwrite a
A variable can have a short name (like x and y) or a more descriptive name (age, carname,
total_volume).
Rules for Python variables:
 A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character
 A variable name cannot start with a number
 A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-
9, and _ )
 Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different variables)
 A variable name cannot be any of the Python keywords.

and A logical operator

as To create an alias

assert For debugging

break To break out of a loop

class To define a class

continue To continue to the next iteration of a loop

def To define a function

del To delete an object

elif Used in conditional statements, same as else if

else Used in conditional statements

except Used with exceptions, what to do when an exception occurs

False Boolean value, result of comparison operations

finally Used with exceptions, a block of code that will be executed no matter if there
is an exception or not

for To create a for loop

from To import specific parts of a module

global To declare a global variable

if To make a conditional statement

import To import a module

in To check if a value is present in a list, tuple, etc.

is To test if two variables are equal

lambda To create an anonymous function

None Represents a null value

nonlocal To declare a non-local variable

not A logical operator

or A logical operator

pass A null statement, a statement that will do nothing

raise To raise an exception

return To exit a function and return a value

True Boolean value, result of comparison operations

try To make a try...except statement

while To create a while loop

with Used to simplify exception handling

yield To return a list of values from a generator

Many Values to Multiple Variables
Python allows you to assign values to multiple variables in one line:
Example
x, y, z = "Orange", "Banana", "Cherry"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
One Value to Multiple Variables
And you can assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
Example
x = y = z = "Orange"
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Unpack a Collection
If you have a collection of values in a list, tuple etc. Python allows you to extract the values
into variables. This is called unpacking.
Example
Unpack a list:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
x, y, z = fruits
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Output Variables
The Python print() function is often used to output variables.
Exampler
x = "Python is awesome"
print(x)
In the print() function, you output multiple variables, separated by a comma:
Example
x = "Python"
y = "is"
z = "awesome"
print(x, y, z)
You can also use the + operator to output multiple variables:
Example
x = "Python "
y = "is "
z = "awesome"
print(x + y + z)
For numbers, the + character works as a mathematical operator:
Example
x=5
y = 10
print(x + y)
In the print() function, when you try to combine a string and a number with the + operator,
Python will give you an error:
Example
x=5
y = "John"
print(x + y) error

Global Variables
Variables that are created outside of a function (as in all of the examples in the previous
pages) are known as global variables.
Global variables can be used by everyone, both inside of functions and outside
Example
Create a variable outside of a function, and use it inside the function
x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()
If you create a variable with the same name inside a function, this variable will be local, and
can only be used inside the function. The global variable with the same name will remain as it
was, global and with the original value.
Example
Create a variable inside a function, with the same name as the global variable
x = "awesome"

def myfunc():
 x = "fantastic"
print("Python is " + x)

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)
The global Keyword
Normally, when you create a variable inside a function, that variable is local, and can only be
used inside that function.
To create a global variable inside a function, you can use the global keyword.
Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:
def myfunc():
global x
x = "fantastic"

myfunc()

print("Python is " + x)
 Python Data Types

Built-in Data Types

In programming, data type is an important concept.
Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different things.
Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:
Text Type: str
Numeric Types: int, float, complex
Sequence Types: list, tuple, range
Mapping Type: dict
Set Types: set, frozenset
Boolean Type: bool
Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview
None Type: NoneType

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:
Example
Print the data type of the variable x:
x=5
print(type(x))

Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:
Example Data Type
x = "Hello World" str
x = 20 int
x = 20.5 float
x = 1j complex
x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list
 x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple
x = range(6) range
x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set
x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"}) frozenset
x = True bool
x = b"Hello" bytes
x = bytearray(5) bytearray
x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview
x = None NoneType

Python Numbers
There are three numeric types in Python:
 int
 float
 complex
Variables of numeric types are created when you assign a value to them:
Example
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex
To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type() function:
Example
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of unlimited length.
Example
Integers:
x=1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522
print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing one or more
decimals.
Example
Floats:
x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Float can also be scientific numbers with an "e" to indicate the power of 10.
Example
Floats:
x = 35e3
y = 12E4
z = -87.7e100

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))
Complex numbers are written with a "j" as the imaginary part:
Example
Complex:
x = 3+5j
y = 5j
z = -5j

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Type Conversion
You can convert from one type to another with the int(), float(), and complex() methods:
Example
Convert from one type to another:
x = 1 # int
y = 2.8 # float
z = 1j # complex

#convert from int to float:

a = float(x)

#convert from float to int:

b = int(y)

#convert from int to complex:

c = complex(x)

Note: You cannot convert complex numbers into another number type.

Random Number
Python does not have a random() function to make a random number, but Python has a built-
in module called random that can be used to make random numbers:
Example
Import the random module, and display a random number from 1 to 9:
import random

print(random.randrange(1, 10))
Integers:
x = int(1) # x will be 1
y = int(2.8) # y will be 2
z = int("3") # z will be 3
Floats:
x = float(1) # x will be 1.0
y = float(2.8) # y will be 2.8
z = float("3") # z will be 3.0
w = float("4.2") # w will be 4.2
Strings:
x = str("s1") # x will be 's1'
y = str(2) # y will be '2'
z = str(3.0) # z will be '3.0'
 Strings
Strings in python are surrounded by either single quotation marks, or double quotation marks.
'hello' is the same as "hello".
You can display a string literal with the print() function:
Example
print("Hello")
print('Hello')
Quotes Inside Quotes
You can use quotes inside a string, as long as they don't match the quotes surrounding the
string:
Example
print("It's alright")
print("He is called 'Johnny'")
print('He is called "Johnny"')
Assign String to a Variable
Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an equal sign and
the string:
Example
a = "Hello"
print(a)
Multiline Strings
You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:
Example
You can use three double quotes:
a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)
Strings are Arrays
Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays of bytes
representing unicode characters.
However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is simply a string
with a length of 1.
Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.
Example
Get the character at position 1 (remember that the first character has the position 0):
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])
“0123456789101112” is tarike se hello world ka poaition count hoga comma ka position 5
space ka position 6
Looping Through a String
Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with a for loop.

Example
Loop through the letters in the word "banana":

for x in "banana":
print(x)
String Length
To get the length of a string, use the len() function.

Example
The len() function returns the length of a string:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))
Check String
To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string, we can use the keyword in.
Example
Check if "free" is present in the following text:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"
print("free" in txt)

Example
Print only if "free" is present:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"
if "free" in txt:
print("Yes, 'free' is present.")
Check if NOT
To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string, we can use the
keyword not in.
Example
Check if "expensive" is NOT present in the following text:
txt = "The best things in life are free!"
print("expensive" not in txt)
Python - Slicing Strings
Slicing
You can return a range of characters by using the slice syntax.
Specify the start index and the end index, separated by a colon, to return a part of the string.
Example
Get the characters from position 2 to position 5 (not included):
b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[2:5])
Note: The first character has index 0.
Slice From the Start
By leaving out the start index, the range will start at the first character:
Example
Get the characters from the start to position 5 (not included):
b = "Hello, World!" print(b[:5])
Slice To the End
By leaving out the end index, the range will go to the end:
Example
Get the characters from position 2, and all the way to the end:
b = "Hello, World!" print(b[2:])
Negative Indexing
Use negative indexes to start the slice from the end of the string:
Example
Get the characters: From: "o" in "World!" (position -5)
To, but not included: "d" in "World!" (position -2): b = "Hello, World!"
print(b[-5:-2])
 "W" = index 0 or -6
 "o" = index 1 or -5 ✅ start here
 "r" = index 2 or -4
 "l" = index 3 or -3
 "d" = index 4 or -2 ❌ not included
 "!" = index 5 or -1
 Python - Modify Strings
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.
Upper Case
Example
The upper() method returns the string in upper case:
a = "Hello, World!" print(a.upper())
Lower Case
Example
The lower() method returns the string in lower case:
a = "Hello, World!" print(a.lower())

Remove Whitespace
Whitespace is the space before and/or after the actual text, and very often you want to remove
this space.
Example
The strip() method removes any whitespace from the beginning or the end:
a = " Hello, World! " print(a.strip()) # returns "Hello, World!"
Replace String
Example
The replace() method replaces a string with another string:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.replace("H", "J"))
Split String
The split() method returns a list where the text between the specified separator becomes the
list items.
Example
The split() method splits the string into substrings if it finds instances of the separator:
a = "Hello, World!"
print(a.split(",")) # returns ['Hello', ' World!']
Python - String Concatenation

String Concatenation
To concatenate, or combine, two strings you can use the + operator.
Example
Merge variable a with variable b into variable c:
a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c=a+b
print(c)
Example
To add a space between them, add a " ":
a = "Hello"
b = "World"
c=a+""+b
print(c)
Python - Format - Strings
String Format
As we learned in the Python Variables chapter, we cannot combine strings and numbers like
this:
Example
age = 36
#This will produce an error:
txt = "My name is John, I am " + age
print(txt)
F-Strings
F-String was introduced in Python 3.6, and is now the preferred way of formatting strings.
To specify a string as an f-string, simply put an f in front of the string literal, and add curly
brackets {} as placeholders for variables and other operations.
Placeholders and Modifiers
A placeholder can contain variables, operations, functions, and modifiers to format the value.
Example
Add a placeholder for the price variable:
price = 59
txt = f"The price is {price} dollars"
print(txt)
A placeholder can include a modifier to format the value.
A modifier is included by adding a colon : followed by a legal formatting type, like .2f which
means fixed point number with 2 decimals:
Example
Display the price with 2 decimals:
price = 59
txt = f"The price is {price:.2f} dollars"
print(txt)
A placeholder can contain Python code, like math operations:
Example
Perform a math operation in the placeholder, and return the result:
txt = f"The price is {20 * 59} dollars"
print(txt)
Python - Escape Characters
Escape Character
To insert characters that are illegal in a string, use an escape character.
An escape character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want to insert.
An example of an illegal character is a double quote inside a string that is surrounded by
double quotes:
Example
You will get an error if you use double quotes inside a string that is surrounded by double
quotes:
txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north."

To fix this problem, use the escape character \":

Example
The escape character allows you to use double quotes when you normally would not be
allowed:
txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north."

\' Single Quote

 \\ Backslash

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

\t Tab

\b Backspace

\f Form Feed

\ooo Octal value

\xhh Hex value

String Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on strings.
Note: All string methods return new values. They do not change the original string.

Method Description

capitalize() Converts the first character to upper case

casefold() Converts string into lower case

center() Returns a centered string

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a string

encode() Returns an encoded version of the string

endswith() Returns true if the string ends with the specified value

expandtabs() Sets the tab size of the string

find() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was
found

format() Formats specified values in a string

format_map() Formats specified values in a string

index() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the position of where it was
found

isalnum() Returns True if all characters in the string are alphanumeric

isalpha() Returns True if all characters in the string are in the alphabet

isascii() Returns True if all characters in the string are ascii characters

isdecimal() Returns True if all characters in the string are decimals

isdigit() Returns True if all characters in the string are digits

isidentifier() Returns True if the string is an identifier

islower() Returns True if all characters in the string are lower case

isnumeric() Returns True if all characters in the string are numeric

isprintable() Returns True if all characters in the string are printable

isspace() Returns True if all characters in the string are whitespaces

istitle() Returns True if the string follows the rules of a title

isupper() Returns True if all characters in the string are upper case

join() Joins the elements of an iterable to the end of the string

ljust() Returns a left justified version of the string

lower() Converts a string into lower case

lstrip() Returns a left trim version of the string

maketrans() Returns a translation table to be used in translations

partition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

replace() Returns a string where a specified value is replaced with a specified value

rfind() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it was
found

rindex() Searches the string for a specified value and returns the last position of where it was
found

rjust() Returns a right justified version of the string

rpartition() Returns a tuple where the string is parted into three parts

rsplit() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list

rstrip() Returns a right trim version of the string

split() Splits the string at the specified separator, and returns a list

splitlines() Splits the string at line breaks and returns a list

startswith() Returns true if the string starts with the specified value

strip() Returns a trimmed version of the string

swapcase() Swaps cases, lower case becomes upper case and vice versa

title() Converts the first character of each word to upper case

translate() Returns a translated string

upper() Converts a string into upper case

zfill() Fills the string with a specified number of 0 values at the beginning
 Python Booleans

Booleans represent one of two values: True or False.

Boolean Values
In programming you often need to know if an expression is True or False.
You can evaluate any expression in Python, and get one of two answers, True or False.
When you compare two values, the expression is evaluated and Python returns the Boolean
answer:
Example
print(10 > 9)
print(10 == 9)
print(10 < 9)
When you run a condition in an if statement, Python returns True or False:
Example
Print a message based on whether the condition is True or False:
a = 200
b = 33

if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Evaluate Values and Variables

The bool() function allows you to evaluate any value, and give you True or False in return,
Example
Evaluate a string and a number:
print(bool("Hello"))
print(bool(15))

Example
Evaluate two variables:
x = "Hello"
y = 15
print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))

Most Values are True

Almost any value is evaluated to True if it has some sort of content.
Any string is True, except empty strings.
Any number is True, except 0.
Any list, tuple, set, and dictionary are True, except empty ones.
Example
The following will return True:
bool("abc")
bool(123)
bool(["apple", "cherry", "banana"])

Some Values are False

In fact, there are not many values that evaluate to False, except empty values, such
as (), [], {}, "", the number 0, and the value None. And of course the value False evaluates
to False.
Example
The following will return False:
bool(False)
bool(None)
bool(0)
bool("")
bool(())
bool([])
bool({})
One more value, or object in this case, evaluates to False, and that is if you have an object
that is made from a class with a __len__ function that returns 0 or False:
Example
class myclass():
def __len__(self):
 return 0

myobj = myclass()
print(bool(myobj))

Functions can Return a Boolean

You can create functions that returns a Boolean Value:
Example
Print the answer of a function:
def myFunction() :
return True

print(myFunction())
You can execute code based on the Boolean answer of a function:
Example
Print "YES!" if the function returns True, otherwise print "NO!":
def myFunction() :
return True

if myFunction():
print("YES!")
else:
print("NO!")
Python also has many built-in functions that return a boolean value, like
the isinstance() function, which can be used to determine if an object is of a certain data type:
Example
Check if an object is an integer or not:
x = 200
print(isinstance(x, int))
 Python Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:
Example print(10 + 5)
Python divides the operators in the following groups:
 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Identity operators
 Membership operators
 Bitwise operators
Python Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used with numeric values to perform common mathematical
operations:

Operator Name Example

+ Addition x+y

- Subtraction x-y

* Multiplication x*y

/ Division x/y

% Modulus x%y

** Exponentiation x ** y

// Floor division x // y

Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables:
Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x-3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

//= x //= 3 x = x // 3

**= x **= 3 x = x ** 3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

:= print(x := 3) x=3
print(x)
Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example

== Equal x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements:

Operator Description Example

and Returns True if both statements are true x < 5 and x < 10

or Returns True if one of the statements is true x < 5 or x < 4

not Reverse the result, returns False if the result not(x < 5 and x < 10)
is true

Identity operators are used to compare the objects, not if they are equal, but if they are
actually the same object, with the same memory location:

Operator Description Example

is Returns True if both variables are the same x is y

object

is not Returns True if both variables are not the same x is not y
object
Membership operators are used to test if a sequence is presented in an object:

Operator Description Example

in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is x in y

present in the object

not in Returns True if a sequence with the specified value is x not in y

not present in the object

Bitwise operators are used to compare (binary) numbers:

Operator Name Description Example

& AND Sets each bit to 1 if both bits are 1 x&y

| OR Sets each bit to 1 if one of two bits is 1 x|y

^ XOR Sets each bit to 1 if only one of two bits is 1 x^y

~ NOT Inverts all the bits ~x

<< Zero fill Shift left by pushing zeros in from the right and let x << 2
left shift the leftmost bits fall off

>> Signed Shift right by pushing copies of the leftmost bit in x >> 2
right shift from the left, and let the rightmost bits fall off

Operator Precedence
Operator precedence describes the order in which operations are performed.
Example
Parentheses has the highest precedence, meaning that expressions inside parentheses must be
evaluated first:
print((6 + 3) - (6 + 3))
Example
Multiplication * has higher precedence than addition +, and therefore multiplications are
evaluated before additions:
print(100 + 5 * 3)
The precedence order is described in the table below, starting with the highest precedence at
the top:

Operator Description

() Parentheses

** Exponentiation

+x -x ~x Unary plus, unary minus, and bitwise NOT

* / // % Multiplication, division, floor division, and

modulus

+ - Addition and subtraction

<< >> Bitwise left and right shifts

& Bitwise AND

^ Bitwise XOR

| Bitwise OR

== != > >= < <= is is not in not Comparisons, identity, and membership
in operators

not Logical NOT

and AND

or OR

If two operators have the same precedence, the expression is evaluated from left to right.
Example
Addition + and subtraction - has the same precedence, and therefore we evaluate the
expression from left to right:
print(5 + 4 - 7 + 3)
 Python Lists

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
Lists are created using square brackets:
Example
Create a List:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist)
List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values. List items are indexed, the
first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.
Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that
order will not change.
If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.
Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the order of the
items will not change.
Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list after it
has been created

Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:
Example
Lists allow duplicate values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]
print(thislist)

List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(len(thislist))

List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:
list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]
A list can contain different data types:
Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:
list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':
<class 'list'>
Example
What is the data type of a list?
mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(type(mylist))

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.
Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:
thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thislist)
Python Collections (Arrays)
There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.
*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever you like.
**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type.
Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it
could mean an increase in efficiency or security.
Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index number:
Example
Print the second item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[1])
Note: The first item has index 0.
Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[-1])
Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:5])
Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including, "kiwi":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[:4])
By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[2:])

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including "mango" (-1):
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]
print(thislist[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

Python - Change List Items

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:
Example
Change the second item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)
Change a Range of Item Values
To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new values, and
refer to the range of index numbers where you want to insert the new values:
Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and "watermelon":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]
thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you specified,
and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example
Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted does not match
the number of items replaced.
If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you specified,
and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example
Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)

Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can use
the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)
Note: As a result of the example above, the list will now contain 4 items.

Python - Add List Items

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:
Example
Using the append() method to append an item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)
Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert an item as the second position:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.insert(1, "orange")
print(thislist)
Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now contain 4 items.
Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use the extend() method.
Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)
The elements will be added to the end of the list.
Add Any Iterable
The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable object (tuples,
sets, dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
thislist.extend(thistuple)
print(thislist)

Python - Remove List Items

Remove Specified Item

The remove() method removes the specified item.
ExampleGet your own Python Server
Remove "banana":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)
If there are more than one item with the specified value, the remove() method removes the
first occurrence:
Example
Remove the first occurrence of "banana":
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "banana", "kiwi"]
thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.
Example
Remove the second item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)
If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.
Example
Remove the last item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop()
print(thislist)
The del keyword also removes the specified index:
Example
Remove the first item:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist[0]
print(thislist)
The del keyword can also delete the list completely.
Example
Delete the entire list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist

Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.
The list still remains, but it has no content.
Example
Clear the list content:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.clear()
print(thislist)

Python - Loop Lists

Loop Through a List
You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in thislist:
print(x)
Learn more about for loops in our Python For Loops Chapter.

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])
The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and loop your way
through the list items by referring to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
i=0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i=i+1
Looping Using List Comprehension
List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:
Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
[print(x) for x in thislist]

Python - List Comprehension

List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list based on the
values of an existing list.
Example:
Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with the letter "a" in
the name.
Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a conditional test
inside:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = []

for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
newlist.append(x)

print(newlist)
With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x] print(newlist)

The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]
The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.
Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that evaluate to True.
Example
Only accept items that are not "apple":
newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]
The condition if x != "apple" will return True for all elements other than "apple", making the
new list contain all fruits except "apple".
The condition is optional and can be omitted:
Example
With no if statement:
newlist = [x for x in fruits]
Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple, set etc.
Example
You can use the range() function to create an iterable:
newlist = [x for x in range(10)]
Same example, but with a condition:
Example
Accept only numbers lower than 5:
newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]
Expression
The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is also the outcome, which you can
manipulate before it ends up like a list item in the new list:
Example
Set the values in the new list to upper case:
newlist = [x.upper() for x in fruits]
You can set the outcome to whatever you like:
Example
Set all values in the new list to 'hello':
newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]
The expression can also contain conditions, not like a filter, but as a way to manipulate the
outcome:
Example
Return "orange" instead of "banana":
newlist = [x if x != "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]

Python - Sort Lists

Sort List Alphanumerically
List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically, ascending, by
default:
Example
Sort the list alphabetically:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Example
Sort the list numerically:
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:
Example
Sort the list descending:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Example
Sort the list descending:
thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]
thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)
Customize Sort Function
You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key = function.
The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest number first):
Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:
def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

thislist.sort(key = myfunc)
print(thislist)
Case Insensitive Sort
By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters being sorted
before lower case letters:
Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.sort()
print(thislist)
Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.
So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use str.lower as a key function:
Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.sort(key = str.lower)
print(thislist)

Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?
The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.
Example
Reverse the order of the list items:
thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]
thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)
Python - Copy Lists
Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be
a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically also be made in list2.

Use the copy() method

You can use the built-in List method copy() to copy a list.
Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)

Use the list() method

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

Use the slice Operator

You can also make a copy of a list by using the : (slice) operator.
Example
Make a copy of a list with the : operator:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
mylist = thislist[:]
print(mylist)

Python - Join Lists

There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.
One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.
Join two list:
list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)
Another way to join two lists is by appending all the items from list2 into list1, one by one:
Example
Append list2 into list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
list1.append(x)

print(list1)
Or you can use the extend() method, where the purpose is to add elements from one list to
another list:
Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:
list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]
list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list1.extend(list2)
print(list1)
List Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.

Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current list
index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the other 3
are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.
Tuples are written with round brackets.
ExampleGet your own Python Server
Create a Tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple)

Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.
Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order, and that
order will not change.

Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items after the tuple
has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since tuples are indexed, they can have items with the same value:
Example
Tuples allow duplicate values:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")
print(thistuple)

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(len(thistuple))

Create Tuple With One Item

To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma after the item, otherwise
Python will not recognize it as a tuple.
Example
One item tuple, remember the comma:
thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))

Tuple Items - Data Types

Tuple items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:
tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)
A tuple can contain different data types:
Example
A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:
tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

type()
From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type 'tuple':
<class 'tuple'>
Example
What is the data type of a tuple?
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(type(mytuple))

The tuple() Constructor

It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.
Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:
thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thistuple)

Python Collections (Arrays)

There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:
 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable*, and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is ordered** and changeable. No duplicate members.
*Set items are unchangeable, but you can remove and/or add items whenever you like.
**As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier, dictionaries
are unordered.
When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that type.
Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of meaning, and, it
could mean an increase in efficiency or security.