Part A (10 x 2 Marks)

1.

An API is considered "RESTful" if it adheres to the principles of Representational State

Transfer (REST), including:

1. Statelessness: Each request from the client must contain all the information
needed for the server to fulfill it, without relying on stored context.

2. Resource-based: Uses standard HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) to

operate on resources, represented by URLs.

2.

Separating HTTP requests from business logic enhances scalability by:

1. Improved Modularity: Isolating business logic makes it easier to scale specific

layers independently, like adding more compute power to handle complex logic
without altering request handling.

2. Efficient Load Distribution: HTTP handling can be optimized (e.g., using load
balancers), while business logic can be distributed across microservices or
separate servers to handle increased demand effectively.

3.

The @Entity annotation helps in mapping a Java class to a database table by:

1. Defining the Class as an Entity: It marks the class as a persistent entity, meaning
it is managed by the JPA and can be mapped to a table in the database.

2. Automatic Table Mapping: By default, the class name is used as the table name,
or a custom name can be specified with the @Table annotation. This allows JPA
to perform CRUD operations seamlessly.

4.

Here are the different types of joins used in SQL to build complex queries:

1. Inner Join: Returns records with matching values in both tables.

2. Left Join (Left Outer Join): Returns all records from the left table and matching
records from the right table; unmatched records from the left table are included
with NULL values for the right table.

3. Right Join (Right Outer Join): Returns all records from the right table and
matching records from the left table; unmatched records from the right table are
included with NULL values for the left table.
 4. Full Join (Full Outer Join): Returns all records when there is a match in either
table, filling unmatched records with NULL.

5. Cross Join: Produces a Cartesian product of two tables, pairing each row from
one table with every row from the other.

6. Self Join: Joins a table to itself to compare rows within the same table.

7. Natural Join: Automatically joins tables based on columns with the same names
and compatible data types, without explicitly specifying the join condition.

5.

The Sort class in Spring Data JPA facilitates sorting by:

1. Defining Sorting Criteria: It allows specifying the properties (fields) to sort by and
the sorting direction (ascending or descending).

2. Enhancing Query Results: The Sort object can be passed to repository methods,
enabling dynamic and flexible sorting of query results without modifying the
query structure.

For example:

java

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Sort sort = Sort.by(Sort.Order.asc("name"), Sort.Order.desc("age"));

List<Entity> results = repository.findAll(sort);

6.

To define a custom JPQL query in Spring Data JPA:

1. Use the @Query Annotation: Add @Query above the repository method and
specify the JPQL query as a string.

2. Bind Parameters if Needed: Use positional (?1) or named (:paramName)

parameters to pass values dynamically.

Example:

java

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@Query("SELECT e FROM Entity e WHERE e.name = :name")

List<Entity> findByName(@Param("name") String name);

7.

In JPA one-to-one associations, mappedBy and @JoinColumn serve different roles:

1. mappedBy:

o Used on the inverse (non-owning) side of the association.

o Indicates the field in the owning entity that maps the relationship.

o No database column is created; it simply references the owning side.

o Example:

java

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@OneToOne(mappedBy = "passport")

private Person person;

2. @JoinColumn:

o Used on the owning side of the association.

o Specifies the foreign key column in the database table.

o Creates and manages the actual database relationship.

o Example:

java

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@OneToOne

@JoinColumn(name = "passport_id")

private Passport passport;

8.

Persisting a one-to-one association in JPA involves the following steps:

1. Define Entity Classes:

o Create two entity classes with fields and annotate them with @Entity.

o Use @OneToOne for the association and configure @JoinColumn on the

owning side or mappedBy on the inverse side.

2. Configure Database Schema:

o Ensure the database schema includes a foreign key column for the
association.

3. Set Up Persistence:

o Use persistence.xml or application.properties/application.yml for

database connection configuration.

4. Set Relationship:

o Instantiate entities and set the relationship by associating one entity with
the other in code.
Example:

java

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Passport passport = new Passport("P123456");

Person person = new Person("John Doe");

person.setPassport(passport);

passport.setPerson(person);

5. Persist Entities:

o Use an EntityManager or repository to persist the owning side entity.

Example:

java

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entityManager.persist(person);

o This will automatically persist the associated entity if cascading is

configured (@OneToOne(cascade = CascadeType.ALL)).
9.

JWT (JSON Web Token) is a compact, self-contained token format used for securely
transmitting information between parties as a JSON object.

1. Enhances Security: Ensures secure API authentication by encoding user data

and verifying its integrity with a signature, preventing tampering.

2. Stateless Authentication: Eliminates the need for server-side sessions, reducing

server load while allowing APIs to authenticate users easily.

10.

SonarLint integrates with SonarQube to provide a seamless code quality and static
analysis experience:

1. Integration:

o SonarLint can connect to a SonarQube server to synchronize quality

profiles, rules, and issue severities.

o This ensures developers see consistent code quality standards locally (in
their IDE) and on the centralized SonarQube server.

2. Benefits:

o Early Detection of Issues: Developers can identify and fix code quality
issues in real time, during development, using SonarLint.

o Consistency: Ensures alignment with organization-wide coding standards

and policies defined in SonarQube.

o Efficiency: Reduces back-and-forth between developers and QA teams by

addressing issues before code is committed or pushed.

Part B (5 x 13 Marks)
11.a

Advantages of Using RESTful APIs in Modern Web Development

1. Simplicity and Flexibility:

o RESTful APIs are based on standard HTTP methods like GET, POST, PUT,
DELETE, making them simple to use and understand. This results in easy
integration and implementation in web applications.
 o The stateless nature of REST allows clients to interact with the API
independently without having to maintain the session state, making it
highly flexible and scalable.

2. Scalability:

o REST APIs are designed to scale horizontally. Since each request is

independent and stateless, the system can handle a high number of
concurrent users by distributing the load across multiple servers without
worrying about session management.

o REST supports caching mechanisms, allowing responses to be cached

and improving performance in high-traffic systems.

3. Separation of Client and Server:

o RESTful APIs enable a clear separation between the client and the server.
The client only needs to know how to send HTTP requests, and the server
focuses on handling the logic and responding with data. This makes it
easier to develop frontend and backend independently, facilitating agile
development and deployment.

4. Interoperability and Platform Independence:

o RESTful APIs use standard HTTP protocols, which are platform-agnostic.

This allows easy communication between systems written in different
programming languages or running on different platforms.

o The ability to use various data formats (such as JSON, XML) ensures
broad compatibility with web clients, mobile applications, and other
external systems.

5. Stateless Communication:

o Since RESTful APIs are stateless, each request is independent and carries
all the necessary data for processing, improving security and ensuring
that each request is treated in isolation. This also simplifies server-side
architecture, as there is no need to store session state between requests.

6. Cacheability:

o Responses from RESTful APIs can be explicitly marked as cacheable or

non-cacheable, improving performance by reducing unnecessary server
processing for frequently accessed data.

7. Widespread Adoption:
 o REST has become a widely adopted standard in modern web
development, with most major web services, cloud providers, and APIs
implementing it. This results in a large community of developers and
extensive documentation, making it easier to find resources and support.

Disadvantages of Using RESTful APIs in Modern Web Development

1. Overhead for Complex Operations:

o For operations involving complex transactions or relationships, REST can

be cumbersome. REST relies on multiple HTTP requests to fetch related
resources (e.g., retrieving data from multiple endpoints), leading to higher
overhead compared to more sophisticated protocols like GraphQL, which
can handle multiple resources in a single request.

2. Lack of Built-In Support for Real-Time Communication:

o RESTful APIs are not inherently designed for real-time communication.

While REST is great for request-response interactions, it does not provide
features like push notifications or WebSockets for real-time updates. This
can make it less suitable for applications that require real-time data, such
as messaging or live updates.

3. Inefficiency in Data Transfer:

o Because each request in a REST API is stateless and self-contained, it can

sometimes lead to redundant data being sent back and forth. For
example, in a scenario where the same data is frequently requested,
RESTful APIs may not optimize the payload, leading to inefficient data
transfer and slower performance.

4. Limited Query Capabilities:

o REST typically uses predefined endpoints for data access, and complex
queries can be challenging to implement. Unlike GraphQL, where clients
can specify exactly which data they need, RESTful APIs may require
multiple endpoints and increase the number of requests to fetch related
or filtered data.

5. Versioning Complexity:

o Managing versioning in REST APIs can become complex over time. To

ensure backward compatibility, developers often need to create new
versions of APIs, such as /api/v1 and /api/v2. This leads to potential issues
 with maintaining multiple versions and ensuring that existing clients
continue to work as expected.

6. No Built-in Security Mechanisms:

o While RESTful APIs can be secured using standard authentication and

authorization mechanisms (such as OAuth or API keys), it does not
provide any inherent security features. The onus is on developers to
implement secure communication protocols (like HTTPS) and handle
authentication and authorization properly.

7. State Management Challenges:

o Since REST is stateless, maintaining a user’s state across multiple

interactions requires external management, such as session tokens or
cookies. This can lead to increased complexity in managing session
states, particularly in distributed systems or stateless applications.

8. Potential for Inefficient API Design:

o Designing a RESTful API that is both efficient and easy to use can be
challenging. Poorly designed REST APIs can result in problems like
inefficient querying, excessive use of HTTP methods, and reliance on
multiple round-trips to retrieve data. This may affect the performance of
the application.

9. Complex Error Handling:

o RESTful APIs typically use HTTP status codes to communicate the result
of an API call. While these status codes are standardized, they may not be
sufficient for conveying detailed information about errors. Custom error
messages and handling logic may be necessary, adding to the complexity
of the API design.

10. Lack of Transaction Management:

o RESTful APIs do not natively support transactional operations across

multiple resource calls. Ensuring consistency and rollback of changes
across several resource endpoints requires additional effort, such as
implementing distributed transactions or compensating actions.

11. Difficulty in Handling Large Payloads:

o While REST APIs are efficient for small-to-medium-sized payloads,

handling large datasets or binary data (e.g., images, videos) can lead to
performance issues. Unlike SOAP, which supports MTOM (Message
 Transmission Optimization Mechanism) for binary attachments, REST
requires additional handling for large files or complex data types.

12. Latency in Large Systems:

o For large-scale systems, REST APIs may introduce latency due to the need
for multiple API calls for related data. As each resource is accessed
individually, the cumulative request time may be higher than a more
efficient solution, such as a single query in a graph-based API like
GraphQL.

13. Not Ideal for Mobile Applications:

o For mobile applications with limited bandwidth or high latency, RESTful

APIs might not be the best option. Since RESTful APIs often require
multiple round-trip requests to fetch related data, this can lead to slow
performance, especially in environments with unreliable internet
connections.

Conclusion

While RESTful APIs provide numerous benefits like simplicity, flexibility, and scalability,
they come with certain drawbacks that may make them less suited for specific use
cases. Complex operations, real-time communication needs, and large-scale systems
may require alternatives like GraphQL or WebSocket-based solutions. Nevertheless,
REST remains one of the most widely adopted and effective approaches for building
web services, especially when used with proper design patterns and considerations.

11.b

Serialization and Deserialization in Application Data Communication

Serialization and Deserialization are key concepts in data communication for

applications, especially when exchanging data between different systems, platforms, or
components. These processes involve converting data structures or objects into a
format that can be easily transmitted or stored and then converting it back into a usable
form.

Serialization:

• Definition: Serialization is the process of converting an object's state (such as

data, fields, or properties) into a format that can be easily transmitted or stored.
This format can be a binary format, JSON, XML, or any other structured text.

• Usage: Serialization is used when data needs to be sent over a network, written
to a file, or stored in a database. The most common use case is converting an
 object in an application (such as a Java object) into a byte stream or JSON string
to be sent over HTTP requests, or when saving data in a file.

Example:

o Java Serialization:

java

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ObjectOutputStream out = new ObjectOutputStream(new

FileOutputStream("data.ser"));

out.writeObject(myObject); // Serialize object to a file

out.close();

Deserialization:

• Definition: Deserialization is the reverse process of serialization, where data in a

specific format (like JSON, XML, or byte stream) is converted back into an object
or data structure in the application.

• Usage: Deserialization is used when receiving data from an external source (such
as a network response, a database, or a file) and reconstructing it into an object
for use in the application.

Example:

o Java Deserialization:

java

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ObjectInputStream in = new ObjectInputStream(new FileInputStream("data.ser"));

MyObject myObject = (MyObject) in.readObject(); // Deserialize object from file

in.close();

Significance of Serialization and Deserialization

1. Interoperability:

o Serialization and deserialization allow different systems or components

to communicate with each other, regardless of their underlying
technologies or programming languages. For instance, an object in Java
can be serialized into JSON, which can be sent to a Python service that
deserializes it into a Python object.
 2. Data Exchange:

o These processes are essential for exchanging data over networks, APIs, or
between distributed systems. For example, in a RESTful API, JSON is
commonly used for serializing data sent from the client to the server
(serialization) and data sent back from the server to the client
(deserialization).

3. Persistence:

o Serialization allows complex objects to be stored in files or databases,

making it possible to save and later retrieve the object in its previous
state. This is often used in caching or session management systems.

4. Efficiency:

o Serialization helps in reducing data size for transmission or storage

(especially when using formats like JSON or binary). This is crucial in high-
performance applications, like real-time systems, where data needs to be
transmitted quickly.

5. State Preservation:

o Serialization preserves the state of an object across different sessions or

transactions. For instance, in distributed systems or microservices
architectures, objects can be serialized into a format that can be
persisted, transferred, and later deserialized to restore the state.

6. Security Concerns:

o While serialization is useful for communication, it can also present

security risks. Improper handling of deserialization can lead to
vulnerabilities like remote code execution or denial of service attacks.
Therefore, it's important to validate and sanitize data during both
serialization and deserialization.

Conclusion

Serialization and deserialization are crucial for ensuring that data can be effectively
transmitted between different systems, preserved for later use, and processed
efficiently. They enable communication in distributed architectures, allow for the
persistence of objects, and ensure that complex data structures can be easily shared
across platforms. However, they must be handled securely to prevent exploitation and
maintain the integrity of the data.

12.a

Handling Errors During Request Body Mapping in Spring Boot

In a Spring Boot application, errors can occur during request body mapping when the
incoming JSON or other request data cannot be properly mapped to the corresponding
Java object. These errors typically arise due to issues like incorrect data format, missing
or invalid fields, or unexpected data types.

Spring Boot provides several strategies to handle such errors and provide meaningful
feedback to clients. Below are the key strategies to handle errors effectively:

1. Use of @Valid and @RequestBody Annotations

• @RequestBody: This annotation tells Spring to bind the incoming HTTP request
body to the specified Java object.

• @Valid: This annotation is used in combination with @RequestBody to trigger

validation on the object during the mapping process. If any validation fails,
Spring will throw a MethodArgumentNotValidException which can be caught and
handled.

Example:

java

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@PostMapping("/user")

public ResponseEntity<?> createUser(@Valid @RequestBody User user) {

// If validation fails, an exception will be thrown automatically

userService.save(user);

return ResponseEntity.status(HttpStatus.CREATED).body(user);

2. Global Exception Handling Using @ControllerAdvice

To handle errors globally and provide consistent error messages to the client, Spring
Boot allows you to define a global exception handler using @ControllerAdvice. This
allows you to catch exceptions like MethodArgumentNotValidException (thrown when
@Valid validation fails) or other request mapping issues and return a custom error
response.

Example:

java

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@ControllerAdvice
public class GlobalExceptionHandler {

@ExceptionHandler(MethodArgumentNotValidException.class)

public ResponseEntity<Object>
handleValidationExceptions(MethodArgumentNotValidException ex) {

List<String> errors = ex.getBindingResult()

.getFieldErrors()

.stream()

.map(DefaultMessageSourceResolvable::getDefaultMessage)

.collect(Collectors.toList());

ErrorResponse errorResponse = new ErrorResponse("Validation failed", errors);

return new ResponseEntity<>(errorResponse, HttpStatus.BAD_REQUEST);

@ExceptionHandler(HttpMessageNotReadableException.class)

public ResponseEntity<Object>
handleJsonParseException(HttpMessageNotReadableException ex) {

ErrorResponse errorResponse = new ErrorResponse("Invalid JSON format",

Collections.singletonList(ex.getMessage()));

return new ResponseEntity<>(errorResponse, HttpStatus.BAD_REQUEST);

Explanation:

• MethodArgumentNotValidException: This exception is thrown when validation

fails for @Valid annotated objects. It can be caught and handled to return
validation errors in a structured format.

• HttpMessageNotReadableException: This exception occurs when the request

body cannot be parsed into the expected Java object (e.g., if the request JSON is
malformed).
ErrorResponse Class:

java

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public class ErrorResponse {

private String message;

private List<String> details;

public ErrorResponse(String message, List<String> details) {

this.message = message;

this.details = details;

// Getters and Setters

3. Custom Error Responses

To provide meaningful feedback to clients, it's important to structure the error

responses properly. For example, you can include:

• Error Code: A specific code that represents the type of error.

• Message: A human-readable message describing the error.

• Details: A list of specific field errors, validation errors, or other details that can
help clients understand the problem.

Example of structured error response:

json

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"errorCode": "400",

"message": "Validation failed",

"details": [

"Username cannot be empty",

 "Password must be at least 8 characters"

4. Handle HttpMessageNotReadableException for Invalid JSON

Sometimes the incoming JSON might be malformed or not conforming to the expected
structure, causing a HttpMessageNotReadableException. You can handle such errors
specifically and provide detailed feedback to the client.

Example:

java

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@ControllerAdvice

public class GlobalExceptionHandler {

@ExceptionHandler(HttpMessageNotReadableException.class)

public ResponseEntity<Object>
handleInvalidJson(HttpMessageNotReadableException ex) {

ErrorResponse errorResponse = new ErrorResponse("Invalid JSON format",

Collections.singletonList("The request body could not be

parsed"));

return new ResponseEntity<>(errorResponse, HttpStatus.BAD_REQUEST);

5. Custom Error Handling with @ExceptionHandler in Controllers

You can also handle specific exceptions within individual controllers using
@ExceptionHandler. This approach allows for more fine-grained control over how
exceptions are handled in different parts of your application.

Example:

java

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@RestController
public class UserController {

@PostMapping("/create")

public ResponseEntity<?> createUser(@RequestBody User user) {

try {

// Process user creation

userService.save(user);

return ResponseEntity.status(HttpStatus.CREATED).body(user);

} catch (MethodArgumentNotValidException ex) {

return handleValidationExceptions(ex);

@ExceptionHandler(MethodArgumentNotValidException.class)

public ResponseEntity<Object>
handleValidationExceptions(MethodArgumentNotValidException ex) {

List<String> errors = ex.getBindingResult()

.getFieldErrors()

.stream()

.map(DefaultMessageSourceResolvable::getDefaultMessage)

.collect(Collectors.toList());

ErrorResponse errorResponse = new ErrorResponse("Validation failed", errors);

return new ResponseEntity<>(errorResponse, HttpStatus.BAD_REQUEST);

6. Using @JsonInclude to Control Error Details

You can use Jackson annotations such as @JsonInclude to exclude null or empty fields
from the JSON response, which can be useful in error responses.

Example:
java

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@JsonInclude(JsonInclude.Include.NON_NULL)

public class ErrorResponse {

private String errorCode;

private String message;

private List<String> details;

// Getters and Setters

Conclusion

To effectively handle errors during request body mapping in a Spring Boot application
and provide meaningful feedback to clients, the following strategies should be
employed:

1. Validation with @Valid and @RequestBody.

2. Global Exception Handling using @ControllerAdvice.

3. Custom Error Responses with meaningful messages and error codes.

4. Handle exceptions like HttpMessageNotReadableException for malformed

JSON.

5. Gracefully handle validation errors and communicate them to clients in a

structured format.

These strategies ensure that users receive useful, well-formatted error messages that
help them diagnose and fix issues with their requests.

12.b

Purpose and Usage of Subqueries in SQL

A subquery (also known as a nested query or inner query) is a query embedded within
another query. It is used to perform operations that involve multiple steps, often to
isolate a specific result or intermediate data before it is used in the main query.

Subqueries can:

1. Simplify complex queries by breaking them down into smaller, more manageable
parts.
 2. Improve readability of queries, especially when a result depends on a separate
computation or filter.

3. Allow for dynamic querying where the results of one query are used as inputs for
another.

There are two main types of subqueries:

1. Scalar Subqueries: Return a single value (single row and single column).

2. Multivalue Subqueries: Return multiple rows and/or columns, typically used with
IN, EXISTS, ANY, etc.

3. Correlated Subqueries: Refer to columns from the outer query and are executed
for each row of the outer query.

Subquery Usage in SQL

Subqueries can be used in:

1. SELECT Clause: To compute derived values.

2. WHERE Clause: To filter results based on the output of a subquery.

3. FROM Clause: To create a derived table that is then used in the main query.

4. HAVING Clause: To filter aggregate results based on a subquery.

Examples

1. Subquery in the WHERE Clause

A subquery in the WHERE clause is used to filter results based on the result of another
query.

Example: Find employees who earn more than the average salary in their department.

sql

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SELECT employee_id, name, salary, department_id

FROM employees

WHERE salary > (

SELECT AVG(salary)

FROM employees

WHERE department_id = employees.department_id

);

Explanation:

• The subquery calculates the average salary for each department.

• The outer query returns employees who earn more than the average salary in
their respective departments.

2. Subquery in the SELECT Clause

A subquery in the SELECT clause is used to compute a derived value for each row.

Example: For each department, display the maximum salary and the number of
employees with that salary.

sql

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SELECT department_id,

(SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees WHERE department_id = e.department_id)

AS max_salary,

(SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE salary =

(SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees WHERE department_id = e.department_id)

AND department_id = e.department_id) AS num_highest_paid

FROM employees e

GROUP BY department_id;

Explanation:

• The first subquery calculates the maximum salary in each department.

• The second subquery counts how many employees have that maximum salary.

• Both subqueries are executed for each department (e.department_id).

3. Subquery in the FROM Clause

A subquery in the FROM clause is used to create a temporary result set, which is then
used in the outer query.

Example: Find the average salary for each department, but only for those departments
where the average salary exceeds $50,000.

sql
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SELECT department_id, avg_salary

FROM (

SELECT department_id, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id

) AS department_avg

WHERE avg_salary > 50000;

Explanation:

• The inner query computes the average salary for each department.

• The outer query then filters departments where the average salary is greater than
$50,000.

4. Correlated Subquery

A correlated subquery references columns from the outer query. It is executed once for
each row of the outer query.

Example: Find employees whose salary is greater than the average salary for their
department.

sql

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SELECT employee_id, name, salary, department_id

FROM employees e

WHERE salary > (

SELECT AVG(salary)

FROM employees

WHERE department_id = e.department_id

);

Explanation:

• The subquery in the WHERE clause is correlated with the outer query because it
refers to the department_id from the outer employees table (aliased as e).
 • The subquery is executed for each employee, checking if their salary is greater
than the average salary in their department.

5. Subquery in the HAVING Clause

Subqueries in the HAVING clause allow filtering of aggregated results.

Example: Find departments where the average salary is greater than the average salary
across all departments.

sql

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SELECT department_id, AVG(salary) AS avg_salary

FROM employees

GROUP BY department_id

HAVING AVG(salary) > (

SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees

);

Explanation:

• The subquery calculates the overall average salary across all departments.

• The outer query filters departments where the average salary exceeds the overall
average salary.

Conclusion

Subqueries are a powerful tool in SQL, allowing you to:

• Break down complex queries into smaller, logical pieces.

• Perform operations based on dynamically computed results.

• Reuse results in different parts of the query (e.g., WHERE, SELECT, FROM,
HAVING).

By leveraging subqueries, you can write more efficient, readable, and maintainable SQL
queries, especially in scenarios where you need to compare data, aggregate results, or
dynamically filter based on other queries.

13.a

(i) Criteria API in JPA (7 Marks)

The Criteria API in JPA (Java Persistence API) provides a programmatic approach to
building queries dynamically, using Java objects rather than SQL or JPQL (Java
Persistence Query Language) strings. It is a type-safe, object-oriented API that allows
developers to construct queries in a more flexible and reusable way.

Key Features of the Criteria API:

1. Type-Safety: It leverages Java's type system to ensure that queries are valid at
compile-time, reducing runtime errors and type mismatch issues.

2. Dynamic Query Construction: It allows queries to be built programmatically,

meaning you can construct complex queries based on runtime conditions.

3. Support for Aggregation, Grouping, and Filtering: It supports most of the

operations like GROUP BY, ORDER BY, HAVING, and DISTINCT.

4. Integration with JPA: It works seamlessly with JPA and supports entity
management.

How it Differs from JPQL:

• JPQL: It is a string-based query language that is similar to SQL but operates on

entities rather than tables. JPQL queries are written as strings and are subject to
syntax errors at runtime.

o Example:

java

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String jpqlQuery = "SELECT e FROM Employee e WHERE e.salary > 50000";

• Criteria API: It uses Java objects to create queries, thus eliminating the need for
string-based queries. The queries are constructed using CriteriaBuilder,
CriteriaQuery, and Root objects.

o Example:

java

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CriteriaBuilder cb = entityManager.getCriteriaBuilder();

CriteriaQuery<Employee> cq = cb.createQuery(Employee.class);

Root<Employee> root = cq.from(Employee.class);

cq.select(root).where(cb.greaterThan(root.get("salary"), 50000));
When to Use the Criteria API:

• Dynamic Queries: When the query conditions are not known beforehand and
need to be generated dynamically (e.g., based on user input or conditions at
runtime).

• Type Safety: If you want to avoid runtime errors related to query construction and
ensure type safety.

• Complex Queries: For complex queries involving joins, groupings, and

aggregations, where building the query in a type-safe, readable, and
maintainable manner is preferred.

Example Use Case:

If you're building a search feature where users can filter employees by various attributes
(e.g., salary, department, role), the Criteria API allows you to construct the query
dynamically based on the selected filters.

(ii) Performing Bulk Updates and Deletes in JPA

Bulk updates and deletes in JPA allow operations to be executed on multiple entities in a
single query, which is more efficient than iterating through entities individually.

Performing Bulk Updates:

You can perform bulk updates using the Query interface with the @Modifying
annotation in Spring Data JPA or using EntityManager.createQuery() in standard JPA.
Bulk updates modify multiple entities at once without the need to load each entity into
the persistence context, leading to performance improvements.

Example of Bulk Update:

java

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Query query = entityManager.createQuery("UPDATE Employee e SET e.salary =

:newSalary WHERE e.department = :department");

query.setParameter("newSalary", 60000);

query.setParameter("department", "HR");

int updatedCount = query.executeUpdate();

This query will update the salary of all employees in the "HR" department to 60000 in a
single database operation.

Performing Bulk Deletes:

Bulk deletes can also be done using a similar approach by directly executing the delete
operation via createQuery().

Example of Bulk Delete:

java

Copy code

Query query = entityManager.createQuery("DELETE FROM Employee e WHERE

e.department = :department");

query.setParameter("department", "HR");

int deletedCount = query.executeUpdate();

This query will delete all employees in the "HR" department in a single database
operation.

Considerations for Bulk Operations:

1. Persistence Context: Bulk operations bypass the persistence context (i.e., the
current session) and do not affect entities in memory. This can lead to detached
entities in the context, and changes are not reflected in the entities immediately.
For example, after a bulk delete, the entities in the persistence context will still
exist until the session is flushed.

o To mitigate this, you can use entityManager.clear() to clear the

persistence context or use a manual flush after the operation.

2. Database-Side Optimizations: Bulk updates and deletes are processed at the

database level, which reduces network overhead and makes these operations
faster compared to executing multiple individual update or delete queries.

3. Performance Considerations:

o Transaction Management: Bulk operations may not be suitable in

scenarios requiring transaction-based consistency for each operation, as
they operate outside the entity lifecycle. They also do not trigger JPA
events like @PrePersist, @PreUpdate, or @PreRemove.

o Indexes and Constraints: Ensure that your database tables have

appropriate indexes for bulk operations, as this can dramatically improve
performance.

o Impacts on Caching: Bulk operations bypass the entity cache and the
first-level cache (the persistence context), which means the cached
entities are not updated. This can lead to consistency issues if the same
entity is accessed later in the same session.
 4. Concurrency Issues: Since bulk operations update multiple rows at once, be
mindful of potential concurrency issues, especially in multi-user systems where
different users might be attempting to modify the same data simultaneously.

Impact on Performance:

• Bulk updates and deletes generally improve performance by reducing the

number of SQL operations (i.e., reducing network calls and reducing the number
of entities that need to be loaded into the persistence context).

• However, the cost is that JPA will not track changes to entities in the persistence
context after bulk operations. This can lead to stale state if the persistence
context is not cleared or updated manually.

Summary:

• Bulk updates and deletes allow efficient modifications of multiple rows in a

single database operation.

• Considerations: Avoiding persistence context issues, ensuring proper indexing,

and handling transaction and caching concerns.

13.b

In JPA (Java Persistence API), queries can be written using JPQL (Java Persistence Query
Language) or Criteria API to interact with the database. These queries often need to be
dynamic, where parameters are passed to the query to make it flexible and reusable.

There are two main types of parameters in JPA queries:

1. Named Parameters

2. Positional Parameters

1. Named Parameters:

Named parameters in JPA queries are referenced by their name rather than their
position in the query string. This makes the query more readable and easier to maintain,
as each parameter is explicitly identified by a name.

Usage of Named Parameters:

• Named parameters are prefixed with a colon (:) followed by a descriptive name.

• They improve code clarity because you can use meaningful names that describe
what each parameter represents.

Example:
java

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String jpql = "SELECT e FROM Employee e WHERE e.department = :dept AND e.salary >
:minSalary";

Query query = entityManager.createQuery(jpql);

query.setParameter("dept", "IT");

query.setParameter("minSalary", 50000);

List<Employee> results = query.getResultList();

In the above example:

• :dept and :minSalary are named parameters.

• You pass the values for these parameters using setParameter(), where you use
the parameter name ("dept", "minSalary") to set the values.

Advantages of Named Parameters:

• Readability: The query is easier to understand and modify since the parameters
are described by meaningful names.

• Flexibility: You can specify parameters in any order, which is helpful when
building dynamic queries.

• Maintainability: If you add or remove parameters, you only need to update the
parameter names, rather than their positions.

2. Positional Parameters:

Positional parameters, as the name suggests, are referenced by their position in the
query. They are used with ? and their position in the query determines the
corresponding parameter that gets set.

Usage of Positional Parameters:

• They are marked by a ? in the query string, and the actual parameter value is
provided using its index (starting from 1).

Example:

java

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String jpql = "SELECT e FROM Employee e WHERE e.department = ?1 AND e.salary >
?2";

Query query = entityManager.createQuery(jpql);

query.setParameter(1, "IT");

query.setParameter(2, 50000);

List<Employee> results = query.getResultList();

In this example:

• ?1 and ?2 are positional parameters.

• The first parameter is set using setParameter(1, "IT"), and the second is set using
setParameter(2, 50000).

Advantages of Positional Parameters:

• Simplicity: The query string is concise, and it's easy to set parameters when there
is no need for descriptive names.

• Performance: In some cases, using positional parameters might slightly improve

performance since they do not require parsing of names.

Disadvantages of Positional Parameters:

• Readability: It is difficult to understand the meaning of each parameter just by

looking at the query. If the number of parameters increases, the query becomes
harder to maintain.

• Order Dependency: You need to be careful when setting values for positional
parameters because their order in the query must match the order in
setParameter() calls.

• Less Flexibility: Changing the order of parameters in the query requires updating
the setParameter() calls to match the new positions.

Comparison of Named and Positional Parameters:

Aspect Named Parameters Positional Parameters

Identified by name (e.g.,

Identification Identified by position (e.g., ?1, ?2)
:paramName)

Less readable, requires

Readability More readable and descriptive
understanding of order
Aspect Named Parameters Positional Parameters

Order Parameters can be passed in any Parameters must be passed in the

Flexibility order correct order

Easier to maintain with meaningful Harder to maintain if parameter

Maintainability
names order changes

Best for complex queries with

Usage Best for simpler, fewer parameters
many parameters

When to Use Named Parameters vs Positional Parameters:

• Named Parameters: Use when clarity and maintainability are important,

especially when dealing with complex queries with multiple parameters. Named
parameters are preferable when you have queries with multiple conditions and
want to ensure that the parameters are clearly understood and managed.

• Positional Parameters: Use when the query is simple and has a small number of
parameters. They can be faster and shorter to write in cases where the query
parameters are relatively straightforward.

Conclusion:

• Named parameters offer a better solution for readability, maintainability, and

flexibility in most use cases, especially for complex queries.

• Positional parameters are more compact but can become error-prone and
harder to maintain as the number of parameters increases.

14.a

In JPA (Java Persistence API), associations are used to define relationships between
different entities in the database. These associations are typically represented using
annotations and are mapped to foreign keys in the database. The main types of
associations in JPA are:

1. One-to-One (1:1):

In a one-to-one relationship, one entity is associated with exactly one instance of

another entity. For example, a Person can have one Passport, and a Passport is
associated with only one Person.

Implementation:
The @OneToOne annotation is used to define this relationship. You can either use
@JoinColumn to specify the foreign key or let JPA handle it automatically.

Example:

java

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@Entity

public class Person {

@Id

private Long id;

@OneToOne

@JoinColumn(name = "passport_id")

private Passport passport;

@Entity

public class Passport {

@Id

private Long id;

@OneToOne(mappedBy = "passport")

private Person person;

In the above example:

• @JoinColumn(name = "passport_id") specifies the foreign key column.

• mappedBy in the Passport entity indicates that the relationship is maintained by

the passport field in the Person entity.

2. One-to-Many (1:N):
In a one-to-many relationship, one entity is associated with multiple instances of
another entity. For example, a Department can have many Employees, but each
Employee belongs to only one Department.

Implementation:

The @OneToMany annotation is used in the "one" side of the relationship, and the
@ManyToOne annotation is used in the "many" side.

Example:

java

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@Entity

public class Department {

@Id

private Long id;

@OneToMany(mappedBy = "department")

private List<Employee> employees;

@Entity

public class Employee {

@Id

private Long id;

@ManyToOne

@JoinColumn(name = "department_id")

private Department department;

In this example:
 • The @OneToMany(mappedBy = "department") annotation in the Department
entity defines the one-to-many relationship.

• The @ManyToOne in the Employee entity defines the many-to-one relationship,

and @JoinColumn(name = "department_id") specifies the foreign key.

3. Many-to-One (N:1):

A many-to-one relationship is the reverse of the one-to-many relationship. Multiple

instances of one entity are associated with one instance of another entity.

Implementation:

This is essentially implemented using the @ManyToOne annotation in the "many" side,
as shown in the Employee entity above.

Example:

java

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@Entity

public class Employee {

@Id

private Long id;

@ManyToOne

@JoinColumn(name = "department_id")

private Department department;

This is similar to the Employee entity in the one-to-many relationship example, with the
@ManyToOne annotation establishing the relationship to the Department.

4. Many-to-Many (N:M):

In a many-to-many relationship, multiple instances of one entity are associated with

multiple instances of another entity. For example, a Student can enroll in many
Courses, and a Course can have many Students.
Implementation:

The @ManyToMany annotation is used to define this relationship. It usually involves a

join table to manage the relationship.

Example:

java

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@Entity

public class Student {

@Id

private Long id;

@ManyToMany

@JoinTable(

name = "student_course",

joinColumns = @JoinColumn(name = "student_id"),

inverseJoinColumns = @JoinColumn(name = "course_id")

private List<Course> courses;

@Entity

public class Course {

@Id

private Long id;

@ManyToMany(mappedBy = "courses")

private List<Student> students;

}
In this example:

• @JoinTable specifies the join table student_course that manages the many-to-
many relationship.

• joinColumns refers to the foreign key for the Student entity, and
inverseJoinColumns refers to the foreign key for the Course entity.

• mappedBy in the Course entity indicates that the relationship is maintained by

the courses field in the Student entity.

5. @ElementCollection (for Embeddable Collections):

This is not a standard relational mapping but is used when you want to store a
collection of simple values (e.g., Strings, integers, etc.) as part of an entity.

Example:

java

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@Entity

public class Person {

@Id

private Long id;

@ElementCollection

private Set<String> phoneNumbers;

In this example:

• The @ElementCollection annotation allows storing a collection of simple types

(like String) or embeddable objects as part of the entity.

How to Implement a One-to-Many Relationship Using Annotations:

Here’s the specific example of how to implement a One-to-Many relationship:

Example Implementation:
java

Copy code

@Entity

public class Department {

@Id

private Long id;

@OneToMany(mappedBy = "department")

private List<Employee> employees; // The list of employees in the department

@Entity

public class Employee {

@Id

private Long id;

@ManyToOne

@JoinColumn(name = "department_id")

private Department department; // The department each employee belongs to

In this scenario:

• The Department entity holds a list of Employee entities, establishing the one-to-
many relationship using @OneToMany.

• The Employee entity has a reference to Department using @ManyToOne, with the
@JoinColumn annotation to specify the foreign key column (department_id).

Explanation:

• The mappedBy = "department" in the Department entity ensures the relationship

is managed by the Employee entity (i.e., the foreign key is stored in the Employee
entity).
 • @JoinColumn(name = "department_id") in the Employee entity creates the
foreign key column that links the employee to its department.

Conclusion:

In JPA, associations like One-to-One, One-to-Many, Many-to-One, and Many-to-Many

help model relationships between entities, reflecting the structure of the underlying
database. The @OneToMany and @ManyToOne annotations work together to implement
a One-to-Many relationship, with the @JoinColumn specifying the foreign key in the
"many" side of the relationship. This way, you can efficiently design and manage
relationships between your domain entities.

14.b

(i) Managing Bi-directional Associations When Adding Data in JPA

In JPA (Java Persistence API), bi-directional associations are relationships where two
entities are related to each other and each side of the relationship has a reference to
the other entity. When adding data to a bi-directional association, it’s crucial to
maintain both sides of the relationship to ensure data consistency and avoid potential
issues like data duplication or inconsistencies.

Steps to Manage Bi-directional Associations:

1. Define Both Sides of the Relationship: You need to specify the relationship on
both the "one" side and the "many" side using annotations like @OneToMany and
@ManyToOne.

2. Update Both Sides When Adding Data: When adding data to a bi-directional
relationship, it is essential to set the relationship on both sides to keep the state
consistent. This ensures that both sides are aware of each other.

Example:

Consider a one-to-many relationship between Department and Employee (i.e., one

department can have many employees, and each employee belongs to one
department).

java

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@Entity
public class Department {

@Id

private Long id;

@OneToMany(mappedBy = "department")

private List<Employee> employees;

// Add employee to the department

public void addEmployee(Employee employee) {

employees.add(employee);

employee.setDepartment(this); // Ensure the reverse side is also updated

@Entity

public class Employee {

@Id

private Long id;

@ManyToOne

@JoinColumn(name = "department_id")

private Department department;

public void setDepartment(Department department) {

this.department = department;

In the above example:

 • The Department class holds a list of Employee entities.

• The addEmployee() method in Department updates both sides of the

relationship:

o Adds the Employee to the employees list.

o Sets the Department on the Employee object by calling setDepartment().

Implications of Maintaining Both Sides:

• Consistency: Both sides of the relationship must be updated to keep the entities
in sync. If you fail to update one side, you might have a scenario where one side
of the relationship does not reflect the current state of the other side.

• Cascade Operations: When using cascade operations (e.g.,

CascadeType.PERSIST, CascadeType.MERGE), updates must be correctly
managed on both sides to ensure that operations on one side (like saving or
deleting) also affect the other side. For example, deleting an Employee while not
maintaining the relationship on the Department side may lead to orphaned
employees.

(ii) Handling Orphan Removal in JPA for One-to-Many Associations

Orphan removal is a mechanism in JPA that ensures that entities that are removed from
a relationship (i.e., no longer referenced by their parent entity) are also deleted from the
database. This is particularly useful in one-to-many relationships, where you want to
ensure that if an entity is removed from the collection (such as a child entity), it is also
deleted from the database, preventing orphaned data.

How Orphan Removal Works:

When using orphan removal, you need to configure the relationship to automatically
delete entities that are no longer referenced in a relationship. This is achieved by using
the orphanRemoval = true attribute in the @OneToMany annotation.

Code Example:

Consider a Department entity and a Employee entity, where the Department can have
many Employees, and if an Employee is removed from the Department, it should also
be deleted from the database.

java

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@Entity
public class Department {

@Id

private Long id;

@OneToMany(mappedBy = "department", orphanRemoval = true)

private List<Employee> employees;

// Add employee to the department

public void addEmployee(Employee employee) {

employees.add(employee);

employee.setDepartment(this);

// Remove employee from the department

public void removeEmployee(Employee employee) {

employees.remove(employee);

employee.setDepartment(null); // Removing the employee from the department

@Entity

public class Employee {

@Id

private Long id;

@ManyToOne

@JoinColumn(name = "department_id")

private Department department;

 public void setDepartment(Department department) {

this.department = department;

Explanation:

• The Department entity has a List<Employee> employees, and the @OneToMany

annotation specifies orphanRemoval = true. This means that if an Employee is
removed from the employees collection, JPA will automatically delete the
corresponding Employee from the database.

• The addEmployee() and removeEmployee() methods ensure that both sides of

the relationship are updated:

o addEmployee(): Adds the employee to the department and sets the

department on the employee.

o removeEmployee(): Removes the employee from the department’s

employee list and sets the department to null on the employee,
effectively breaking the relationship.

Considerations:

1. Performance Impact: Orphan removal can potentially affect performance,

especially in large collections. Each time an entity is removed from the
relationship, a delete operation is performed on the database. This may lead to
extra database queries.

2. Cascading: Orphan removal is separate from cascading operations. While

cascading operations propagate certain actions (like persist, merge, remove) to
associated entities, orphan removal only ensures that entities that are no longer
part of the relationship are deleted. It does not affect other operations like saving
or merging entities.

3. Use with Caution: Ensure that orphan removal is only used when you are certain
you want entities to be deleted when they are removed from a relationship. If you
only need to break the association without deleting the child entity, you should
not use orphan removal.

Conclusion:
 • Bi-directional Associations: Managing both sides of the relationship is essential
to maintain data consistency. When adding or modifying entities in a bi-
directional relationship, ensure that both sides are updated to reflect the
changes.

• Orphan Removal: Orphan removal is a useful feature to ensure that entities that
are no longer part of a relationship are deleted from the database. However, it
should be used with caution due to potential performance implications,
especially in large collections. Always ensure that orphan removal fits your use
case where the deletion of child entities is necessary when they are removed
from the relationship.

15.a

Configuring a Spring Boot Application to Communicate with the OpenAI API

To configure a Spring Boot application to communicate with the OpenAI API, you will
need to integrate the API into your application by setting up the required dependencies,
configuring necessary properties, and creating a service that interacts with the OpenAI
API. Here's a detailed process to achieve this:

1. Setting Up Dependencies

To communicate with the OpenAI API, you'll need to add the required dependencies to
your Spring Boot application's pom.xml (for Maven) or build.gradle (for Gradle).

For Maven:

Add the following dependencies to your pom.xml file:

xml

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<dependencies>

<!-- Spring Boot Web for REST API communication -->

<dependency>

<groupId>org.springframework.boot</groupId>

<artifactId>spring-boot-starter-web</artifactId>

</dependency>
 <!-- Spring Boot WebClient for non-blocking API communication -->

<dependency>

<groupId>org.springframework.boot</groupId>

<artifactId>spring-boot-starter-webflux</artifactId>

</dependency>

<!-- Jackson for JSON parsing -->

<dependency>

<groupId>com.fasterxml.jackson.core</groupId>

<artifactId>jackson-databind</artifactId>

</dependency>

<!-- OpenAI API communication -->

<dependency>

<groupId>com.squareup.okhttp3</groupId>

<artifactId>okhttp</artifactId>

<version>4.9.3</version>

</dependency>

</dependencies>

For Gradle:

Add the following dependencies in your build.gradle file:

gradle

Copy code

dependencies {

implementation 'org.springframework.boot:spring-boot-starter-web'

implementation 'org.springframework.boot:spring-boot-starter-webflux'

implementation 'com.fasterxml.jackson.core:jackson-databind'

implementation 'com.squareup.okhttp3:okhttp:4.9.3'
}

These dependencies include:

• Spring Boot Web for creating REST endpoints.

• WebClient (Spring WebFlux) for making non-blocking API calls.

• OkHttp for HTTP communication (optional if using WebClient).

• Jackson for handling JSON serialization and deserialization.

2. Configure API Key and Endpoint

To securely communicate with the OpenAI API, you need to configure your API key and
endpoint in your Spring Boot application. You can store these details in the
application.properties or application.yml file.

application.properties:

properties

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# OpenAI API configuration

openai.api.key=YOUR_OPENAI_API_KEY

openai.api.url=https://api.openai.com/v1/completions

Replace YOUR_OPENAI_API_KEY with your actual API key from OpenAI.

Alternatively, use environment variables to avoid hardcoding the API key in the
application.properties file.

3. Create a Service Class to Communicate with the OpenAI API

You need to create a service class that will interact with the OpenAI API using either
WebClient or RestTemplate. Here, I'll demonstrate using WebClient for asynchronous
communication.

Service Implementation using WebClient:

1. Create WebClient Bean:

In your @Configuration or main application class, create a WebClient bean to enable

the communication.

java
Copy code

@Configuration

public class WebClientConfig {

@Bean

public WebClient.Builder webClientBuilder() {

return WebClient.builder();

2. Service to Communicate with OpenAI:

Create a service class that will handle the API communication.

java

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import org.springframework.beans.factory.annotation.Value;

import org.springframework.stereotype.Service;

import org.springframework.web.reactive.function.client.WebClient;

import reactor.core.publisher.Mono;

@Service

public class OpenAIService {

@Value("${openai.api.key}")

private String apiKey;

@Value("${openai.api.url}")

private String apiUrl;

private final WebClient.Builder webClientBuilder;

public OpenAIService(WebClient.Builder webClientBuilder) {

this.webClientBuilder = webClientBuilder;

public Mono<String> getChatResponse(String prompt) {

return webClientBuilder.baseUrl(apiUrl)

.defaultHeader("Authorization", "Bearer " + apiKey)

.build()

.post()

.bodyValue(new OpenAIRequest(prompt))

.retrieve()

.bodyToMono(String.class);

// Inner class to represent the OpenAI request body

public static class OpenAIRequest {

private String prompt;

public OpenAIRequest(String prompt) {

this.prompt = prompt;

public String getPrompt() {

return prompt;

public void setPrompt(String prompt) {

 this.prompt = prompt;

Explanation:

• WebClient: This is a reactive HTTP client provided by Spring WebFlux for making
non-blocking HTTP requests.

• Authorization Header: The Authorization header includes the Bearer token

(apiKey).

• Request Body: The request body contains the user’s prompt sent to OpenAI. You
can adjust this class based on the specific OpenAI endpoint you are targeting
(e.g., completions, chat, etc.).

4. Controller to Expose API Endpoints

Create a controller to expose an endpoint where users can interact with the OpenAI
service.

java

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import org.springframework.beans.factory.annotation.Autowired;

import org.springframework.web.bind.annotation.*;

@RestController

@RequestMapping("/openai")

public class OpenAIController {

@Autowired

private OpenAIService openAIService;

@PostMapping("/chat")
 public Mono<String> getChatResponse(@RequestBody String prompt) {

return openAIService.getChatResponse(prompt);

Explanation:

• The @RestController is used to expose a RESTful API that accepts HTTP POST
requests with a prompt and returns the response from the OpenAI API.

• The getChatResponse() method calls the OpenAIService method, which

asynchronously fetches data from OpenAI and returns the response.

5. Error Handling

To ensure robust error handling, you can modify the service to handle various scenarios
like request failures or invalid responses.

java

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public Mono<String> getChatResponse(String prompt) {

return webClientBuilder.baseUrl(apiUrl)

.defaultHeader("Authorization", "Bearer " + apiKey)

.build()

.post()

.bodyValue(new OpenAIRequest(prompt))

.retrieve()

.onStatus(status -> status.is4xxClientError() || status.is5xxServerError(),

response -> Mono.error(new RuntimeException("API request failed")))

.bodyToMono(String.class);

• onStatus: Checks for HTTP client or server errors (e.g., 4xx or 5xx) and throws a
custom exception if the request fails.
6. Testing the Integration

To test the integration, run your Spring Boot application and send a POST request using
tools like Postman or curl:

bash

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curl -X POST http://localhost:8080/openai/chat -d "Your prompt text" -H "Content-Type:

application/json"

Ensure that the response is as expected and check if the application is able to
communicate with the OpenAI API properly.

Conclusion

• Configuration: You configured the API key and endpoint in application.properties

and injected it into the service class.

• Dependencies: You added necessary dependencies for WebClient, Jackson, and

OkHttp.

• Service Creation: A service class was created to handle communication with

OpenAI via WebClient, making asynchronous HTTP requests.

• Controller: A controller exposes the OpenAI service via RESTful endpoints to

interact with clients.

• Error Handling: Error handling ensures that the client gets meaningful feedback if
the API request fails.

By following these steps, you can successfully set up a Spring Boot application to
communicate with the OpenAI API for creating services like chatbots, text generation,
and more.

15.b

Concept of Method Overloading in Java

Method overloading in Java is the ability to define multiple methods with the same
name but different parameter lists. The compiler differentiates between these methods
based on the number, type, or order of the parameters. Overloading allows the
programmer to call the same method name for different tasks, making the code more
readable and flexible.

How Parameter Handling Differs in Overloaded Methods

When overloading a method, the parameters must differ in at least one of the following
ways:

1. Number of parameters: The methods can have a different number of parameters.

2. Type of parameters: The types of the parameters can differ.

3. Order of parameters: The order of parameters can be different, even if the types
are the same.

The return type does not play a role in method overloading. So, two methods with the
same name but different return types, and identical parameter lists, will result in a
compilation error.

Example of Method Overloading

Here’s an example to illustrate method overloading based on different parameter lists:

java

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public class MethodOverloadingExample {

// Overloaded method with one integer parameter

public int add(int a) {

return a + 10; // Adds 10 to the given number

// Overloaded method with two integer parameters

public int add(int a, int b) {

return a + b; // Adds the two given numbers

// Overloaded method with one double parameter

 public double add(double a) {

return a + 10.5; // Adds 10.5 to the given number

public static void main(String[] args) {

MethodOverloadingExample obj = new MethodOverloadingExample();

// Calling overloaded methods

System.out.println("Sum with one int parameter: " + obj.add(5)); // Calls add(int

a)

System.out.println("Sum with two int parameters: " + obj.add(5, 10)); // Calls

add(int a, int b)

System.out.println("Sum with one double parameter: " + obj.add(5.0)); // Calls

add(double a)

Explanation of the Code:

1. Method Overloading by Number of Parameters:

o The first add method takes one int parameter.

o The second add method takes two int parameters.

2. Method Overloading by Type of Parameters:

o The third add method takes a double parameter, while the first two
methods take int parameters.

3. Calling the Overloaded Methods:

o When obj.add(5) is called, the method with one int parameter is invoked.

o When obj.add(5, 10) is called, the method with two int parameters is
invoked.

o When obj.add(5.0) is called, the method with one double parameter is

invoked.

Key Points:
 • Number of Parameters: Methods can be overloaded by changing the number of
parameters (e.g., add(int a) vs. add(int a, int b)).

• Type of Parameters: Methods can be overloaded by changing the types of

parameters (e.g., add(int a) vs. add(double a)).

• Order of Parameters: Overloading can also happen by changing the order of

parameters (e.g., add(int a, double b) vs. add(double a, int b)).

Important Notes:

• The return type does not distinguish overloaded methods. Methods with the
same name and parameter list but different return types will result in a
compilation error.

• The method signature (name + parameter list) must be different for overloading
to occur.

Conclusion:

Method overloading enhances the flexibility and readability of code by allowing

methods to perform similar tasks with different inputs. Overloading depends on
differences in the number, type, or order of parameters, and not the return type.

Part-C (1x 15 = 15 Marks)

16.a

Importance of API Security in Web Applications

API security is crucial in web applications because APIs serve as the bridge between the
client (frontend) and server (backend) or between different services. They facilitate data
exchange, authentication, and authorization, making them a primary target for
malicious attacks. Securing APIs ensures that sensitive data is protected, user privacy
is maintained, and the application’s integrity is upheld. Poorly secured APIs can lead to
data breaches, loss of customer trust, and legal consequences.

Common Threats to APIs

Injection Attacks:
Description: Attackers inject malicious code or commands into the API inputs, which
the server may execute, potentially compromising the application.

Example: SQL injection, where malicious SQL queries are passed into the API to access
or manipulate the database.

Broken Authentication:

Description: Weak or improperly implemented authentication mechanisms can allow

attackers to impersonate users or bypass security checks.

Example: Predictable authentication tokens, improper session management, or missing

multi-factor authentication (MFA).

Excessive Data Exposure:

Description: APIs may expose more data than necessary, allowing unauthorized access
to sensitive information.

Example: A public API endpoint returning unnecessary user details or sensitive personal
information.

Rate Limiting & Denial of Service (DoS):

Description: Without proper rate limiting, an API can be overwhelmed by too many
requests, leading to denial of service.

Example: Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks, where attackers flood an API
with requests to make it unavailable.

Cross-Site Scripting (XSS):

Description: Malicious scripts are injected into API responses that get executed in the
client’s browser.

Example: An attacker sending a script through an API response that is later executed on
the client-side, potentially stealing sensitive user data.

Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF):

Description: Attackers trick users into making requests to an API without their consent,
often using their credentials.

Example: A user clicks on a malicious link that sends a request to the API to transfer
funds or change account settings.

Insecure Direct Object References (IDOR):

Description: APIs fail to properly validate user access to specific resources, allowing
attackers to access data they shouldn’t.

Example: A user can access another user's private data by altering the URL to reference
a different resource ID.

Lack of Encryption:

Description: APIs that do not use encryption expose data in transit to eavesdropping,
man-in-the-middle attacks, and data manipulation.

Example: Sensitive data like passwords or credit card numbers sent over HTTP instead
of HTTPS, making it vulnerable to interception.

Best Practices to Mitigate API Security Risks

Use HTTPS (SSL/TLS):

Ensure all data transmitted between clients and APIs is encrypted using HTTPS. This
prevents eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle attacks.

Implement Strong Authentication:

Use OAuth, JWT, or API keys: Secure APIs with robust authentication mechanisms, such
as OAuth tokens, JWT (JSON Web Tokens), or API keys.

Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Enable MFA to add an extra layer of security.

Validate and Sanitize Inputs:

Input Validation: Ensure all user inputs are validated and sanitized to prevent injection
attacks (SQL injection, XSS, etc.).

Parameterized Queries: Use parameterized queries to prevent SQL injection.

Limit Data Exposure:

Principle of Least Privilege: Return only the necessary data in API responses, and use
fine-grained permissions to ensure users only access what they’re authorized to view.

Avoid Exposing Sensitive Data: Be cautious about exposing sensitive information like
passwords, personal identifiers, or financial data through the API.

Implement Rate Limiting:

Limit Requests: Set limits on the number of API requests that can be made by a user or
IP address in a given time period. This prevents abuse and helps mitigate DoS attacks.

IP Blocking and Throttling: Use IP blocking or throttling to block or slow down suspicious
activities.

Enable API Gateway Security:

Use an API gateway to centralize API traffic management, including authentication,

authorization, and rate limiting. This can help prevent threats like DoS and rate-limiting
attacks.

Use HMAC (Hash-based Message Authentication Code):

To ensure data integrity and authenticity, use HMAC for secure transmission of sensitive
data between clients and APIs.

Cross-Origin Resource Sharing (CORS) Configuration:

Set up proper CORS headers to control which domains can access your API, preventing
unauthorized cross-origin requests.

Use CSRF Tokens:

Protect APIs from CSRF attacks by using unique tokens for state-changing requests and
validating them on the server.

Regular Auditing and Logging:

Implement logging and monitoring to detect unusual activity and attacks in real-time.
Review logs periodically to identify potential vulnerabilities.

Audit Trails: Keep a record of all transactions, user actions, and access logs to ensure
traceability and accountability.

Implement API Versioning:

Use API versioning to avoid breaking changes and make it easier to secure and update
APIs without affecting existing clients.

Security Testing:

Perform regular security testing, including penetration testing, vulnerability scanning,

and code reviews, to identify weaknesses in the API and patch them promptly.

Conclusion

API security is fundamental to protecting web applications and their data. By addressing
common threats like injection attacks, broken authentication, and improper data
exposure, and by implementing best practices like input validation, encryption, and rate
limiting, developers can significantly reduce the risk of security breaches. Regular
audits, monitoring, and testing are essential to ensuring APIs remain secure as threats
evolve.

16.b

Introduction to JPA for Managing Relational Data in MySQL Databases

The Java Persistence API (JPA) is a standard API for object-relational mapping (ORM) in
Java. It allows Java developers to manage relational data in MySQL (or any relational
database) through Java objects. JPA simplifies database operations by mapping Java
objects (entities) to relational database tables, which helps abstract and manage SQL
queries in a more object-oriented way.

JPA is part of the Java EE specification but can also be used in Java SE applications. It is
typically used in conjunction with Hibernate, EclipseLink, or other JPA implementations
to facilitate interaction with relational databases.

Core Concepts of JPA

Entities:

An entity represents a table in a relational database. Each entity is a Java class that is
mapped to a database table.

The fields of the entity class correspond to the columns of the database table.

Annotations are used to define how the Java class maps to the database table:

@Entity: Marks the class as an entity.

@Table: Specifies the name of the database table.

@Id: Marks a field as the primary key of the table.

@GeneratedValue: Specifies how the primary key value is generated (e.g., auto-
increment).

Example:

java

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@Entity

@Table(name = "employees")

public class Employee {

@Id

@GeneratedValue(strategy = GenerationType.IDENTITY)

private Long id;

@Column(name = "first_name")

private String firstName;

@Column(name = "last_name")

private String lastName;

// Getters and Setters

}
Entity Manager:

The Entity Manager is the primary interface used for interacting with the persistence
context and performing CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) operations on entities.

The Entity Manager is responsible for creating queries, managing the lifecycle of
entities, and persisting data.

It provides methods for:

Persisting entities: persist()

Finding entities: find()

Removing entities: remove()

Merger (update): merge()

Example usage:

java

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@PersistenceContext

private EntityManager entityManager;

public void saveEmployee(Employee employee) {

entityManager.persist(employee);

public Employee findEmployee(Long id) {

return entityManager.find(Employee.class, id);

Persistence Context:

The Persistence Context is the environment in which entities are managed and tracked.
It ensures that a persistent entity instance is associated with a particular session, and it
controls the state of entities.
An entity that is inside the persistence context is managed. Once it is outside the
context, it is in a detached state.

The persistence context guarantees unit-of-work consistency, meaning changes to

entities are automatically synchronized with the database when the transaction is
committed.

The persistence context ensures lazy loading and dirty checking, allowing efficient
handling of object states without having to manually track changes.

Example:

java

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@Transactional

public void updateEmployee(Long id, String newFirstName) {

Employee employee = entityManager.find(Employee.class, id);

if (employee != null) {

employee.setFirstName(newFirstName);

// Changes are automatically tracked and saved when transaction is committed

JPA Workflow

Entity Creation:

The developer creates Java classes (entities) with annotations that describe how the
object should be persisted in the database.

Entity Management:

When an entity is created (via entityManager.persist()), it enters the persistence context,

and JPA tracks its state.

Transaction Management:
JPA operations like persist(), merge(), and remove() are typically executed within a
transaction. In Spring, this is done using the @Transactional annotation.

When a transaction is committed, JPA ensures the changes are synchronized with the
database.

Queries:

JPA supports both JPQL (Java Persistence Query Language) and native SQL for querying
data. JPQL is an object-oriented query language similar to SQL but operates on entities
and their attributes.

Example of JPQL:

java

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List<Employee> employees = entityManager.createQuery("SELECT e FROM Employee e

WHERE e.firstName = :name", Employee.class)

.setParameter("name", "John")

.getResultList();

Database Synchronization:

The persistence context ensures that all changes made to entities (such as setting a
field value) are automatically tracked. When a transaction is committed, the changes
are pushed to the database using the entity manager’s flush() method.

Entity Lifecycle:

New: An entity that is not yet in the database.

Managed: An entity that is within the persistence context (associated with a

transaction).

Detached: An entity that was previously managed but is no longer associated with a
persistence context.

Removed: An entity that has been marked for deletion and will be removed from the
database when the transaction is committed.

JPA and MySQL Integration

To integrate JPA with MySQL in a Spring Boot application, the following configurations
are required:

Dependencies:

In the pom.xml (for Maven) or build.gradle (for Gradle), include the necessary
dependencies for Spring Data JPA and MySQL:

xml

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<!-- Spring Boot JPA Dependency -->

<dependency>

<groupId>org.springframework.boot</groupId>

<artifactId>spring-boot-starter-data-jpa</artifactId>

</dependency>

<!-- MySQL JDBC Driver Dependency -->

<dependency>

<groupId>mysql</groupId>

<artifactId>mysql-connector-java</artifactId>

</dependency>

Configuration:

In application.properties or application.yml, configure the MySQL database connection

settings:

properties

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spring.datasource.url=jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/mydb

spring.datasource.username=root

spring.datasource.password=root
spring.jpa.hibernate.ddl-auto=update

spring.jpa.show-sql=true

Entity Classes and Repositories:

Define your entity classes and Spring Data JPA repositories to handle CRUD operations:

java

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@Entity

public class Employee {

@Id

@GeneratedValue(strategy = GenerationType.IDENTITY)

private Long id;

private String name;

// Getters and setters

public interface EmployeeRepository extends JpaRepository<Employee, Long> {

Conclusion

JPA provides a powerful abstraction layer for managing relational data in Java
applications, making it easier to interact with MySQL databases. By using entities, entity
managers, and the persistence context, JPA simplifies data persistence and transaction
management while maintaining a clean object-oriented approach to handling relational
data. Through annotations and the underlying JPA provider (like Hibernate), developers
can efficiently perform CRUD operations, query data, and manage relationships
between entities, leading to more maintainable and scalable Java applications.