Recurrence Relation

1 Recurrence Relation
Definition 1.1. A recurrence relation for the sequence {an } is an equation
that express an in terms of one or more of the previous terms. A sequence is
called a solution if its terms satisfy the recurrence relation.

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Example 1. • Given equation an = an−1 + an−2 , n ≥ 2 with a0 = 0, a1 =

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1.

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• It relates an to an−1 & an−2 . op
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• It is a recurrence relation.
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• {a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , } = {0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, . . . , }.
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e-
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• It is known as the Fibonacci sequence.

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Example 2. Let {an } be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an =

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an−1 + 3 for n ∈ N. If a0 = 2, then what are a1 , a2 , a3 ?

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• Answer: a1 = 5, a2 = 8, a3 = 11.
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Example 3. Check that whether the sequence {an } where an = 3n, n ≥ 0 is

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a solution of the recurrence relation

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an = 2an−1 − an−2 for n = 2, 3, 4, . . . .

Also check the same for an = 2n & an = 5.
Solution:
• For an = 3n, we have
2an−1 − an−2 = 2 · 3(n − 1) − 3(n − 2)
= 3n = an .
So, {an } satisfies the recurrence relation, and hence is a solution.
• For an = 2n , we have a0 = 1, a1 = 2, & a2 = 4. Again
a2 = 2a1 − a0 = 2 · 2 − 1 = 3 ̸= 4.
So, {an = 2n } is not a solution.

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 • For an = 5, we have

2an−1 − an−2 = 2 · 5 − 5
= 5 = an .

So, {an = 5} is a solution.

Exercise: Show that

1. For the recurrence relation an = 2an−1 , n ≥ 1, an = 2n is a solution.

2. For the recurrence relation an − 7an−1 + 10an−2 = 0, n ≥ 2, an = c1 2n +

c2 5n is a solution, where c1 , c2 are arbitrary constants

Linear Recurrence Relation

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A recurrence relation of the form

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c0 (n)an + c1 (n)an−1 + · · · + ck (n)an−k = f (n), n ≥ k
op
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where c0 (n), c1 (n), . . . , ck (n), f (n) are functions of n, is called a linear recur-
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rence relation.
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1. When c0 (n), ck (n) are not zero, it is called a linear recurrence relation
ur

of order k.
ct
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2. When c0 (n), c1 (n), . . . , ck (n) all are constants, it is called a linear recur-
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rence relation with constant coefficients.

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3. When f (n) = 0, it is called a homogeneous recurrence relation, oth-

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erwise, it is non-homogeneous.
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I:

Example 4. 1. an = an−1 + an−2 , n ≥ 2

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• Linear
• Homogeneous
• with constant coefficients
• Order 2
• Homogeneous linear recurrence relation with constant co-
efficients of order 2.

2. an − 3an−1 + 2an−2 = n2 − 1, n ≥ 2

• Linear
• Non-Homogeneous

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 • With constant coefficient
• Order 2

Example 5. 1. an − (n − 1)an−1 − (n − 2)an−2 = 0, n ≥ 2

• Linear
• Homogeneous
• Without constant coefficients
• Order 2

2. an − 3a2n−1 + 2a2n−2 = n2 , n ≥ 2

• Non-Linear

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3. an = a0 an−1 + a1 an−2 + · · · + an−1 a0 , n ≥ 3.

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2 Solution of Homogeneous Linear Recurrence
op
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Relation with Constant Coefficients
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an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + · · · + ck an−k , where ck ̸= 0. (1)

e-
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• All c1 , c2 , . . . , ck are constants.

ct
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• We will find a solution to this equation.

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Let an = rn (r ̸= 0) be a solution of (1). Then, from (1),

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rn = c1 rn−1 + c2 rn−2 + · · · + ck rn−k

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=⇒ rn − c1 rn−1 − c2 rn−2 − · · · − ck rn−k = 0

I:
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=⇒ rn−k (rk − c1 rk−1 − c2 rk−2 − · · · − ck ) = 0

=⇒ rk − c1 rk−1 − c2 rk−2 − · · · − ck = 0. (2)

• (2) is a k-degree equation in r with constant coefficient.

• (2) is called Characteristic Equation, and the roots are called Char-
acteristic Roots.

Solution (Homogeneous Linear):

1. Given Homogeneous linear equation with constant coefficients.

2. Find the Characteristic equation and roots.

3. Based on roots behavior, we determine the solutions.

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Theorem 2.1 (Distinct Roots). Let c1 , c2 , . . . , ck be real constants. Suppose
the Characteristic Equation

rk − c1 rk−1 − c2 rk−2 − · · · − ck = 0

has k distinct roots, say r1 , r2 , . . . , rk . Then the sequence {an } is a solu-

tion of the recurrence relation

an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + · · · + ck an−k

is and only if
an = α1 r1n + α2 r2n + · · · + αk rkn ,
where αi are constants.
Example 6. Find the solution of

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an = 6an−1 − 11an−2 + 6an−3 ,

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where a0 = 2, a1 = 5, a2 = 15.
o
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Solution:
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• The Characteristic equation is r3 − 6r2 + 11r − 6 = 0.

e-
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r3 − 6r2 + 11r − 6 = 0
ru

(r − 1)(r − 2)(r − 3) = 0
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=⇒ r = 1, 2, 3.
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• The solution is of the form

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an = α1 · 1n + α2 · 2n + α3 · 3n ,
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where α1 , α2 , α3 are constants.

• Given a0 = 2, a1 = 5, a2 = 15, so

2 = α1 + α2 + α3
5 = α1 + 2α2 + 3α3
15 = α1 + 4α2 + 9α3 .

Solving above equations, α1 = 1, α2 = −1, α3 = 2.

• Thus, an = 1 − 2n + 2 · 3n .

• {an } is a solution of the given equation where an = 1 − 2n + 2 · 3n .

Exercise (Distinct Roots): Find the solution of

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 1. an = 5an−1 − 6an−2 , where a0 = 2, a1 = 5
Ans: an = 2n + 3n .

2. an = 2an−1
√
+ an−2
√ , where a = 3, √
√0
a1 = 1
3− 2 3+ 2
Ans: 2 (1 + 2) + 2 (1 − 2)n
n

3. an = 2an−1 − 5an−2 , where a0 = 2, a1 = 3

4. an = 8an−1 − 15an−2 , where a0 = 2, a1 = 5

5. an = 7an−1 − 10an−2 , where a0 = 3, a1 = 8

Exercise (Distinct Roots): Find the solution of

1. an = 7an−1 − 14an−2 + 8an−2 , where a0 = 2, a1 = 5, a2 = 10

2. an = 3an−1 − 3an−2 + an−3 , where a0 = 2, a1 = 4, a2 = 7.

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3. an = 10an−1 − 35an−2 + 50an−2 − 24an−4 , where a0 = 3, a1 = 7, a2 =

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15, a3 = 31.
o pa
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Theorem 2.2 (Repeated Roots). Let c1 , c2 , . . . , ck be real constants. Suppose
the Characteristic Equation
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rk − c1 rk−1 − c2 rk−2 − · · · − ck = 0
e-
ur
ct

has t < k distinct roots, say r1 , r2 , . . . , rt with multiplicity m1 , m2 , . . . , mt ,

ru

respectively. Then the sequence {an } is a solution of the recurrence relation

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an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + · · · + ck an−k

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is and only if
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an = α1,0 + α1,1 n + · · · + α1,m1 −1 nm1 −1 r1n +

α2,0 + α2,1 n + · · · + α2,m2 −1 nm2 −1 r2n + · · · +

αt,0 + αt,1 n + · · · + αt,mt −1 nmt −1 rtn

where αi,j are constants.

Example 7. Solve the recurrence relation

an = 4an−1 − 4an−2

where a0 = 1, a1 = 3.

Solution:

• The characteristic equation is r2 − 4r + 4 = 0.

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 • Roots are r = 2, 2.

• The solution is of the form an = (α1 + α2 n)2n .

• Given a0 = 1, a1 = 3, so

1 = α1
& 3 = (α1 + α2 )21 = 2α1 + 2α2 = 2 + 2α2
1
=⇒ α2 =
2
So an = (1 + n2 )2n .

• Hence the sequence {an } is the solution, where

n n
an = (1 + )2 .
2

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Example 8. Solve the recurrence relation

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an = 5an−1 − 8an−2 + 4an−3
o pa
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where a0 = 2, a1 = 6, a2 = 12.
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Solution:
e-
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• The characteristic equation is r3 − 5r2 + 8r − 4 = 0.

ru
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• Roots are r = 2, 2, 1
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• The solution is of the form an = (α1 + α2 n)2n + α3 · 1n .

isc
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• Given a0 = 2, a1 = 6, a2 = 12, so
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2 = α1 + α3 ,
6 = (α1 + α2 )21 + α3 ,
& 12 = (α1 + 2α2 )22 + α3

Solving above equations, α1 = 6, α2 = −1, α3 = −4.

• Hence the sequence {an } is the solution, where

an = (6 − n)2n − 4.

Exercise (Repeated Roots) Find the solution of

1.
an = 6an−1 − 9an−2 + 2an−3
where a0 = 2, a1 = 4, a2 = 7.

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 2.
an = 6an−1 − 12an−2 + 8an−3
where a0 = 3, a1 = 6, a2 = 15.

3.
an = 6an−1 − 11an−2 + 6an−3 − an−4
where a0 = 2, a1 = 4, a2 = 10, a3 = 22.

4.
an = 8an−1 − 20an−2 + 16an−3 − 4an−4
where a0 = 1, a1 = 5, a2 = 17, a3 = 41.

3 Non-Homogeneous Linear Recurrence Re-

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lation with Constant Coefficients

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The general form o
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an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + · · · + ck an−k + f (n) (3)
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where ci are constants and f (n) ̸= 0 is a function of n.

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e-
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• We find a solution of this equation.

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(p) (h)
• an = an + an
St

(p)
te

Theorem 3.1. If {an } is a Particular Solution of Non-Homogeneous

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linear equation given by (3), then every solution is of the form

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{a(p) (h)
n + an }
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(h)
where an is a solution of Associated Homogeneous recurrence relation

an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + · · · + ck an−k

Solution Steps

1. Given Non-Homogeneous Recurrence relation

an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + · · · + ck an−k + f (n)

(h)
2. Find the solution an of Homogeneous relation

an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + · · · + ck an−k .

(p)
3. Find the particular solution an of Non-Homogeneous relation.

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 (p)
f (n) an
c (constant) d (constant)
cn (power of constant) dcn (d =constant)
c0 + c1 n + · · · + cm nm d0 + d1 n + · · · + dm nm

Table 1: Particular Solution

(h) (p)
4. The general solution is: an = an + an .
Solution
(h)
• Finding an : We already have it
(p)
• Finding Particular solution, an : We need to calculate it
(p)
• The form of an depends on f (n).

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Example 9. Solve an = 3an−1 + 2n , where a0 = 1

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Solution: o pa
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• It is a Non-Homogeneous linear recurrence relation.

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• The associated homogeneous equation is an = 3an−1 .

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• The characteristic equation is r − 3 = 0 =⇒ r = 3.

ru
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• So, solution of homogeneous relation is

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a(h) n
n = α·3 ,
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where α is a constant.
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(p)
• Here f (n) = 2n , so an = d · 2n , where d is a constant.

• From given equation,

d2n − 3d2n−1 − 2n = 0
3
=⇒ d − d − 1 = 0
2
=⇒ d = −2.

(p)
• Thus an = −2 · 2n = −2n+1 .

• Hence, the general solution is

an = a(p)
n + an
(h)

= α · 3n − 2n+1

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 • Given a0 = 1, so 1 = α − 2 =⇒ α = 3

• The required solution is

an = 3 · 3n − 2n+1
= 3n+1 − 2n+1

Exercise: Solve the recurrence relation

1.
an − 7an−1 + 10an−2 = 6 + 8n,
where a0 = 1, a1 = 2.
Ans: an = −9 · 2n + 2 · 5n + 8 + 2n

2.

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an − 4an−1 + 3an−2 = n,

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where a0 = 2, a1 = 5.

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Ans: an = 3n + n + 1
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Theorem 3.2. Suppose {an } satisfies the linear non-homogeneous recurrence

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relation
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an = c1 an−1 + c2 an−2 + · · · + ck an−k + f (n)

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where f (n) = (bt nt + bt−1 nt−1 + · · · + b0 )sn .

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1. If s is not a root of associated homogeneous equation, then

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a(p) t
n = (pt n + pt−1 n
t−1
+ · · · + p0 )sn
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2. If s is a root of associated homogeneous equation, with multi-

plicity m then
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a(p) m t
n = n (pt n + pt−1 n
t−1
+ · · · + p0 )sn

Example 10. Solve an = 4an−1 − 4an−2 + 3n + 2n , where a0 = 1, a1 = −2.

Solution:

• The associated homogeneous equation is an − 4an−1 + 4an−2 = 0.

• The characteristic equation

r2 − 4r + 4 = 0
=⇒ r = 2, 2 (Repeated roots)

(h)
• Solution of homogeneous relation is an = (c1 + c2 n)2n

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• Here, f (n) = 3n + 2n , so

an(p) = (d0 + d1 n) + dn2 2n

= a(p
n
1)
+ a(p
n
2)

(p )
• Using an 1 in the given relation



(d0 + d1 n) − 4 d0 + d1 (n − 1) + 4 d0 + d1 (n − 2) = 3n
=⇒ (d0 − 4d1 ) + d1 n = 3n
=⇒ d1 = 3, d0 − 4d1 = 0
=⇒ d1 = 3, d0 = 12.

(p )
• So, an 1 = 12 + 3n

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(p )
• Using an 2 in the given relation

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l
pa
dn2 2n − 4d(n − 1)2 2n−1 + 4d(n − 2)2 2n−2 = 2n
o
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putting n = 0, we have
− 2d + 4d = 1
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1
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=⇒ d =
e-

2
ur
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(p )
• So, an 2 = n2 2n−1 and hence
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a(p) (p1 )
+ a(p2)
te

n = an n
re

= 12 + 3n + n2 2n−1 (Particular Solution)

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• The general solution is

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an = a(h)
n + an
(p)

= (c1 + c2 n)2n + 12 + 3n + n2 2n−1

• Using a0 = 1, a1 = −2, we have

c1 + 12 = 1 =⇒ c1 = −11
c + c2 = −9 =⇒ c2 = 2.

• The required solution is

an = (2n − 11)2n + 12 + 3n + n2 2n−1 .

Exercise:

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1. Solve an − 5an−1 + 6an−2 = 2n + n, where a0 = 1, a1 = 4.
Ans: an = 21 (3n + n) + (1 + n)2n−1

2. Solve an = 4an−1 − 4an−2 + (n + 1)2n .

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Ans: an = (d1 + d2 n + n2 + n6 )2n .

3. Solve an − 2an−1 + an−2 = 2, where a0 = 25, a1 = 16.

Ans: an = 25 − 10n + n2 .

4. Solve an − 6an−1 + 9an−2 = 3n + 4n , where a0 = 0, a1 = 2.

2
Ans: an = ( n2 − 31
6
n − 16)3n + 16 · 4n .

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pa
o
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e-
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te
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HI

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