DOST Scholarship Examination Reviewer
Information and Communication Technology Area
COMPUTER
FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 Introduction to Computers
1.1.1 Generations of Computer
1.1.2 Data and Information
1.2 Hardware Components
1.2.1 Input Devices
1.2.2 Centra Processing Unit
1.2.3 Storage Devices
1.2.4 Output Devices
1.3 Software Components
1.3.1 System Softwares
1.3.2 Application Softwares
1.3.3 Programming Languages
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1.1 - INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
1.1.1 Generations of Computer
1946 – 1959: First Generation – Vacuum Tubes
These early computers used vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory. As a result they were enormous, literally taking up entire rooms and
costing a fortune to run. These were inefficient materials which consumed a lot
electricity and subsequently generated excessive heat which caused ongoing
breakdowns.
These first generation computers relied on ‘machine language’ (which is the most
basic programming language that can be understood by computers). These
computers were limited to solving one problem at a time. Input was based on
punched cards and paper tape. Output came out on print-outs. The two notable
machines of this era were the UNIVAC and ENIAC machines – the UNIVAC is the
first every commercial computer which was purchased in 1951 by a business – the
US Census Bureau.
1959 – 1965: Second Generation – Transistors
The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors saw the advent of the second
generation of computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors weren’t used
significantly in computers until the end of the 1950s. They were a big improvement
over the vacuum tube, despite still subjecting computers to damaging levels of
heat. However they were hugely superior to the vacuum tubes, making computers
smaller, faster, cheaper and less heavy on electricity use. They still relied on
punched card for input/printouts.
The language evolved from cryptic binary language to symbolic (‘assembly’)
languages. This meant programmers could create instructions in words. About the
same time high level programming languages were being developed (early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN). Transistor-driven machines were the first
computers to store instructions into their memories – moving from magnetic drum
to magnetic core ‘technology’. The early versions of these machines were
developed for the atomic energy industry.
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1965 – 1971: Third Generation – Integrated Circuits
By this phase, transistors were now being
miniaturised and put on silicon chips
(called semiconductors). This led to a
massive increase in speed and efficiency
of these machines. These were the first
computers where users interacted using
keyboards and monitors which interfaced
with an operating system, a significant
leap up from the punch cards and
printouts. This enabled these machines to
run several applications at once using a
central program which functioned to
monitor memory.
As a result of these advances made machines cheaper and smaller, a new mass
market of users emerged during the ‘60s.
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1971 – 1980: Fourth Generation – VLSI Microprocessors
Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.
VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements with their
associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of
fourth generation.
This revolution can be summed in one
word: Intel. The chip-maker developed the
Intel 4004 chip in 1971, which positioned all
computer components (CPU, memory,
input/output controls) onto a single chip.
What filled a room in the 1940s now fit in
the palm of the hand. The Intel chip housed
thousands of integrated circuits. The year
1981 saw the first ever computer (IBM)
specifically designed for home use and
1984 saw the MacIntosh introduced by
Apple. Microprocessors even moved
beyond the realm of computers and into an
increasing number of everyday products.
The increased power of these small computers meant they could be linked,
creating networks. Which ultimately led to the development, birth and rapid
evolution of the Internet. Other major advances during this period have been the
Graphical user interface (GUI), the mouse and more recently the astounding
advances in lap-top capability and hand-held devices.
1981 - IBM 5150 1984 - Apple Lisa
1980 – onwards: Fifth Generation – ULSI Microprocessors
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI
technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in
the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
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This generation is based on parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI
is an emerging branch in computer science,
which interprets the means and method of
making computers think like human beings. All
the high-level languages like C and C++,
Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.
AI is a reality made possible by using parallel
processing and superconductors. Leaning to the
future, computers will be radically transformed
again by quantum computation, molecular and
nano technology.
The essence of fifth generation will be using these
technologies to ultimately create machines which can process
and respond to natural language, and have capability to learn
and organise themselves.
AI includes the following computing applications:
• Robotics
• Neural Networks
• Game Playing
• Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life situations
• Natural language understanding and generation
The main features of fifth generation computers are:
• ULSI technology
• Development of true artificial intelligence
• Development of Natural language processing
• Advancement in Parallel Processing
• Advancement in Superconductor technology
• More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
• Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
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1.1.2 Types of Computers
TYPES OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS (5th Generation)
Desktop computers in general are designed primarily for
use at a desk. In the most general terms, they are made up
of separate components including the system unit, monitor,
keyboard, mouse, and speakers. The system unit is the
most important piece for it contains the guts and brains of
the computer system.
Laptop computers are lightweight mobile PCs that
contain thin screens and tiny frames. They are also
often called notebook computers because of their
small size and portability. Hardware components of
laptops are compact and are not easily replaceable
unlike desktop computers.
Netbook computers or simply notebooks (also called
mini notebooks or subnotebooks) are a rapidly
evolving category of small, light and inexpensive laptop
computers suited for general computing and accessing
web-based applications; they are often marketed as
"companion devices," that is, to augment a user's other
computer access.
Tablet PC is a notebook or slate-shaped mobile
computer, first introduced by Pen computing in the
early 90s with their PenGo Tablet Computer and
popularized by Microsoft. Its touchscreen or
graphics tablet/screen hybrid technology allows the
user to operate the computer with a stylus or digital
pen, or a fingertip, instead of a keyboard or mouse.
Nowadays, more brands of tablets are available in
the market programmed with powerful applications
running on different operating systems.
Handheld computers are the smallest
types of computers. You may also hear
someone call one a personal digital
assistant (PDA), or pocket computer.
In recent years, handheld computers
have evolved greatly giving birth to
modern computers called
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“Smartphones”. It is the combination of basic telephone services and computer-
enable features that is easily connected to the internet. Most applications that run
on desktop computers are now also available on smartphones.
Wearable computers
Wearable computers, also known as body-
borne computers or wearables are
miniature electronic devices that are worn
by the bearer under, with or on top of
clothing. This class of wearable technology
has been developed for general or special
purpose information technologies and
media development.
Wearable computers are especially useful
for applications that require more complex
computational support than just hardware
coded logics.
1.1.2 Data and Information
Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a
formalized manner, which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or
processing by human or electronic machine. It can be represented with the help of
characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters
(+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)
What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for
the receiver. Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are
based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following
characteristics:
• Timely − Information should be available when required.
• Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
• Completeness − Information should be complete.
Data Processing Cycle
Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to
increase their usefulness and add values for a particular purpose. Data processing
consists of the following basic steps - input, processing, and output. These three
steps constitute the data processing cycle.
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Input − In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when
electronic computers are used, the input data can be recorded on any one of the
several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes, and so on.
Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more
useful form. For example, pay-checks can be calculated from the time cards, or a
summary of sales for the month can be calculated from the sales orders.
Storage - In this step, the information processed is kept in a storage device for
future use. Data storage devices are also valuable resources to process raw data
to produce meaningful information.
Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected.
The particular form of the output data depends on the use of the data. For
example, output data may be pay-checks for employees.
Comparison between Data and Information
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How is data measured?
Data Measurement Chart
Data Measurement Size
Bit Single Binary (0 or 1)
Byte 8 bits
Kilobyte (KB) 1,024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB) 1,024 Kilobytes
Gigabyte (GB) 1,024 Megabytes
Terabyte (TB) 1,024 Gigabytes
Petabyte (PB) 1,024 Terabytes
Exabyte (EB) 1,024 Petabytes
1.2 HARDWARE COMPONENTS
1.2.1 Input Devices
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
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Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very
popular input device which helps to input data
to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is
like that of traditional typewriter, although there
are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions.
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a
very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base, which
senses the movement of the mouse and sends
corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse
buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is
present between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the
cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
Easy to use
Not very expensive
Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to
move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a
stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and
upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a
socket. The joystick can be moved in all four
directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a
mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing
(CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is
used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a
photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.
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When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen
and the pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element
detects the screen location and sends the corresponding
signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in
notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is
a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the
ball, the pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires
less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various
shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a
photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be
transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital
form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are
printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog
information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a
signal from the television or camera into a series of
numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be
used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the
camera had been pointed at.
A Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that
is then stored in a digital form.
The microphone is used for various applications
such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
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Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there
are large number of cheques to be processed every
day. The bank's code number and cheque number are
printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that
contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable.
OCR scans the text optically, character by character,
converts them into a machine readable code, and
stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded
data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded
data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the
books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be
embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into
an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the computer
that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to
recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is
used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked.
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of
examinations having multiple choice questions.
1.2.2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
consists of the following features:
•CPU is considered as the brain of
the computer.
•CPU performs all types of data
processing operations.
•It stores data, intermediate results,
and instructions (program).
•It controls the operation of all parts
of the computer.
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CPU itself has following three
components.
• Memory or Storage Unit
• Control Unit
• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access
Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit
are:
It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
It stores intermediate results of processing.
It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.
All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out
any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.
• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
• It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
• It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
• Arithmetic Section
• Logic Section
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Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.
1.2.3 Storage Devices
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is
divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a
unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if
the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
Cache Memory
Primary Memory/Main Memory
Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed
semiconductor memory which can speed up
the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU
and the main memory. It is used to hold those
parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data
and programs are transferred from the disk to
cache memory by the operating system, from
where the CPU can access them.
Advantages of Cache Memory
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.
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Disadvantages of Cache Memory
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on
which the computer is currently working. It has a limited
capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is
generally made up of semiconductor device. These
memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and
ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
• These are semiconductor memories.
• It is known as the main memory.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is the working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external
memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/
information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents
of secondary memories are first transferred to the
main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
These are magnetic and optical memories.
It is known as the backup memory.
It is a non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
It is used for storage of data in a computer.
Computer may run without the secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories.
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1.2.4 Output Devices
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
• Monitors
• Graphic Plotter
• Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output
device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged
in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of
pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
• Flat-Panel Display
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture elements
called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the
image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one
illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as
the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a
screen at once. The screen can be divided into a
series of character boxes - fixed location on the
screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters
of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT:
• Large in Size (bulky)
• High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video
devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You
can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, and graphics display.
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The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:
• Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical
energy into light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example,
LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:
• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then
pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:
• Very low consumable costs
• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types:
• Character printers
• Line printers
• Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP) Dot Matrix Printer
• Daisy Wheel
• Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is
Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical
price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of
Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out
to form a character which is why it is called Dot
Matrix Printer.
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Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without
using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time, thus they are also called as Page
Printers.
These printers are of two types:
• Laser Printers Laser Printer
• Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
• Faster than impact printers
• They are not noisy
• High quality
• Supports many fonts and different character
size
Inkjet Printer
1.3 Software Components
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined
function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem.
There are two types of software
• System Software
• Application Software
1.3.1 System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and
extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is
generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products
comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the
hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between
the hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,
Assemblers, etc.
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Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software −
• Close to the system
• Fast in speed
• Difficult to design
• Difficult to understand
• Less interactive
• Smaller in size
• Difficult to manipulate
• Generally written in low-level language
1.3.2 Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a
particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can
come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad
for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs,
often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as
a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the following:
• Payroll Software
• Student Record Software
• Inventory Management Software
• Google chrome
• Airline Reservation Software
• Microsoft Office Suite Software
• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Excel
• Steam Gaming Platform
• Adobe Photoshop
Features of application software are as follows:
• Close to the user
• Easy to design
• More interactive
• Slow in speed
• Generally written in high-level language
• Easy to understand
• Easy to manipulate and use
• Bigger in size and requires large storage space
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1.3.3 Programming Languages
A programming language is a special language programmers use to develop
software programs, scripts, or other sets of instructions for computers to execute.
Moreover, it is a formal language which comprises a set of instructions used to
produce various kinds of output. Programming languages are used to create
programs that implement specific algorithms.
Machine Language
A computer’s native language, which differs among different types of computers, is
its machine language—a set of built-in primitive instructions. These instructions are
in the form of binary code (only 1 and 0).
Low-Level Programming Language (Assembly Language)
Assembly language is referred to as a low-level language, because assembly
language is close in nature to machine language and is machine dependent.
Assembly languages were developed to make programming easier. However,
because the computer cannot execute assembly language, another program—
called an assembler — it is used to translate assembly-language programs into
machine code.
High-Level Programming Language
In the 1950s, a new generation of programming languages known as high-level
languages emerged. They are platform-independent, which means that you can
write a program in a high- level language and run it in different types of machines.
High-level languages are English-like and easy to learn and use. The instructions
in a high-level programming language are called statements.
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Note: This material is intended for educational purposes only. The author does not own
nor claim any copyrighted images and logos present herein. All of these are for illustration
purposes only in order to improve student learning. This learning material is strictly not for
sale.
Prepared by:
AL-MONTE VINCE M. CALO, CpE
Reviewer / USTP - IT Faculty
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