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Introduction to Linear Programming Applications and
Extensions First Edition Darst Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Darst, Richard
ISBN(s): 9781003066552, 1003066550
Edition: First edition
File Details: PDF, 12.13 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
INTRODUCTION TO
LINEAR
PROGRAMMING
 PURE AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS
A Program of Monographs, Textbooks, and Lecture Notes

EXECUTIVE EDITORS

Earl J. Taft Zuhair Nashed

Rutgers University University of Delaware
New Brunswick, New Jersey Newark, Delaware

CHAIRMEN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD

S. Kobayashi Edwin Hewitt

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Berkeley, California Seattle, Washington

EDITORIAL BOARD

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Centro Brasileiro de Fesquisas Fisicas
and University of Rochester Jane Cronin Scanlon
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Universiidt Siegen

Mark Teply
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
 MONOGRAPHS AND TEXTBOOKS IN
PURE AND APPLIED MATHEMATICS

1. K. Yano, Integral Formulas in Riemannian Geometry (\91Q)(out of print)

2. S. Kobayashi, Hyperbolic Manifolds and Holomorphic Mappings (1970)
(out of print)
3. V. S. Vladimirov, Equations of Mathematical Physics ( A. Jeffrey, editor
A. Littlewood, translator) (1970) (out of print)
4. B. N. Pshenichnyi, Necessary Conditions for an Extremum (L. Neustadt,
translation editor; K. Makowski, translator) (1971)
5. L. Narici, E. Beckenstein, and G. Bachman, Functional Analysis and
Valuation Theory (1971)
6. S. S. Passman, Infinite Group Rings (1971)
7. L Dornhoff, Group Representation Theory (in two parts). Part A:
Ordinary Representation Theory. Part B: Modular Representation Theory
(1971,1972)
8. W. Boothby and G. L. Weiss (eds,), Symmetric Spaces: Short Courses
Presented at Washington University (1972)
9. Y. Matsushima, Differentiable Manifolds (E. T. Kobayashi, translator)
(1972)
10. L. E. Ward, Jr., Topology: An Outline for a First Course (1972) (out of
print)
11. A. Babakhanian, Cohomological Methods in Group Theory (1972)
12. R. Gilmer, Multiplicative Ideal Theory (1972)
13. / . Yen, Stochastic Processes and the Wiener Integral (1973) (out of print)
14. / . Barros-Neto, Introduction to the Theory of Distributions (1973)
(out of print)
15. /?. Larsen, Functional Analysis: An Introduction (1973) (out of print)
16. K. Yano and S. Ishihara, Tangent and Cotangent Bundles: Differential
Geometry (1973) (out of print)
17. C. Procesi, Rings with Polynomial Identities (1973)
18. R. Hermann, Geometry, Physics, and Systems (1973)
19. N. R. Wallach, Harmonic Analysis on Homogeneous Spaces (1973)
(out of print)
20. J. Dieudonne, Introduction to the Theory of Formal Groups (1973)
21. /. Vaisman, Cohomology and Differential Forms (1973)
22. B. -Y. Chen, Geometry of Submanifolds (1973)
23. M. Marcus, Finite Dimensional Multilinear Algebra (in two parts) (1973,
1975)
24. R. Larsent Banach Algebras: An Introduction (1973)
25. R. O. Kufala and A. L Vitter (eds.), Value Distribution Theory: Part A;
Part B: Deficit and Bezout Estimates by Wilhelm Stoll (1973)
26. K. B. Stolarsky, Algebraic Numbers and Diophantine Approximation (1974)
27. A. R. Magid, The Separable Galois Theory of Commutative Rings (1974)
28. 5. R. McDonald, Finite Rings with Identity (1974)
29. / . Satake, Linear Algebra (S. Koh, T. A. Akiba, and S. lhara, translators)
(1975)
30. / . S. Golan, Localization of Noncommutative Rings (1975)
31. G. Klambauer, Mathematical Analysis (J975)
32. M. K, Agoston, Algebraic Topology: A First Course (1976)
33. K. R. Goodearl, Ring Theory: Nonsingular Rings and Modules (1976)
34. L. E. Mansfield, Linear Algebra with Geometric Applications: Selected
Topics (1976)
35. N. J. Pullman, Matrix Theory and Its Applications (1976)
36. B. R. McDonald, Geometric Algebra Over Local Rings (1976)
37. C W. Groetsch, Generalized Inverses of Linear Operators: Representation
and Approximation (1977)
38. J. E. Kuczkowski andJ. L. Gersting, Abstract Algebra: A First Look (1977)
39. C. O, Christenson and W. I . Voxman, Aspects of Topology (1977)
40. M. Nagata, Field Theory (1977)
41. R. L Long, Algebraic Number Theory (1977)
42. W. F. Pfeffer, Integrals and Measures (1977)
43. /?. L. Wheeden and A, Zygmund, Measure and Integral: An Introduction to
Real Analysis (1977)
44. / . //. Curtiss, Introduction to Functions of a Complex Variable (1978)
45. K. Hrbacek and T. Jech, Introduction to Set Theory (1978)
46. W. S, Massey, Homology and Cohomology Theory (1978)
47. M. Marcus, Introduction to Modern Algebra (1978)
48. E. C. Young, Vector and Tensor Analysis (1978)
49. 5. B. Nadler, Jr., Hyperspaces of Sets (1978)
50. S. K. Segal, Topics in Group Rings (1978)
51. A. C. M. van Rooij, Non-Archimedean Functional Analysis (1978)
54. L. Corwin and R. Szczarba, Calculus in Vector Spaces (1979)
53. C Sadosky, Interpolation of Operators and Singular Integrals: An
Introduction to Harmonic Analysis (1979)
54. / . Cronin, Differential Equations: Introduction and Quantitative Theory
(1980)
55. C. W. Groetsch, Elements of Applicable Functional Analysis (1980)
56. /. Vaisman, Foundations of Three-Dim ensional Euclidean Geometry (1980)
57. H. I. Freedman, Deterministic Mathematical Models in Population Ecology
(1980)
58. 5. B. Chae, Lebesgue Integration (1980)
59. C S. Rees, 5. M. Shah, and C V. Stanojevic, Theory and Applications of
Fourier Analysis (1981)
60. L. Nachbin, Introduction to Functional Analysis: Banach Spaces and
Differential Calculus (R. M. Aron, translator) (1981)
61. G. Orzech and M. Orzech, Plane Algebraic Curves: An Introduction
Via Valuations (1981)
62. R. Johnsonbaugh and H>. E. Pfaffenberger, Foundations of Mathematical
Analysis (1981)
63. W. L. Voxman and R. H. Goetschel, Advanced Calculus: An Introduction
to Modern Analysis (1981)
64. L / . Corwin and R. H. Szcarba, Multivariable Calculus (1982)
65. V. I. Istr&tescu, Introduction to Linear Operator Theory (1981)
66. R. D. Jarvinen, Finite and Infinite Dimensional Linear Spaces: A
Comparative Study in Algebraic and Analytic Settings (1981)
67. J. K. Beem and P. E. Ehrlich, Global Lorentzian Geometry (1981)
68. D. L. Armacost, The Structure of Locally Compact Abelian Groups (1981)
69. / . W, Brewer and M. K. Smith, eds.> Emmy Noether: A Tribute to Her Life
and Work (1981)
70. K. H, Kirn, Boolean Matrix Theory and Applications (1982)
71. T. W. Wieting, The Mathematical Theory of Chromatic Plane Ornaments
(1982)
72. Z>. B. Gauld, Differential Topology: An Introduction (1982)
73. R. L Faber, Foundations of Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometry (1983)
74. M. CarmelU Statistical Theory and Random Matrices (1983)
75. /. H. Carruth, J. A. Hildebrant, and R. /. Koch, The Theory of
Topological Semigroups (1983)
76. R. L. Faber, Differential Geometry and Relativity Theory: An
Introduction (1983)
77. S. Barnett, Polynomials and Linear Control Systems (1983)
78. G. Karpilovsky, Commutative Group Algebras (1983)
79. F. Van Oystaeyen and A. Verschorenf Relative Invariants of Rings: The
Commutative Theory (1983)
80. /. Vaisman, A First Course in Differential Geometry (1984)
81. G. W. Swan, Applications of Optimal Control Theory in Biomedicine (1984)
82. T. Petrie and J. D. Randall Transformation Groups on Manifolds (1984)
83. K. Goebel and 5. Reich, Uniform Convexity, Hyperbolic Geometry, and
Nonexpansive Mappings (1984)
84. T. Albu and C. Nastasescu, Relative Finiteness in Module Theory (1984)
85. K. Hrbacekand T. Jecht Introduction to Set Theory, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded (1984)
86. F. Van Oystaeyen and A. Verschoren, Relative Invariants of Rings: The
Noncommutative Theory (1984)
87. B. R. McDonald, Linear Algebra Over Commutative Rings (1984)
88. M. Namba, Geometry of Projective Algebraic Curves (1984)
89. G. F. Webbf Theory of Nonlinear Age-Dependent Population
Dynamics (1985)
90. M. R. Bremner, R. V. Moody, and J. Patera, Tables of Dominant Weight
Multiplicities for Representations of Simple Lie Algebras (1985)
91. A. E. Fekete, Real Linear Algebra (1985)
92. S. B. Chae, Holomorphy and Calculus in Normed Spaces (1985)
93. A. J. Jerri, Introduction to Integral Equations with Applications (1985)
94. G. Karpilovsky, Projective Representations of Finite Groups (1985)
95. L Narici and E. Beckenstein, Topological Vector Spaces (1985)
96. J. Weeks, The Shape of Space: How to Visualize Surfaces and Three-
Dimensional Manifolds (1985)
97. P. R. Gribik and K. 0. Kortanek, Extremal Methods of Operations Research
(1985)
98. J.-A. Chaoand W. A. WoyczynskU eds., Probability Theory and Harmonic
Analysis (1986)
99. G. D. Crown, M. H. FenricK and R. J. Valenza. Abstract Algebra (1986)
100. J. H. Carruth, J. A. Hildebrant, and R. J. Kocht The Theory of
Topotogical Semigroups, Volume 2 (1986)
101. R. S. Doran and V. A. Belfi, Characterizations of C*-Algebras: The
Geifand-Naimark Theorems (1986)
102. M. W. Jeter, Mathematical Programming; An Introduction to
Optimization (1986)
103. M. Altman, A Unified Theory of Nonlinear Operator and Evolution Equa-
tions with Applications: A New Approach to Nonlinear Partial Differential
Equations (1986)
104. A. Verschoren, Relative Invariants of Sheaves (1987)
105. R. A. UsmanU Applied Linear Algebra (1987)
106. P. Blass andj. Lang, Zariski Surfaces and Differential Equations in
Characteristic p > 0 (1987)
107. J. A. Reneke, R. E. Fennel!, and R. B. Minton. Structured Hereditary
Systems (1987)
108. H. Busemann and B. B. Phadke, Spaces with Distinguished Geodesies
(1987)
109. R. Harte, Invertibility and Singularity for Bounded Linear
Operators (1988).
110. G. S. Ladde, V. Lakshmikantham, and B. G. Zhang, Oscillation
Theory of Differential Equations with Deviating Arguments (1987)
111. L. Dudkin, I. Rabinovich, and 1. Vakhutinsky, Iterative Aggregation
Theory: Mathematical Methods of Coordinating Detailed and Aggregate
Problems in Large Control Systems (1987)
112. T. Okubo, Differential Geometry (1987)
113. D. L. Stand and M. L. Stand, Real Analysis with Point-Set Topology
(1987)
114. 71. C. Gard, Introduction to Stochastic Differential Equations (1988)
115. 5. 5. Abhyankar, Enumerative Combinatorics of Young Tableaux (1988)
116. H. Strade and R. Farnsteiner, Modular Lie Algebras and Their
Representations (1988)
1 ]7. 7. A. Huckaba, Commutative Rings with Zero Divisors (1988)
118. W. D. R^ttfe, Combinatorial Designs (1988)
119. W. Wifsfaw, Topological Fields (1988)
120. G. Karpilovsky, Field Theory: Classical Foundations and Multiplicative
Groups(1988)
121. S. Caenepeel and F. Van Oystaeyen, Brauer Groups and the Cohomology of
Graded Rings (1989)
122. W. Kozlowski, Modular Function Spaces (1988)
123. E. Lowen-Colebunders, Function Classes of Cauchy Continuous Maps (1989)
124. M. Pavel, Fundamentals of Pattern Recognition (1989)
125. K Lakshmikantham, S. Leela, and A. A. Mattynyuk, Stability Analysis of
Nonlinear Systems (1989)
126. R. Sivaramakrishnan, The Classical Theory of Arithmetic Functions (1989)
127. N. A. Watson, Parabolic Equations on an Infinite Strip (1989)
128. K, J. Hastings, Introduction to the Mathematics of Operations Research
(1989)
129. B. Fine, Algebraic Theory of the Bianchi Groups (1989)
130. D. N. Dikranjan, /. R. Prodanov, and L N. Stoyanov, Topological Groups:
Characters, Dualities, and Minimal Group Topologies (1989)
131. /. C. Morgan II, Point Set Theory (1990)
132. P. Biler and A. Witkowski, Problems in Mathematical Analysis (1990)
133. H. J. Sussmann, Nonlinear Controllability and Optimal Control
(1990)
134. J.-P. Florens, M. Mouchart, and J. M. Rolin, Elements of Bayesian
Statistics (1990)
135. N. Shell, Topological Fields and Near Valuations (1990)
136. B. F. Doolin and C. F. Martin, Introduction to Differential Geometry for
Engineers (1990)
137. S. S. Holland, Jr., Applied Analysis by the Hilbert Space Method (1990)
138. / Oknihski, Semigroup Algebras (1990)
139. K. Zhu, Operator Theory in Function Spaces (1990)
140. G. B. Price, An Introduction to Multicomplex Spaces and Functions
(1991)
141. R. B. Darst, Introduction to Linear Programming: Applications and
Extensions (1991)
142. P. L. Sachdev, Ordinary Differential Equations and Their Applications
(1991)

Other Volumes in Preparation

INTRODUCTION TO
LINEAR
PROGRAMMING
Applications and Extensions

RICHARD B. DARST
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Darst, Richard B.
Introduction to linear programming: applications and extensions / Richard
B, Darst.
p. cm. - (Monographs and textbooks in pure and applied mathematics;
141)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8247-8383-2
1. Linear programming. I. Title. II. Series.
T57.74.D37 1990
519.7>2-dc20 90-14012
CIP

Copyright ©1991 by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. All Rights Reserved

Reprinted 2009 by CRC Press
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, micro-
filming, and recording, or by ani information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

MARCEL DEKKER, INC.

270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016

Current printing (last digit):

10 9 8 7 6 5
To Jean
My friend and wife
Preface

Linear programming (LP) is an exceptionally useful modeling tool. The

tremendous variety of situations to which LP applies is remarkable, and
George Dantzig's discovery of the simplex method for solving linear pro-
grams is a beautiful and useful blend of geometry and linear algebra.
Although a model for a "real world" situation is much more useful if you
can solve it, most LP models are tedious or impossible to solve by hand.
However, software packages based on variations of the simplex method
are now readily available. Good LP software is a very powerful analytical
tool, and an understanding of the simplex method can help you use the
software effectively. This book can be used without LP software, but it is
to your advantage to use an LP software package and actually solve the
problems.
The two basic goals of this book are (1) to help you learn to use LP
and (2) to give you a clear, elementary introduction to the simplex method.
When you finish reading Chapters 2-5 and you have a problem to solve,
you should be able to recognize whether LP applies and formulate an
appropriate model if it does. A third goal is to introduce, briefly, networks,
dynamic programming, quadratic programming, and quadratic functions.
Some problems can be modeled several different ways and some models
can be solved several different ways; the best formulation and method of
solution will depend on the software available, and software availability
is currently increasing dramatically. Some of the basic ideas related to
v
vi Preface

these additional topics are discussed in Chapters 5, 7, 8, and 9. Much

about LP and these other topics is merely mentioned or not discussed at
all, but the Reading List at the end of the book provides an entree to the
vast literature.
Chapter 1 contains topics in linear algebra that are used subsequently.
Skim Chapter 1 to see what it contains, then move on to Chapter 2, and
go back to parts of Chapter 1 as needed.
Three examples are used in Chapter 2 to introduce several important
aspects of LP. Chapters 2 and 5 contain extensive lists of exercises. These
exercises illustrate the utility of LP and provide opportunities to practice
formulating and solving LP models. Doing these exercises is an intrinsic
part of learning from this book; they will help you learn how to model
many types of situations. Chapters 2,3,4, and 5 conclude with a discussion
of some exercises, and Appendixes 2 and 3 contain additional solutions
for exercises in Chapters 2 and 5, respectively.
Chapters 3 and 4 contain an introductory theoretical discussion of
LP. Elementary geometric and algebraic properties of an LP model are
presented in Chapter 3. These properties underlie the simplex method.
Two and three dimensional pictures can be drawn that expose the geome-
try of the feasible set for an LP and that can relate its geometric and
algebraic properties. The algebraic properties carry over to higher dimen-
sions, where it is difficult to visualize objects geometrically. Algebraic
properties are used in Chapter 4 to develop the simplex method.
The modeling theme returns in Chapter 5, which contains further dis-
cussion of types of problems that fit into LP format, including transport-
ation problems in Sections 5.6 and 5.7 and some network problems in
Section 5.7. The issue of integer values for variables comes up frequently
in the problems. In Sections 5.4 and 5.5, the software used permits some
variables to be valued as zero-one integers to solve the problems. Dynamic
programming is introduced in Section 5.8. Section 5.9 considers stability
of the set of solutions of an LP and sensitivity of the value of the objective
function of a stable LP with respect to changes in its parameters.
The discussion of duality which began in Chapter 2 continues in Chapter
6, providing a bridge to Chapter 7, where quadratic programming is
discussed. In Chapter 8 three methods to minimize a quadratic function
are presented; many nonlinear programming algorithms use various com-
binations of these methods. Chapter 8 gives you a foundation for dealing
with nonlinear programming.
Algorithms for several network problems are discussed in Chapter 9.
This book evolved while I was teaching a variety of engineering mathe-
matics courses at Colorado State University. I gladly take this opportunity
to thank students in these courses for many helpful contributions and to
Preface vii

express my appreciation to Maria Allegra and Robin J. Wishnie of Marcel

Dekker, Inc., for their considerate and efficient support.

Richard fi. Darst

Contents

Preface v
Chapter 1. Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations (Linear
Systems) and Related Properties of Matrices 1
1.1 Linear Systems 1
1.2 Row Echelon Algorithm 4
1.3 Row Reduction 6
1.4 Matrix Operations 9
1.5 Rank 13
1.6 Identity and Inverse Matrices 13
1.7 Linear Independence 16
1.8 Rearrangement 19
1.9 Solutions to Linear Systems 20
Exercises 21

Chapter 2. Introduction to Linear Programming 24

2.1 Example 2.1: A Production Problem 26
2.2 Example 2.2: A Diet Problem 34
2.3 Example 2.3: A Transportation Problem 36
2.4 Duality 38
ix
x Contents

2.5 Two Fundamental Facts About Standard and

Symmetric Primal-Dual Pairs 44
Exercises 44

Chapter 3. Elementary Properties of the Feasible Set for an LP 64

3.1 Basic Properties 64
3.2 Basic Feasible Solutions 69
3.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Linear
Programming 72
Exercises 73

Chapter 4. Introduction to the Simplex Method 80

4.1 Notation 80
4.2 Pertinent Algebra 81
4.3 The Simplex Tableau 82
4.4 Reduced Costs 83
4.5 Conditions for Optimality 84
4.6 The Objective Function 86
4.7 Simplex Method Pivoting 89
4.8 When No Optimal Solution Exists 94
4.9 Multiple Solutions 96
4.10 Degeneracy 97
4.11 Phase 1 99
4.12 The Revised Simplex Method 101
Exercises 104

Chapter 5. Topics in LP and Extensions 114

5.1 Examples that Fit into LP Format 115
5.2 Infeasibility 118
5.3 Multiperiod Problems 119
5.4 More Objectives 122
5.5 Integer Variables 126
5.6 Transportation Problems 130
5.7 Introduction to Networks 131
5.8 Introduction to Dynamic Programming 147
5.9 Stability and Sensitivity 156
Exercises 165

Chapter 6. Duality 202

6.1 The Duality Theorem of Linear Programming 202
6.2 Complementary Slackness 203
Contents xi

6.3 Kuhn-Tucker Conditions 205

Exercises 207

Chapter 7. Quadratic Programming 208

7.1 Quadratic Functions 209
7.2 Convex Quadratic Functions 217
7.3 Kuhn-Tucker Conditions for Convex Quadratic
Programs 218
7.4 Linear Complementarity Formulation of Kuhn-
Tucker Conditions 219
7.5 Investment Application 221
Exercises 224

Chapter 8. Minimizing a Quadratic Function 226

8.1 Eigenvalue Conditions for Positive
(Semi)definiteness 227
8.2 Newton's Method 228
8.3 Steepest Descent 230
8.4 Conjugate Directions 236
8.5 Conjugate Gradient Method 239
8.6 Conjugate Gradient Algorithm 243
Exercises 244

Network Algorithms 246

9.1 Notation 247
9.2 Project Planning 247
9.3 Longest Path Algorithm 248
9.4 Shortest Path Algorithm 251
9.5 Minimum Spanning Tree Algorithm 255
9.6 Maximum (Simple) Path Flow Algorithm 256
9.7 Residual Digraph 258
9.8 Maximum Flow Algorithm 259
9.9 Minimum Cost-Maximum Flows:
Transportation and Assignment
Problems 264
9.10 Minimum Cost-Maximum Flow Algorithm 269
Exercises 270

Appendix 1. Forms of LPs 273

Other documents randomly have
different content
 LECTURE II
NEW SOUTH WALES

When, in 1770, Captain Cook dropped anchor in Botany Bay, he just

missed discovering the finest harbour in the world. Voyaging
northwards he sighted Port Jackson in the distance but did not
examine it more closely, and the discovery was left to the first party
of colonists, a few years later. The harbour which we are going to
explore was the scene of the first real settlement, and is still the vital
centre for the whole of New South Wales.
We steam through a broad channel, nearly a mile wide between
the rugged points which guard it. There is no lack of room here for
ships to pass one 1 another, and our large vessel seems quite
insignificant beside the towering cliffs. On our right is a broad bay,
the North Harbour, with the village of Manly at its head; on the other
side of Manly, across a narrow isthmus, is the open ocean, with its
long rollers thundering always in surf upon the beach. But inside the
Heads the water is calm as a lake. In front of us, and beyond the
North Harbour, is a narrow, winding inlet, running for miles into the
hills; this is Middle 2 Harbour. There is plenty of good anchorage
here, but it is mainly given up to pleasure boats; we are a long way
yet from the commercial harbour. To reach this our vessel turns
sharply southwards, behind the South Head with its lighthouses, and
steams on 3 for about five miles up the Main Harbour. All along, on
either hand, are jutting headlands, and in the bays between,
especially on the south side, are seaside villages. But we shall not
see swarms of bathers on the beaches as in our own country, for
there are sharks in Sydney Harbour; the only safe bathing is in the
surf outside. As we approach our landing-place the houses are more
closely packed together, and islands are dotted here and there in the
channel. We may be reminded to some degree of parts of the Clyde,
or of one of the larger inlets on the west coast of Scotland; though
here we find not only the most beautiful scenery but a great seaport
and busy city in the very midst of it.
We turn at last into Sydney Cove, on the south side of the harbour,
and here we are moored at Circular 4 Quay in the very heart of the
city. Further on to the west, just round the next point, we see Darling
Harbour, 5 crowded with shipping, and its busy wharves piled with
merchandise. The waterway extends some miles further inland, but
here in Sydney Cove is the centre of commercial activity and the
landing-place of the original settlers in 1788.

Port Jackson.

Before we land let us look at a chart which shows us the long

passage by which we have entered, the 6 windings of the harbour
and the city spreading over the surrounding hills. This will give us our
bearings and help us to understand the views.
 We will now land, climb the hill, and look down on (4) the Cove.
There, on the further side, is our vessel, lying close to the tall
warehouses. Beyond it are the trees of Government Domain, with the
tower and roof of Government House showing above them. The little
bay on our left is Farm Cove, where the warships lie 7 at anchor;
and beyond it again, on the next point, we see the trees of the
Botanical Gardens. Then we have Woolloomooloo Bay, running up to
a new and crowded suburb, and in the distance many more points
and bays, as we look along the south side of the harbour back
towards the sea. Or let us climb up behind our vessel, in another
direction, to the library, and look down over Farm Cove. Below us, on
the little island, is 8 Fort Denison; and across the water on the north
side is Mossman Bay, where a new Sydney is growing up. It is all
very different from the crowded ugliness of most of our own
commercial cities.
To see something of the inside of the city we walk up George
Street from the quayside. On our right is old Sydney, irregular and
picturesque, built on the rocky peninsula between Sydney Cove and
Darling Harbour. Here is a view of one of the old streets. 9 George
Street itself is very modern in appearance, with its broad roadway,
electric cars, and handsome stone 10 buildings. Here is the Post
Office at one of the corners; it is built of sandstone and granite
which are to be 11 found in abundance in the local rocks. Across
George Street runs Bridge Street, one of the oldest in the city. It
takes its name from the old bridge across the little Tank stream,
which has now been absorbed into the underground drainage of the
city, like so many of our old streams in London. There are many
Government buildings in this older part as we might expect, and at
the top is the entrance to Government House.
On the west side of Darling Harbour is the suburb of Pyrmont, on
another peninsula; and at the base of these peninsulas Sydney is
spreading and broadening out beyond the railway station. But even
here, in the new suburb, are many parks and open spaces reserved
for public use; while nothing can destroy the beauty of the older
portion of the city, divided up by inlets, and with glimpses down
many of its sloping streets of the blue water and the hills beyond. It
is not surprising that the early settlers found this spot far more
attractive than the open beach of Botany Bay.
As we look down on the Cove and its neighbourhood, we must
remember that we have in front of us only a small part of the great
expanse of landlocked anchorage available in the harbour; there is
still room for unlimited growth, though Sydney has already over a
third of the total population of New South Wales collected in and
around it.
We must now look beyond the actual harbour, and try to place
ourselves in the position of the early settlers. We have great
distances to cover, since New South Wales is just half as large again
as France; we must therefore keep fairly closely to the railway; but
we shall not lose much by this as the railway will carry us through all
the important districts of the State.
We may travel north, south, or west, and the map can give us
some idea of the character of the country 12 through which we shall
pass. Sydney lies near the middle of a long strip of coastland, shut in
on its western side by the steep edge of a great plateau. In the
neighbourhood of Sydney this edge goes by the name of the Blue
Mountains. Here the barrier is about forty miles inland; further north,
in the valleys of the Hunter and Hawkesbury rivers, the lowland
widens out to nearly a hundred miles; while in some parts of the
south the highlands come right down to the sea. This narrow strip
was the original New South Wales.
 New South Wales and Victoria: Orographical.
By permission of the Diagram Co.

We can travel now by railway along the coast strip 13 to Newcastle,

then up the valley of the Hunter, and finally climb the Liverpool
Range on to the plateau beyond. But the journey was far from easy
for the early settlers. In fact, until 1820, when a stock route was
discovered from Sydney to Newcastle, the only intercourse with the
north was by sea, and Newcastle grew up almost as a separate
colony in consequence. The valleys of the Hunter and other rivers
gave a natural direction to early settlement, since in their lower
courses they flow through wide alluvial flats which are very fertile
and easy to cultivate. But they are subject sometimes to devastating
floods, as the settlers found to their cost, while the heavy summer
rainfall is not well suited to certain of our crops, such as wheat. So in
the early days the colony was often in difficulty as to its main food
supply.
The name Newcastle at once suggests coal; and coal is
everywhere in this district. The surface of the country round Sydney
is largely a barren sandstone; but underlying the whole of the area,
from Newcastle on the north to Bulli on the south, and extending
westward to the other side of the plateau edge, is a vast coalfield. Its
chief development at present is around Newcastle. Here is a view of
Hetton colliery, 14 Newcastle; both the name and the picture remind
us strongly of the North of England. We see the coal being wound up
from the shaft as in our own mines, and in the distance vessels lying
at the wharves in the fine harbour. Here again is a general view of
the 15 harbour in which we can clearly distinguish the loading of the
coal and merchandise.
A journey southward from Sydney to the other end of the coalfield
will bring us to a less familiar type of mine. At Clifton the early
explorers found coal strewn on the beach; the actual seam is in the
face of the cliff, and shows as a broad black band, while 16 the coal
is mined by means of adits, and then run on to the little pier to be
shipped. The coal is found under Sydney itself, and mining is now in
progress on the south side of the harbour; but the shafts are much
deeper here than at Newcastle, since the coal measures lie in the
shape of a saucer, and Sydney is near the middle. We may notice
here that the southern railway line ends at Nowra on the Shoalhaven
river, and beyond are only a few small coast towns; so we need not
at present explore further in this direction.
We will now leave the coast district for a time and climb the
plateau edge to survey the country beyond. First let us consider the
nature of the obstacle by which the early settlers were faced. The
Blue Mountains are merely a part of the eastern rim of a great tilted
tableland of sandstone, with a steep face towards the sea and a long
and more gentle slope towards the west. Down this face a series of
comparatively short streams come tumbling to the sea; while on the
other side of the ridge, almost within sight of the sea, are the
sources of the slow westward-flowing rivers, whose courses are
measured by thousands of miles.
In this sandstone block the torrents have carved out deep gorges,
which often widen out up-stream into broad valleys; but these
valleys are deceptive and do not provide a road to the interior, since
they 17 end in steep cliffs over which the streams plunge in
waterfalls. Here is a view of the country at Govett’s 18 Leap; we may
notice the flat tops of the ridges, all about the same level, which
suggest the old surface of a plateau. It was a long time before the
early settlers found a path over this edge, and the available roads are
still very few all along its length, as we may see by tracing them on
the map; our train must twist and tunnel up one of the ridges
between two of the valleys by a most difficult route, with steep
inclines, instead of following the bank of the stream below. We
realise that climbing a plateau is a far more serious matter for the
engineer than piercing through a narrow ridge of mountains.
At Victoria, on our way up, we leave the train for a coach drive, to
Jenolan. Here the scenery changes; the rock is no longer sandstone,
but limestone, and the streams have burrowed out many curious
gorges and underground channels as in our own Derbyshire. Here we
have one of these in the form of a huge rock 19 archway through
which we catch a glimpse of the country beyond; while far down
below us flows the stream which bored out the arch. A little further
on we find the stream running at the bottom of a lofty 20 cavern, and
out into a deep and narrow gorge. Here again is a view of the
interior of one of these caverns, with its huge pillars hanging from
the roof and rising up from the floor. These limestone tunnels and 21
gorges, and the sandstone valleys with their steep surrounding cliffs
and narrow outlets, are a fine subject for the artist and tourist in
search of beauty, but do not suggest opportunities for settlement or
farming; at the same time they are evidently a serious obstacle to
movement. The bare surface of the plateau is little better; in fact, the
highlands in this district are still among the most thinly populated
areas in New South Wales, in spite of their nearness to the capital
and the oldest settlements. So we pass through quickly, and coming
out by a 22 long tunnel drop down to Lithgow, where we enter an
entirely different kind of country. Lithgow is a manufacturing town,
with coal mines, ironworks, smoke and dirt. It really belongs to the
coast region, and is here, on the inside of the ridge, only because a
small piece of the Newcastle coalfield, which underlies all the country
which we have been crossing, crops out in this district from under
the sandstone. On our journey inland we shall not meet with any
other town of the same type, as we are now entering the great
wheat-belt of Eastern Australia.
Here is a typical farm on the eastern edge of the 23 wheat-belt.
Beyond the hills, which we see in the background, is the steep
descent to the Hunter valley and the coastal plain. The hills are
wooded, but the trees thin out and the ground becomes more open
as we go westward down the long slope. We must not forget that
here at the back of the plateau edge, though we are on the “Plains,”
yet we are still more than a thousand feet above the level of the sea.
We shall realise the importance of this height later. Our next picture
shows a wide expanse of level ground, under 24 grain, with the
reapers at work. We are at Tamworth on the Liverpool Plains, not far
from the northern end of the wheat-belt; but this belt can be traced
from Queensland right round to South Australia, and from end to end
the scenery is the same. There are the same open sunny plains,
dotted with homesteads and small agricultural towns, and covered
with the waving grain. Everywhere is the hum of machinery, reaping,
binding, and threshing; for labour here is costly and as little as
possible is done by hand. We may find it hard to tell, from the
appearance of the country, where we are within a thousand miles,
and we may be struck by the monotony of the view as we rush
through it. None the less this great field of grain is impressive in its
own fashion, if we use our imagination and follow the heavily loaded
waggons to the station, and on to Sydney, and so across the ocean
to London or Liverpool, until the grain appears as bread in the
baker’s shop. We are watching here the beginning of the process by
which the crowded millions of Industrial Europe are fed; and the
wide spaces under crop may give us some idea of the greatness of
the business; for we have in the wheat-belt of Australia, in spite of
its great extent, only a small fraction of the wheatfields of the world.
A rainfall map is the best aid to the understanding of the position
and extent of the wheat area. The 25 map is arranged in a series of
parallel zones, which show the annual fall decreasing rapidly on the
west side of the Divide, as we move further away from the coast. We
are crossing one of these zones where the fall is from twenty to
twenty-five inches, or not far removed from that of the eastern
counties of England. This is the wheat-belt of Eastern Australia,
which follows the rainfall right round the inner slope of the plateau
as far as South Australia.
This zone gradually shades off into another rather broader where
the rainfall is much lower; from ten to twenty inches at most. So the
scenery changes as we travel westward until we are lost in the
country of the western plains: a great dry lowland not far above sea-
level, and drained by slow-moving rivers, the Lachlan, Darling,
Murray and their tributaries. The railway runs north-westward,
through interminable miles of grass and scrub, until it ends at
Bourke, the head of navigation on the Darling. It is the land of the
sheep and nothing else. We may gain some idea of the enormous
extent of land in this part of Australia, available for pasture or
agriculture in some form, by placing upon it for comparison the
eastern part of the United States, as in the map which we see here.
26

New South Wales possesses nearly as many sheep as the rest of

Australia together, and most of these are to be found on the inland
slope of the plateau and far out into the plains, more especially in
the Riverina district, between the Murray and the Murrumbidgee. We
have left behind us the wheatfield and the reapers; the loaded
waggons which we pass, drawn by long teams 27 of horses, are
carrying great bales of wool to the railway. We may follow the wool
back to the shearing sheds 28 where again all the work is done by
machinery; then we go on to the sorting shed, and so to the railway
and the showrooms at Sydney, where thousands of samples 29 are
displayed for the benefit of the buyers for the markets of Europe. We
can see the great flocks of sheep before and after the shearing at
the homestead 30 or follow them as they are driven to pasture; and
everywhere in this great river plain we find the same thing repeated.
The rainfall is not sufficient for agriculture; but in ordinary years it
will provide good grass for the sheep; and there is also the drought-
resisting salt-bush to eke it out. Sometimes the rain fails, and then
there is neither food on the ground nor water in the creeks and
pools, and millions of sheep die, as in the great drought of 1901–2.
The dry climate gives the best wool in the world, but it is not without
its drawbacks; though the large profits made by the farmer in
ordinary years more than compensate for an occasional period of
drought.
The uncertainty of the rainfall shows itself in another way, in the
peculiarities of the rivers. Of all the great rivers in this basin, the
Murray alone, fed by the melting snows of the Australian Alps, has a
good supply of water at all seasons; the rest are variable. The
Darling, Lachlan and Murrumbidgee are navigable for long distances
in favourable seasons, and sometimes are flooded and overflow their
banks, turning the surrounding country into a huge shallow lake; but
at other times they become, in places, little more than 31 strings of
detached pools. Here is a lagoon on the Murrumbidgee, and here is
the Murray evidently in 32 flood, to judge from the trees growing out
of the water; another view shows us the river in its ordinary 33 state.
By way of contrast here is a small creek in the Riverina district; the
road crosses it by 34 a ford, so that it is evidently not very deep, and
would soon dry up. But after heavy rains, further up-country, the
creek may become for a short time a roaring torrent. Settlers new to
the country have often made the mistake of camping in the evening
on the near side of a creek of this kind, only to find in the morning
that the ford has vanished and that they must stay where they are
until the water subsides. One of the most remarkable features in
Australian weather is this sudden change from drought to flood,
which not only transforms the rivers but in a few days gives a
covering of rich green pasture where before was a parched desert
supporting only the hardy salt-bush.
When the rivers are full we can see the shallow draught steamers
collecting wool and other products; but the 35 want of water is not
the only drawback. The rivers wind greatly in their courses over the
level plain, so much so that at one place it is said that the steamer
takes a whole day to pass a particular house, owing to the river
bending right back upon itself. The river banks are marked by lines of
gum trees, by which the eye can trace them for many miles across
the level. Except for this, the whole area crossed by these rivers in
their lower courses is one vast treeless plain, covered with grass and
scrub in the rains, but at other times dry, dusty, and monotonous. It
extends into Queensland and Victoria, but its greatest development is
in New South Wales: for though the other colonies have large flocks
of sheep, it is here that sheep-raising is the one industry above all
others; in fact, under ordinary conditions, no others are profitable or
even possible. In this country, next to the sheep, water is the most
valuable commodity.
The greater part of the Murray-Darling basin is filled up by recent
rock sediment and river alluvium; but the narrow belt of country with
a moderate rainfall, lying between the plateau edge and the western
plains, has not depended for its development solely on agriculture.
All along it the older rocks crop out, and in the older rocks we find
the valuable minerals in which Australia abounds.
Gold, in its alluvial form, occurs all along the agricultural belt; and
since the time of the first discovery near Bathurst, in 1851, the
search for gold has often caused an inrush of people who have
abandoned mining for the more secure and pleasant business of
growing wheat or rearing sheep. Though much gold is still produced,
New South Wales is not by any means the chief of the States to-day
in this respect; but gold has been woven deeply into her history. One
of the most usual methods of obtaining gold is still by dredging
alluvium; but in place of the shovel and washing-pan we have the
ugly machine dredger scooping out the creeks and flats where the
gold is to be found. We must look elsewhere for gold-mining from
the rock on a large scale; though this is increasing in New South
Wales in connexion with the development of mining for other
minerals, especially copper.
Well out in the plains, and south of Bourke, at the end of a branch
line of railway, is the town of Cobar; it stands just where the old
rocks are disappearing underneath the recent deposits. Here is one
of the chief centres of copper mining; and, once the work was
started, mining for other ores naturally followed. It is a desolate
country, rendered more so by the nature of the industry. The
furnaces for the rough smelting of the ores need fuel, but coal is far
away; so that the country round has been stripped of its small supply
of timber, and has nothing left to relieve its ugly monotony. The ore,
partly worked, is sent by rail all the way to Lithgow, on the coalfield,
to undergo the further process of refining. The importance of these
mining fields to the State lies not so much in the money value of the
products as in the fact that they give rise to railways and traffic and
so to a further spread of the settled agricultural population. The
minerals, and especially gold, have played a great part in the
settlement of the less accessible or less attractive regions of
Australia.
The old rocks, which disappear at Cobar, under the alluvium of the
Murray basin, crop out again at the surface in the far west, and give
us one of the chief silver-producing areas of the Continent. The
natural outlet of the district is by Spencer Gulf, as Sydney is more
than twice as far away; and the development of these mines has
been largely due to the people and capital of South Australia. Here is
one of the most famous mines 36 at Broken Hill; and here we have
the camel team, the only means of transport away from the railway.
We 37 are in the semi-desert area, and the existence of the mining
population is only made possible by collecting the water from the
neighbouring hills in great reservoirs, 38 such as we see in the
picture before us.
 We have still to see the south-east corner of the State, where we
shall find some of the most picturesque scenery and a country rather
different from that which we have so far visited. We take a line
running south from Sydney, not along the coast, but following the
river valleys and so up again on to the plateau at Goulburn. Here we
branch off from the main line southwards through the Monaro Plains;
this is a high pasture land, thinly populated, though there is a
growing agricultural industry in some of the more favoured spots. To
the east of the plain are the Coast Ranges, to the west the Snowy
Mountains; both extending over the border into Victoria. Cooma, the
terminus of the railway, about fifty miles from the State boundary,
lies nearly three thousand feet above sea-level. North-west of Cooma
is the town of Kiandra, in the Alps, where we find snow and winter
sports as in Switzerland. South-west of Cooma is Mount Kosciusko,
rising over seven thousand feet, the highest mountain in 39 Australia;
here the snow lies even in summer. We reach it by a road following
the valley of the Snowy 40 River, and can ride or even motor up the
track almost to the summit. Here are two views of the river and 41 its
tributaries. Kosciusko is not an imposing peak as we see from these
pictures, but merely a flattened ridge 42 lying on the top of a great
tableland, so perhaps we may be somewhat disappointed in the
outcome of our visit. 43
From Goulburn we begin the long descent to the level of the
Murray. We are again crossing the agricultural belt, and forty miles
west of Goulburn we break our journey at Yass. Here, on the banks
of a small stream, the site has been fixed for the ideal city, the future
capital of Federal Australia. Notice that we can have here no great
industrial and commercial centre, but merely a town like Bathurst, a
centre of farming and country life. Perhaps in this it will be more
representative of the real Australia than are the larger cities. In
position Yass is nearer Sydney than Melbourne; but it is roughly
halfway between Brisbane and Adelaide; so that it is fairly central for
the long belt which contains most of the population of Eastern
Australia. The city is not to be allowed 44 to grow haphazard; here
we see the surveyors’ camp and the surveyors at work, mapping out
the ground. 45 In the distance is Black Mountain. The whole scene is
quiet and rural, but it will be very different in a few 46 years’ time.
This deliberate choosing of a site for a new city is common in
Australian history; we may contrast with this the way in which
centres of population have grown up in the course of ages in old
countries almost of their own accord.
We continue our journey down the slope, and crossing the
Murrumbidgee at Wagga Wagga reach Albury, the border town. Here,
it is necessary to change trains to continue the journey to Melbourne,
for unfortunately the different States of Australia did not plan their
railways on the same scale. In New South Wales the gauge of the
lines is the same as that in England; in Victoria and in part of South
Australia there is a broad gauge; while all the other railways in the
continent are on a narrow gauge of three feet six inches. This has
been adopted as the most economical for opening up a new country;
but the differences have led to great inconvenience and loss, where
through connexion is made between the main railway systems of the
various States. We may remember how, in our own country, the
Great Western Railway was forced to abandon the old and
comfortable broad gauge, so as to be able to work in connexion with
all the other lines which had adopted a narrower gauge; Australia
has still to face the problem of unifying her railways in this respect.
We have travelled for many miles over the railways, (13) and now
perhaps we may begin to notice certain peculiarities in their
arrangement. First there is the main-line system connecting up the
capitals. This runs north-east and south-west from Sydney, roughly
parallel to the coast. Only a short stretch of this is on the low coastal
plain; the rest is inside the plateau edge. The line descends through
the Victorian Mountains to the sea at Melbourne; but goes inland
again on its way to Adelaide. Branching from this system, or starting
independently from the coast, is a whole series of lines running
inland, roughly at right-angles to the coast. Some are very short,
some very long; and they commonly end at a small town on one of
the rivers. We can trace them right round from the line between
Normanton and Croydon, in North-West Queensland, to that ending
at Oodnadatta in the desert region of South Australia. Except round
Bathurst, and in the country at the back of Melbourne, we shall not
find many branches or cross connexions. This curious arrangement
can only be understood in the light of the resources and historical
development of the country; we have already seen something of its
meaning in New South Wales.
We noticed that the line from Sydney left the sea at Newcastle to
follow the valley of the Hunter and scale the edge of the Liverpool
Downs. For two hundred miles north of Newcastle the coast district
lacks a railway; but in Clarence county, in the extreme north of the
State, there is a detached piece of line running for a hundred miles
not far from the coast, and touching it at one or two points. This line
has a meaning.

Copyright.] [See page 40.

On the Darling Downs.
Copyright.] [See page 41.
Gladstone.
Copyright.] [See page 43.
Townsville.
 Copyright.] [See page 46.
Above the Barron Falls.

The district is warm, as it is low-lying, and not very far from the
tropic; while the south-east winds bring abundant rains. It has been
found to be well fitted for dairy cattle, and is displacing to some
extent the coast district south of Sydney where the industry first
started. Sydney still provides a good local market for the dairy
products of this northern region, but there is also a growing trade
with more distant places. We can understand now the need of a
railway to open up the country and connect it with the sea.
Here is a typical dairy farm with the cattle clustered 47 in the
shade on the banks of the creek. We notice the abundance of trees,
and the curious dead bare look of some of them. These have been
ringbarked, that is, a strip of bark has been cut away right round the
trunk; this process kills the tree quickly, and the dead wood can then
be burnt off. It is a rough and extravagant method of clearing, and
some of the forest, which grows luxuriantly in this rainy district, is
put to better use. In the wetter parts are to be found the cedar and
other soft ornamental woods; in the drier, are the various hard
woods of the eucalyptus family, especially the ironbark and the
blackbutt. It was the timber which attracted the first 48 settlers to
this district, though the difficulty of transport has prevented them
from making much use of it up to the present. Here we see the felled
timber lying ready for removal; it must be dragged over rough 49
tracks, often for long distances, by teams of horses and bullocks. We
can gain some idea, from these pictures, of the huge size of the
trees and the difficulty of forest development. Evidently the forest
further inland can only be attacked by the aid of the railway. We shall
find similar conditions in Queensland; in fact, we may look on this
coast strip as giving us geographically the beginning of the
Queensland coast conditions; for round Grafton, at the southern end
of the railway, we find the cultivation of the sugar-cane.
We have seen the beginning of the new capital of Federated
Australia; we will now, before visiting Queensland, cross Torres Strait,
with its innumerable islands and reefs, for a glimpse of Australia’s
new tropical colony. British New Guinea, or Papua as it is now
officially styled, was annexed in 1888, owing to pressure from the
Australian colonies, and more particularly Queensland. From the first,
Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria contributed to the cost of
administration; and in 1906 the new Commonwealth Government
took over the entire control.
British Papua is a curiously shaped corner, carved 50 out of the
eastern end of the great island of New Guinea. The western end of
the island is entirely Dutch; the eastern we share with Germany. We
may think of British Papua as two separate blocks, as the Gulf of
Papua almost divides the territory into two. In the west is a
rectangular area, with a low marshy coast, fringed with mangroves
and split up by river deltas, especially that of the Fish River. The
dividing line in this district between British and Dutch territory is
merely a line of longitude. The country is mostly unexplored, except
along the Fish and Strickland Rivers, and the natives are still fighters
and cannibals. On the north of this block of country, and continuing
south-east through a long narrow peninsula, is a high mountain
backbone, on the other side of which is German territory. The
eastern peninsula is mountainous everywhere; while the whole
country is wet, densely forested and difficult to penetrate. The
peninsula ends in a string of islands, mostly volcanic.
The colony is in the first stage of organisation, when the main
problem is to reduce the native to some kind of order. Let us see
what he is like and how he lives. 51 Here are two inhabitants of the
coast district; they seem very different from the aborigines of
Australia. Notice their frizzy hair, standing out in a great mop, and
their bracelets and necklaces. The Papuans are fond of personal
adornment. Here is a girl from the 52 same district; she wears an
elaborate girdle of grass. Behind her we see the end of a curious
canoe, with an outrigger. The canoe is important to the Papuan,
since he commonly plants his village at the water’s edge. Here is a
village, and here is a nearer view of 53 some of the houses; they are
merely covered platforms, built on piles. Fighting and headhunting
are 54 still the amusements of the tribes which are not yet brought
under our control, but conditions are changing rapidly for the better.
Here is one of the instruments 55 of the change, the native village
constable, who seems quite proud of his office. Behind him, law and
order 56 are represented by the visiting magistrate with a small force
of armed constabulary. The chief difficulty in opening up the country
is that of movement. Everywhere we find forest, mountain, and
unbridged streams. 57 Here is the kind of track through which the
explorer must force his way, and here we see two methods of 58
crossing a stream. The native bridge hardly seems calculated for
heavy traffic. We may realise from 59 these pictures the nature of the
task of controlling the natives of the interior, such as the formidable
pair in 60 front of us. Even when reduced to order the Papuan is not
anxious to develop the country by work on plantation or mine.
Port Moresby, the capital, stands on a fine bay in a relatively dry
district. Here a few score white people represent the influence of
civilisation. The climate forbids effective settlement. Here we see a 61
European house with its staff of servants, and here is the steamer
which links Papua with the mainland. It 62 will be interesting to see
how Australia solves the various problems of her new tropical
Dependency. In Queensland we shall find similar problems, though in
a modified shape.
 LECTURE III
QUEENSLAND

The land route from New South Wales to Queensland does not at
present follow the sea-coast. The railway at Newcastle turns up the
valley of the Hunter River, climbs the steep edge of the plateau, to
run along the eastern rim of the Liverpool Plains and the Darling
Downs, and then descends again by a steep pass to the sea-level at
Brisbane. At the little frontier station of Wallangarra we must change
trains, since the Queensland 1 railways, as we have already
noticed, are on a narrower gauge than those of New South Wales.
This would be a very serious matter but for the alternative route by
sea to Sydney; this is the natural route for heavy goods, since nearly
all the important towns of Queensland are on or near the sea-coast.
Before the advent of the railway, the sea was the sole means of
intercourse for all the towns on the eastern rim of Australia; even in
our own country, where the railway system is highly developed, the
coasting trade is still of very great importance.
The course of the railway suggests that the structure of the
country is not unlike that which we have seen 2 in New South
Wales. This is true of the Darling Downs area, but further north the
map shows us a somewhat different type of country. The eastern
part of the State consists in the main of a broken and irregular
highland mass; the west of rolling plains, sloping gently towards the
interior or the Gulf of Carpentaria; but we look in vain for a long,
well-marked escarpment, such as we find further south. The
mountain ridges seem to run in every direction, sometimes, as near
Cairns, forming a definite coast-range, at others striking inland or
running down in spurs to the sea; so that the country is split up into
a number of distinct basins,
each with its own group of rivers
flowing in the most diverse
courses. Thus, from Cairns to
Brisbane a great stretch of
country, broadest in the middle,
narrow at both ends, drains into
the Pacific; but the Burdekin and
the headwaters of the Fitzroy
flow for long distances parallel
to the coast, before turning and
breaking through the ranges to
the sea. Another group in the
south joins the Murray-Darling
system and belongs physically to
New South Wales; the rivers of
the north-west and of the Cape
York peninsula drain for the Queensland: Orographical.
By permission of the Diagram Co.
most part into the Gulf of
Carpentaria, while a large block of country in the west and south-
west is occupied by intermittent streams, which in time of flood find
their way into the inland basin of Lake Eyre, in South Australia. The
country has not that simplicity of relief which we found over the
greater part of New South Wales, and, as we might expect, the
rainfall does not show such clear and symmetrical divisions. The fall
from the south-east winds is more irregular and more widely
distributed 3 inland than in New South Wales; while in the north
there is an area with tropical rains of a monsoon type.
On our railway journey we have crossed from one State to another,
but we must notice that, except in the south-east corner, the
boundaries of Queensland have no relation to the natural features of
the country; they are merely mathematical lines. The reason for this
is to be found in the method by which the settlement was carried
out. Moreton Bay was one of Cook’s landing-places in 1770; but the
Brisbane River, flowing into it, was not discovered until 1823; the first
 settlement was formed in 1824,
and the Province remained part
of the mother State until 1859,
when after much agitation it
became an independent
settlement. The interior was not
explored at the time, so that the
only way of determining a
boundary was to follow a line of
latitude or longitude. A similar
method has been used in more
recent times in parcelling out
unexplored regions of Africa
among the European Powers.
The western boundary of the
new State was the line of
Queensland: Rainfall. longitude 138° E., and what is
now the Northern Territory
remained nominally part of New South Wales, which thus consisted
for a short time of two areas widely separated.
The very name of the city of Brisbane recalls the connexion with
the older colony, since Sir Thomas Brisbane was Governor of New
South Wales in the years 1821–5, at the time of the first settlement.
The city stands, not on the shores of Moreton Bay, as we might
expect, but twenty miles up the river, on both 4 banks, which are
connected by the Victoria bridge. Here is a view over the bridge from
the north bank; 5,6 and here is a wide view of the river beyond the
city. There is plenty of space in Brisbane, with its suburbs, for the
population of 100,000; there are parks and gardens everywhere, and
a large number of fine public buildings. Here are the library and the
Executive 7 Buildings in a beautiful garden, with a statue of Queen
Victoria; here again the Parliament House, and here one 8 of the
main streets of the city. We have nothing like this in any town of the
same size in England, but we 9 must remember that Brisbane has
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