Introduction to Computer Application, Pritom Paul, NEUB 1

Lecture 3: Computer Network and Internet

1. Introduction
A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as computers, servers, and printers, that
share resources and information. These devices, called nodes, communicate using standardized rules known
as protocols over wired (e.g., Ethernet cables) or wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi) connections. Networks enable tasks
like file sharing, internet access, and collaborative work (Computer Network).
2. Types of Networks
A computer which is connected to a network, has a particular role to play. This role is set by the
administrator of the network. The possible roles that a computer can play are,
• Client: a client is any computer hardware or software device that requests access to a service
provided by a server. Clients are typically seen as the requesting program or user in a client-server
architecture. Client end-user devices typically include desktop computers, laptops and smartphones.
• Server: A server is a hardware device or software that processes requests sent over a network and
replies to them. A client is the device that submits a request and waits for a response from the server.
The computer system that accepts requests for online files and transmits those files to the client is
referred to as a “server” in the context of the Internet.
• Peer: A peer works as both client and server. Peer computers share resources of other computers, as
well let other computers share their own resources. This is also a common role of a small network.
A network may include only personal computers or a mix of PCs, minis and mainframes spanning a
particular geographical area. Computer networks that are commonly used today may be classified as
follows:
1. Based on how computer nodes are used
a. Client Server Networks (CSNs)
b. Peer-to-peer Networks (PPNs)
c. Hybrid Network
2. Based on geographical area:
a. Local Area Networks (LANs)
b. Wide Area Networks (WANs)
c. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
d. Personal area network (PAN)
2.1. Peer-to-peer (P2P) Network
In a P2P architecture, two or more computers are connected as “peers,” meaning they have equal power and
privileges on the network. A P2P network doesn’t require a central server for coordination. Instead, each
computer on the network acts as both a client (a computer that needs to access a service) and a server (a
computer that provides services to clients). Every peer on the network makes some of its resources available
to other network devices, sharing storage, memory, bandwidth and processing power across the network.
2.2. Client-server Network
In a client-server network, a central server (or group of servers) manages resources and delivers services to
client devices on the network; clients in this architecture don’t share their resources and only interact
through the server. Client-server architectures are often called tiered architectures because of their multiple
layers.
2.3. Hybrid architectures
Hybrid architectures incorporate elements of both the P2P and client-server models.
2.4. Local area network (LAN)
A LAN connects computers over a relatively short distance, such as those within an office building, school
or hospital. LANs are typically privately owned and managed.
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2.5. Wide area network (WAN)
As the name implies, a WAN connects computers across large geographical areas, such as regions and
continents. WANs often have collective or distributed ownership models for network management purposes.
Cloud networks serve as one example, since they’re hosted and delivered by public and private cloud
infrastructures across the globe.
2.6. Metropolitan area network (MAN)
MANs are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs. Cities and government entities typically own and
manage MANs.
2.7. Personal area network (PAN)
A PAN serves one person. If a user has multiple devices from the same manufacturer (an iPhone and a
MacBook, for instance), it’s likely they've set up a PAN that shares and syncs content—text messages,
emails, photos and more—across devices.
3. LAN Topologies
A Local Area Network (LAN) connects devices within a limited area, such as an office or home. The
topology of a LAN refers to the arrangement of these devices and how they communicate. The primary LAN
topologies are:
1. Bus Topology 4. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology 5. Tree Topology
3. Ring Topology 6. Hybrid Topology
3.1. Bus Topology
In bus topology, all devices connect to a single central cable (the bus). Data travels along this cable in both
directions.

Figure 1: Bus Topology

❖ Applications
➢ Small networks (e.g., homes or small offices).
➢ Cost-sensitive setups.
❖ Advantages
➢ Simple and cheap: Easy to install with minimal cabling.
➢ Minimal hardware: Requires only a backbone cable.
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Single point of failure: If the bus fails, the network collapses.
➢ Performance issues: More devices cause data collisions and slowdowns.
➢ Hard to troubleshoot: Problems are difficult to pinpoint.
3.2. Star Topology
In star topology, all devices connect to a central hub or switch, which manages data flow.
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Figure 2: Star Topology

❖ Applications
➢ Widely used in modern LANs (e.g., offices, schools).
➢ Networks of all sizes.
❖ Advantages
➢ Easy to manage: Simple to add or remove devices.
➢ Fault isolation: One device failing doesn’t affect others.
➢ Scalable: Expands without disruption.
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Hub dependency: If the hub fails, the network stops.
➢ More expensive: Requires extra cabling and a hub.
➢ Hub limits: Performance drops if the hub is overloaded.
3.3. Ring Topology
In ring topology, devices form a closed loop, with data traveling in one direction through each device.

Figure 3: Ring Topology

❖ Applications
➢ Sequential data networks.
➢ Older systems (less common today).
❖ Advantages
➢ No collisions: Data flows in one direction.
➢ Equal access: All devices share the network fairly.
➢ Handles traffic: Works well with steady data loads.
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Single failure risk: One device or link failure can halt the network.
➢ Hard to modify: Adding/removing devices disrupts the ring.
➢ Slower: Data passes through every device, increasing latency.
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3.4. Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, every device connects to every other device, creating multiple data paths.

Figure 4: Mesh Topology

❖ Applications
➢ High-reliability networks (e.g., military, emergency services).
➢ Small, critical systems.
❖ Advantages
➢ Highly reliable: Multiple paths ensure data delivery.
➢ Fast: Direct connections reduce delays.
➢ Fault-tolerant: Device failures don’t disrupt the network.
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Costly: Requires extensive cabling and hardware.
➢ Complex: Difficult to set up and manage.
➢ Scalability limits: Adding devices increases complexity exponentially.
3.5. Tree Topology
Tree topology combines bus and star topologies, with star-configured groups linked to a central bus.

Figure 5Tree Topology

❖ Applications
➢ Large, segmented networks (e.g., universities, corporations).
➢ Hierarchical organizations.
❖ Advantages
➢ Scalable: Easy to add new branches.
➢ Segmented: Simplifies management and troubleshooting.
➢ Versatile: Blends bus and star benefits.
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Bus vulnerability: Backbone failure affects the entire network.
➢ Costly: Requires more hardware than simpler topologies.
➢ Complex setup: Needs careful planning.
3.6. Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology mixes multiple topologies (e.g., star and bus) to suit specific needs.
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Figure 6: Hybrid Topology

❖ Applications
➢ Flexible, customized networks.
➢ Large organizations with varied requirements.
❖ Advantages
➢ Flexible: Adapts to different needs.
➢ Optimized: Combines strengths of other topologies.
➢ Scalable: Grows with changing demands.
❖ Disadvantages
➢ Complex: Hard to design and maintain.
➢ Expensive: May need diverse hardware.
➢ Troubleshooting: Issues are harder to isolate.
3.7. Choosing a Topology
Consider these factors:
i. Size: Small networks favor bus/star; large ones need tree/hybrid.
ii. Cost: Bus is cheapest; mesh is priciest.
iii. Reliability: Mesh excels; bus/ring falter.
iv. Ease of Use: Star and tree are simplest to manage.
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4. Computer Network Models
Designing and managing networks is a challenging process that requires integrating various technologies
such as software, hardware, firmware and electrical systems. To simplify this task, the concept of layering
was introduced. Layers isolate specific tasks, operate independently and rely on one another only for data
exchange, ensuring the network functions as a cohesive system.
Layered Architecture in Networking
Layered architecture is a design framework used in networking to organize and simplify the complexities of
communication systems. It divides the networking process into different layers, with each layer assigned a
specific set of tasks and responsibilities. This structured approach ensures modularity, flexibility and easier
troubleshooting.
The most commonly used architectures are:
1. OSI Model
2. TCP/IP Model
What are the Advantages of layered architecture?
1. Modularity: As the tasks are divided into different sections, it makes
understanding and maintenance of the system more simplified.
2. Interoperability: Layers follow standard protocols and enable devices
from different organizations to communicate efficiently.
3. Scalability: New technologies or protocols can be integrated without
affecting the entire system.
4. Troubleshooting: Problems can be isolated to specific layers and each
layer can be analyzed and tested individually.
4.1. OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is a theoretical framework
developed by ISO for understanding and implementing network protocols. It
consists of 7 layers:
1. Physical Layer: Deals with raw bit transmission over physical media.
2. Data Link Layer: Manages frame creation, error detection and medium
access.
3. Network Layer: Handles routing and forwarding of packets (e.g., IP).
4. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer (e.g., TCP).
5. Session Layer: Manages sessions between devices. Figure 7: OSI Model
6. Presentation Layer: Handles data formatting, encryption and
compression.
7. Application Layer: Provides end-user services (e.g., HTTP, FTP).
4.2. The TCP/IP Model: The Backbone of the Internet
The TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a
foundational framework for modern networking, providing the architecture that
underpins the internet and most communication systems. It defines how data is
transmitted, routed and received across interconnected networks.
The TCP/IP model is composed of four layers, each with specific
responsibilities:
1. Network Interface Layer: Handles hardware-specific data transmission
(e.g., MAC addresses, frame creation). Figure 8: TCP/IP Model
2. Internet Layer: Manages IP addressing, routing and packet forwarding
using protocols like IP and ARP.
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3. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable end-to-end communication with protocols like TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) [reliable] and UDP (User Datagram Protocol (UDP) [faster, less
reliable].
4. Application Layer: Supports user-facing services like web browsing and email, with protocols such
as HTTP, FTP and DNS.
5. Network Hardware devices
To create a network, some type Of linking mechanism is needed to interconnect at least two computers.
Sometimes this device can be as simple as a special cable, called a crossover cable, that is attached to two
computers (NIC to NIC). Although now you have a network, it is barely a network. If you want to add more
devices, then something more than a crossover cable is required.
Functions of Network Devices
• Network devices help to send and receive data between different devices.
• Network devices allow devices to connect to the network efficiently and securely.
• Network devices improves network speed and manage data flow better.
• It protects the network by controlling access and preventing threats.
• Expand the network range and solve signal problems.
The following devises are some hardware that help to build a network.
1. Network Interphase Card (NIC)
A NIC is a small hardware that commonly goes inside a computer and enables the connection
between the computer and the cable. In addition to the physical connection, a NIC also performs
different tasks, such as, accessing the common media, transmitting and receiving data in form of
electrical signal. A NIC performs the physical and datalink layer functions of OSI model.
2. Modem
Modem is also known as modulator/demodulator is a network device that is used to convert digital
signal into analog signals of different frequencies and transmits these signals to a modem at the
receiving location. These converted signals can be transmitted over the cable systems, telephone
lines, and other communication mediums. A modem is also used to convert an analog signal back
into digital signal. Modems are generally used to access the internet by customers of an Internet
Service Provider (ISP).
3. Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e., regenerate) the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the signal becomes weak, they
copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original
strength. It is a 2-port device.
4. Hub
A hub is a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so
data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts
connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path
for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
5. Switch
A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer designed that can boost its efficiency(a large number of
ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other
words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.
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6. Router
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses. The router is
mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets.
The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

6. Communication Media
Communication media refers to the physical or wireless channels used to transmit data between computers
and devices in a network.
There are two types of Transmission media:
1. Wired communication media (Also Known as Guided media)
2. Wireless communication media (Also Known as Unguided media)

6.1. Wired Communication Media

Wired Communication Media (also called Guided Media) refers to physical transmission paths that guide
electrical or optical signals from sender to receiver. These media provide a controlled route for data and are
widely used in networking because of their reliability, security, and predictable performance.
6.1.1. Twisted Pair Cables
Twisted pair cables consist of two insulated copper wires, typically 1mm in diameter, twisted together in a
spiral pattern. One wire transmits data, while the other serves as ground. The twisting reduces noise
interference by canceling out electromagnetic waves, with more turns per foot enhancing noise protection.
The cables have an outer jacket, a shield (in some cases), and color-coded insulation to identify conductors.
Types of Twisted Pair Cables
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Most common and affordable, made of four color-coded copper wires twisted together to minimize
electromagnetic interference.
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a. Merits:
i. Cheaper.
ii. Low maintenance.
iii. No ground wire required.
b. Demerits:
i. Slower data transmission.
ii. Higher noise.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
More expensive, with metal foil shielding to reduce noise and crosstalk. Introduced by IBM.
a. Merits:
i. Faster data transmission.
ii. Lower noise.
b. Demerits:
i. Costlier.
ii. Higher maintenance.
iii. Requires a ground wire.

Figure 9: Twisted Pair Cable

6.1.2. Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables are a prevalent transmission medium used in applications such as TV wiring and Ethernet
connections. They feature a central solid copper conductor encased in an insulating layer, surrounded by a
copper mesh, and an outer metallic wrap for noise cancellation, all shielded by a plastic cover.

Figure 10: Coaxial Cable

Application:
Some applications of Coaxial cables:
• Digital telephone networks
• Analog telephone networks
• Cable TV networks
• Ethernet LANs
Merits:
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• The cost of coaxial cables is less as compared to fiber optic cables.
• It has a higher data transmission rate.
• It can be used in both analog and digital transmissions.
• Higher-frequency applications can use coaxial cables for better performance.
Demerits:
• For long distances, the cost of these cables will be higher.
• The size of these cables is usually bulky because of various layers of metal as well as copper and
plastic.
• The data transmission over long distances is poor.
6.1.3. Optical Fiber Cable
Fiber optics refers to the technology and method of transmitting data as light pulses along a glass or plastic
strand or fiber. Fiber optic cables are used for long-distance and high-performance data networking. They
are capable of transmitting data over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than electrical
cables, making them a critical component in modern telecommunications, internet, and computer
networking.
A fiber optic cable consists of several key layers:
1. Core: The thin central layer, made of glass or plastic, where light travels.
2. Cladding: A surrounding layer with a lower refractive index that reflects light back into the core.
3. Buffer Coating: A protective layer that shields the fiber from moisture and physical damage.
4. Jacket: The outer layer that provides additional durability and protection.

Figure 11: Fiber Optic Cable

How It Works?
Fiber optic cables transmit data using light through a process called total internal reflection. The cladding
reflects light back into the core, allowing it to travel long distances. Data is encoded onto the light signal
using modulation techniques, turning it into a stream of information.
Types of Fiber Optic Cable:
Fiber optic cables come in two main varieties:
1. Single-mode Fiber (SMF): Features a small core that allows only one mode of light to travel. It’s
ideal for long-distance, high-bandwidth applications like telecommunications over hundreds of
kilometers.
2. Multi-mode Fiber (MMF): Has a larger core that supports multiple light modes. It’s better suited
for shorter distances, such as within buildings or data centers.
Advantages:
Fiber optic cables offer several benefits:
1. High Bandwidth: Capable of transmitting large volumes of data simultaneously.
2. Long-distance Transmission: Signals can travel farther than with copper cables without needing
amplification.
3. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Unlike copper, fiber optics are unaffected by
EMI, ensuring reliable performance.
4. Security: Difficult to tap into without detection, making them highly secure.
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Disadvantages:
Despite their strengths, fiber optic cables have some drawbacks:
1. Cost: More expensive than traditional copper cables.
2. Fragility: The glass or plastic fibers can break if not handled carefully.
3. Installation: Requires specialized tools and expertise, increasing setup complexity.
Applications:
Fiber optic cables are used across various industries:
1. Telecommunications: The backbone of internet, telephone, and cable TV networks.
2. Data Centers: Provide high-speed connections between servers.
3. Medical Imaging: Power tools like endoscopes for minimally invasive procedures.
4. Military and Aerospace: Enable secure and reliable communication systems.

*The first transatlantic fiber optic cable, TAT-8, was installed in 1988 and could handle 40,000
simultaneous telephone calls—a remarkable feat at the time!

7. Network Protocols and Software

7.1. Introduction to Network Protocols
Networks rely on protocols, which are standardized rules ensuring smooth communication and operation
among devices. Protocols are designed to maintain network functionality and are defined for each layer of
the OSI model. They can be implemented in:
• Hardware: Lower-layer protocols (e.g., physical and data link layers) are typically handled by
Network Interface Cards (NICs).
• Software: Higher-layer protocols are implemented in networking software and are often referred to
as a protocol suite.
The Ethernet standard covers only the physical and data link layers. To create a functional network,
computers must be equipped with a suitable protocol suite beyond just NICs and cables.
7.2. Major Protocol Suites
There are four primary protocol suites used in networking:
7.2.1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
Overview: The oldest and most widely used protocol suite for LANs and WANs, implemented in all
modern operating systems.
• Functionality:
 Data is divided into packets for transmission.
 Offers two services:
 TCP: Reliable, guarantees packet delivery, acknowledges successful deliveries, and reports
failures.
 UDP: Unreliable, used for time-insensitive applications (e.g., real-time audio/video streaming),
with no acknowledgments or failure reports.
• Advantages:
 Universal support across operating systems.
 UDP is efficient for real-time applications.
• Disadvantages:
 TCP packet overhead makes it slower than other suites.
 Complex to configure.
7.2.2. NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface)
Overview: Developed by IBM and extended by Microsoft for simple networking.
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• Functionality:
 Fast and lightweight with minimal packet overhead.
 Self-configuring, easy to use.
• Limitations:
 Not routable, making it unsuitable for internet use.
 Limited to Microsoft systems, with no support on other operating systems.
7.2.3. IPX/SPX
Overview: Developed by Novell for NetWare software, used in medium-sized networks.
• Functionality:
 Easy to install and supports internetworking.
 Available on major operating systems.
• Limitations:
 Lacks centralized control.
 Significant packet overhead.
7.2.4. AppleTalk
• Overview: Proprietary protocol suite for Apple computers.
• Status: Largely obsolete, restricted to Apple systems.
8. The Internet
8.1. Introduction to the Internet
The Internet, often called the Net, is a global network of interconnected scientific, research, educational, and
commercial networks. Originating in 1969 from a U.S. Department of Defense initiative, it has grown into
the world’s foremost network. Beyond a physical network, the Internet fosters a global culture uniting
people of diverse backgrounds, operating as a democratic platform without central control. By the end of
2002, approximately 142 million people used Internet services.
8.2. How the Internet Works
• Physical Infrastructure
 The Internet’s backbone consists of long fiber optic cables spanning the globe.
 Developed countries have national networks connected to this backbone, while others rely on
Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
 Some countries initially lacked direct fiber optic connections and used satellite links to connect via
another country’s backbone.
 Powerful computers operated by ISPs, businesses, universities, and governments run continuously to
maintain Internet connectivity.
• Protocols and Addressing
 The Internet uses the TCP/IP protocol suite, which is also the native protocol for UNIX systems.
Other operating systems implement TCP/IP through software.
 Domain addresses (IP addresses with universal scope) uniquely identify computers or groups of
computers on the Internet.
 Unlike local IP addresses, which may overlap across networks, domain addresses are globally
unique, managed by InterNIC.
 Format (IPv4): Four numbers (0–255) separated by dots (e.g., 123.11.123.1). Note: IPv6 uses six
numbers.
 Domain names are human-readable names assigned to IP addresses (e.g., www.sust.edu for
203.112.195.156).
 Domain suffix: Indicates the country (e.g., .bd for Bangladesh, .ca for Canada, .fr for France).
The U.S. traditionally lacked a country suffix.
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 Subdomain: Often denotes the network type (e.g., .edu for educational institutions, .com for
commercial entities, .gov for government).
• Data Transmission Process
 A gateway computer or router acts as an intermediary between local networks and the Internet.
 When a user requests data (e.g., accessing citeseer.nj.nec.com via a browser):
1. The request is sent to the gateway, which looks up the target’s domain address and finds a route.
2. The gateway forwards the request with the destination address to the Internet backbone.
3. The request may pass through intermediate routers before reaching the target server (e.g., NEC
server).
4. The server prepares a response (e.g., a file or note) and sends it back to the gateway with the
gateway’s address as the destination.
5. The gateway delivers the response to the requesting computer.
• Home User Connectivity
 Dial-up connections are common for home users:
 A user’s computer connects to a modem, which uses a traditional phone line to reach the ISP.
 The ISP maintains multiple modems connected to a router, acting as the gateway.
 Users dial the ISP’s phone number, provide a login name and password, and connect to the
Internet.
 Once connected, the same data transmission process (as described above) applies for accessing
Internet resources.
9. Web Browsers
What is a Web Browser?
A web browser is a program on your computer, phone, or tablet that lets you visit websites. It’s like a digital
library where you can find academic resources, business news, or company websites. For example, you
might use a browser to access your university’s learning platform like Moodle or read articles on Forbes.
10. Email
What is Email?
Email (electronic mail) is a digital way to send messages, documents, or files over the Internet. It’s essential
for communicating with professors, collaborating with classmates, or contacting potential employers during
internships. For example, you might email a professor about an assignment or send a resume to a company.
*Difference between CC and BCC in emails.