Introduction and Basic Concepts

(i) Basic Concepts of Remote

Sensing
 Objectives

 Introduction to remote sensing

 Basic concepts

Ø Electromagnetic energy

Ø Remote sensing platforms

Ø Types of remote sensing

 Remote Sensing

The art and science of obtaining information about an object or feature without
physically coming in contact with that object or feature

 Remote sensing can be used to measure

– Variations in acoustic wave distributions

– Variations in force distributions (e.g., gravity meter)

– Variations in electromagnetic energy distributions

 Remotely collected data through various sensors

may be analyzed to obtain information about the http://geoportal.icimod.org

objects or features under investigation

Remote Sensing of Electromagnetic Energy

 Variation in electromagnetic energy can be measured using photographic or non-

photographic sensors

 Remote sensing of Electromagnetic energy is used for earth observation

“Remote sensing is detecting and measuring electromagnetic energy emanating or

reflected from distant objects made of various materials, so that we can identify and
categorize these objects by class or type, substance and spatial distribution”

[American Society of Photogrammetry, 1975]

 Surface parameters are inferred through the measurement and interpretation of the
electromagnetic energy / radiation from the Earth’s surface
 Electromagnetic Energy

 Electromagnetic energy or electromagnetic radiation (EMR)

§ Energy propagated in the form of an advancing interaction between electric and

magnetic fields (Sabbins, 1978)

§ Travels with the velocity of light

§ Visible light, ultraviolet rays, infrared, heat, radio waves and x-rays are different forms

 Expressed either in terms of frequency (f) or wave length (λ) of radiation

h = Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Joules-sec)

c = Speed of light (3 x 108 m/sec)
E = h.c.f or h.c / λ f = Frequency expressed in Hertz
λ = wavelength in micro meters (µm)

 Shorter wavelengths have higher energy content and longer wavelengths have

lower energy content

Electromagnetic Energy…

 EMR spectrum : Distribution of the continuum of energy plotted as a function of

wavelength (or frequency)

 In remote sensing terminology, electromagnetic energy is generally expressed in terms of

wavelength, λ.
 Principles of Remote Sensing

 Different objects reflect or emit different amount of energy in different bands of

the electromagnetic spectrum differently

Ø Depends on the properties of

– The target material

– The incident energy (angle of incidence, intensity and wavelength)

Ø Uniqueness of the reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation is used to detect and

discriminate the objects or surface features

 Sensor & Platform in remote sensing

Ø Sensor: A device used to detect the reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation

– Cameras and scanners

Ø Platform: A vehicle used to carry the sensor

– Aircrafts and satellites

 Stages in Remote Sensing

A. Emission of electromagnetic radiation

• The Sun or an EMR source located on the platform

B. Transmission of energy from the source to the object

• Absorption and scattering of the EMR while transmission

C. Interaction of EMR with the object and subsequent reflection and emission
D. Transmission of energy from the object to the sensor

E. Recording of the energy at the sensor

• Photographic or non-photographic

F. Transmission of the recorded information

to ground station
G. Processing of the data into digital or hard
copy image
H. Analysis of data
 Passive/ Active Remote Sensing

A simple analogy:
 Passive remote sensing is similar to taking a picture with an ordinary camera

 Active remote sensing is analogous to taking a picture with camera having built-in flash
Passive Remote Sensing

 Passive remote sensing: Source of energy is that naturally available

– Solar energy

– Energy emitted by the Earth etc.

 Most of the remote sensing systems work in passive mode using solar energy

– Solar energy reflected by the targets at specific bands are recorded using sensors

– For ample signal strength received at the sensor, wavelengths capable of traversing
through the atmosphere without significant loss, are generally used

 The Earth will also emit some radiation since its ambient temperature is about 300o K.

– Passive sensors can also be used to measure the Earth’s radiance

– Not very popular as the energy content is very low

Active Remote Sensing

 Active remote sensing: Energy is generated and emitted from a sensing

platform towards the targets

 Energy reflected back by the targets are recorded

 Longer wavelength bands are used

 Example: Active microwave remote sensing (radar)

– Pulses of microwave signals are sent towards the target from the radar antenna
located on the air / space-borne platform

– The energy reflected back (echoes) are recorded at the sensor

 Remote Sensing Platforms

 Ground level remote sensing

 Very close to the ground (e.g., Hand held

camera)

 Used to develop and calibrate sensors for

different features on the Earth’s surface

 Aerial remote sensing

 Low altitude aerial remote sensing

 High altitude aerial remote sensing

 Space-borne remote sensing

 Space shuttles
Modified from
 Polar orbiting satellites http://www.ilmb.gov.bc.ca/risc/pubs/aq
uatic/aerialvideo/assets/figure1.gif
 Geo-stationary satellites
Air-borne Remote sensing

 Downward or sideward looking sensors mounted on aircrafts are used to obtain images

 Very high spatial resolution images (20 cm or less) can be obtained

 Drawbacks:

– Less coverage area and high cost per unit area of ground coverage

– Mainly intended for one-time operations, whereas space-borne missions offer

continuous monitoring of the earth features

 LiDAR, analog aerial photography, thermal imagery and digital photography are
commonly used in airborne remote sensing
Space-borne Remote sensing

 Sensors are mounted on space shuttles or satellites orbiting the Earth

– Geostationary and Polar orbiting satellites

– Example: Landsat satellites, Indian remote sensing (IRS) satellites, IKONOS, SPOT satellites,

AQUA and TERRA (NASA), and INSAT satellite series

 Advantages:

– Large area coverage, less cost per unit area of coverage

– Continuous or frequent coverage of an area of interest

– Automatic/ semi-automatic computerized processing and analysis.

 Drawback: Lower resolution

 An Ideal Remote Sensing System
15

 Basic components of an ideal remote sensing system

i. A uniform energy source iv. A real-time data handling system

ii. A non-interfering atmosphere v. Multiple data users
iii. A series of unique energy/matter interactions at the Earth's surface
iv. A super sensor

Remote Sensing: M1L1 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

An Ideal Remote Sensing System…

 Basic components of an ideal remote sensing system

i. A uniform energy source : Provides constant, high level of output over all wavelengths

ii. A non-interfering atmosphere: Does not modify the energy transmitted through it

iii. A series of unique energy/matter interactions at the Earth's surface: Generates reflected
/ emitted signals that are
§ Selective with respect to wavelength and

§ Unique to each object or earth surface feature type

An Ideal Remote Sensing System…

Basic components of an ideal remote sensing system…

iv. A super sensor : Simple, accurate, economical and highly sensitive to all wavelengths
 Yields data on the absolute brightness (or radiance) from a scene as a function of wavelength.

v. A real-time data handling system: Generates radiance-wavelength response and

processes into an interpretable format in real time

vi. Multiple data users : Possess knowledge in remote sensing techniques and in their
respective disciplines. Use the collected information in their respective disciplines
A Real Remote Sensing System- Shortcomings

Energy Source
 Ideal system: Constant, high level of output over all wavelengths

 Real system:

Ø Usually non-uniform over various wavelengths

Ø Energy output vary with time and space

Ø Affects the passive remote sensing systems

– The spectral distribution of reflected sunlight varies both temporally and spatially

– Earth surface features also emit energy in varying degrees of efficiency

Ø A real remote sensing system needs calibration for source characteristics.

A Real Remote Sensing System…

The Atmosphere
 Ideal system: A non-interfering atmosphere

 Real system:

Ø Atmosphere modifies the spectral

distribution and strength of the energy
transmitted through it

Ø The effect of atmospheric interaction varies

with the wavelength associated, sensor
used and the sensing application

Ø Calibration is required to eliminate or

compensate these atmospheric effects
https://earth.esa.int/
 A Real Remote Sensing System…

The Energy/Matter Interactions at the Earth's Surface

 Ideal system: A series of unique energy/matter interactions
 Real system:

Ø Spectral signatures may be similar for different material, making the differentiation difficult

Ø Lack of complete understanding of the energy/matter interactions for surface features

The Sensor
 Ideal system: A super sensor
 Real system:

Ø Fixed limits of spectral sensitivity i.e., they are not sensitive to all wavelengths.

Ø Limited spatial resolution (efficiency in recording spatial details).

Ø Sensor selection requires a trade-off between spatial resolution and spectral sensitivity.
– For example, photographic systems have very good spatial resolution , but poor spectral sensitivity.
Non-photographic systems have poor spatial resolution.
A Real Remote Sensing System…

The data handling system

 Ideal system: A real-time data handling system
 Real system:

Ø Real time data handling almost impossible as human intervention is necessary for processing
sensor data

The multiple data users

 Ideal system: Users having knowledge in their domain and in remote sensing techniques
 Real system:

Ø Success of a remote sensing mission lies on the user who transforms the data into information

Ø User should have

– Thorough understanding of the problem
– Wide knowledge in the data generation
– Knowledge in data interpretation
– Knowledge to make best use of the data
Advantages of Remote Sensing

 Major advantages of remote sensing are

Ø Provides data for large areas

Ø Provide data of very remote and inaccessible regions

Ø Able to obtain imagery of any area over a continuous period of time

– Possible to monitor any anthropogenic or natural changes in the landscape

Ø Relatively inexpensive when compared to employing a team of surveyors

Ø Easy and rapid collection of data

Ø Rapid production of maps for interpretation

Limitations of Remote Sensing

 Some of the drawbacks of remote sensing are

Ø The interpretation of imagery requires a certain skill level

Ø Needs cross verification with ground (field) survey data

Ø Data from multiple sources may create confusion

Ø Objects can be misclassified or confused

Ø Distortions may occur in an image due to the relative motion of sensor and source
Thank You
Introduction and Basic Concepts

(ii) EMR Spectrum

 Objectives

 What is meant by

 Electromagnetic energy

 Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) spectrum

 Source of radiation/energy in remote sensing

 Electromagnetic Energy

 Electromagnetic energy: All energy moving in a harmonic wave pattern with a velocity
equal to that of light
– Harmonic pattern means waves occurring at frequent intervals of time.

 Contains both electric and magnetic components which oscillate

– Perpendicular to each other and

– Perpendicular to the direction of energy propagation

 It can be detected only through its interaction with matter.

– Example: Light, heat etc.
Electromagnetic Energy…

Characteristics of electromagnetic (EM) energy – Wave theroy

• Velocity (c)
– EM waves travel at the speed of light (3×108 m/s. )

• Wavelength (λ)
– Distance from any point of one wave to the same position on the next wave
– The wavelengths commonly used in remote sensing are very small
– It is normally expressed in micrometers (1 μm =1×10-6 m)
– In remote sensing EM waves are categorized in terms of their wavelength location
in the EMR spectrum

• Frequency (f)
– Number of waves passing a fixed point per unit time. It is expressed in Hertz (Hz).

c=λf
Electromagnetic Energy…

Characteristics of electromagnetic (EM) energy – Particle theory

• Electromagnetic radiation is composed of discrete units

• These discrete units are called Photons or Quanta

• Photons are the basic units of EM energy

 EMR Spectrum

 EMR Spectrum: Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) spectrum

 Distribution of the continuum of radiant energy plotted as a function of wavelength (or

frequency)

 Divided into regions or intervals

 No strict dividing line between one spectral region and its adjacent one
 EMR Spectrum…

 Ranges from gamma rays (very short) to radio waves (long wavelengths)

 Gamma rays, X-rays and most of the UV rays

‒ Mostly absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere and hence not used in remote sensing

 Most of the remote sensing systems operate in visible, infrared (IR) and microwave
regions

 Some systems use the long wave portion of the UV spectrum

 EMR Spectrum…

 Visible region  Infrared (IR) region

‒ Small region in the range 0.4 - 0.7 μm
‒ Spanning between 0.7 and 100 μm
‒ Blue : 0.4 – 0.5 μm
‒ Green: 0.5-0.6 μm ‒ 4 subintervals of interest for remote sensing
‒ Red: 0.6-0.7 μm. (1) Reflected IR (0.7 - 3.0 μm)

‒ Ultraviolet (UV) region adjoins the blue end (2) Photographic IR (0.7 - 0.9 μm)

‒ Infrared (IR) region adjoins the red end (3) Thermal IR at 3 - 5 μm

(4) Thermal IR at 8 - 14 μm

 Microwave region
‒ Longer wavelength intervals
‒ Ranges from 0.1 to 100 cm
‒ Includes all the intervals used by radar
systems.
EMR Spectrum…

Region Wavelength (μm) Remarks

Gamma rays < 3×10-5 Not available for remote sensing. Incoming radiation is
absorbed by the atmosphere
X-ray 3×10-5 - 3×10-3

Ultraviolet (UV) 0.03 - 0.4 Wavelengths < 0.3 are absorbed by the ozone layer.
rays Wavelengths between 0.3- 0.4 μm are transmitted and
termed as “Photographic UV band”.
Visible 0.4 - 0.7 Detectable with film and photodetectors.
Infrared (IR) 0.7 - 100 Specific atmospheric windows allows maximum
transmission. Photographic IR band (0.7-0.9 μm) is
detectable with film. Principal atmospheric windows exist
in the thermal IR region (3 - 5 μm and 8 - 14 μm)
Microwave 103 - 106 Can penetrate rain, fog and clouds. Both active and
passive remot e sensing i s p o s s i b l e . R a d a r u s e s
wavelength in this range.
Radio > 106 Have the longest wavelength. Used for remote sensing by
some radars.
 Energy Sources and Radiation Principle
-Solar Radiation

 Sun is the primary source of energy that illuminates features on the Earth surface
 Solar radiation
Ø Solar radiation (insolation) arrives at the Earth at different wavelengths
Ø The amount of energy it produces is not uniform across all wavelengths
‒ Almost 99% is within the range of 0.28-4.96 μm
‒ Within this range, 43% is radiated in the visible region between 0.4-0.7 μm
‒ Maximum energy (E) is available at 0.48 μm wave length (visible green)

Irradiance: Power of
electromagnetic radiation per
unit area incident on a surface

Irradiance distribution of Sun and Earth

(http://www.csulb.edu)
Solar Radiation…

 From particle theory: Energy of a quantum (Q) is proportional to the frequency

h = Plank’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 J Sec)

Q=hf f = Frequency

 From wave theory of electromagnetic radiation

c = Velocity (3 x 108 m/Sec)
c=λf λ = Wavelength (μm)

 Therefore Energy of a quantum (Q) is Q=hc/λ

 The energy per unit quantum is inversely proportional to the wavelength

‒ Shorter wavelengths are associated with higher energy compared to the longer wavelengths
‒ Lower energy for microwave radiations compared to the IR regions
‒ For remote sensing with long wavelength radiations, the coverage area should be large enough
to obtain a detectable signal
 Energy Sources and Radiation Principle
-Radiation from Earth

 Earth and the terrestrial objects also emit electromagnetic radiation

‒ All matter at temperature above absolute zero (0oK or -273oC) emit electromagnetic radiations
continuously

 Stefan-Boltzmann law
‒ The amount of radiation from such objects is a function of the temperature of the object
‒ Applicable for objects that behave as a blackbody

M = Total radiant exitance from the source (Watts / m2)

M = σ T4 σ = The Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.6697 x 10-8 Watts m-2 k-4)
T = Absolute temperature of the emitting material in Kelvin.

 Ambient temperature of the Earth ~ 300K

‒ Emits thermal IR radiation
‒ Maximum exitance in the region of 9.7 μm
‒ Can be sensed using scanners and radiometers.

Irradiance distribution of Sun and Earth

(http://www.csulb.edu)
 Radiation Principle
-Black Body Radiation

 Blackbody : A hypothetical, ideal radiator that absorbs and re-emits the entire energy
incident upon it
 Spectral distribution or spectral curve : Energy distribution over different wavelengths for
different temperature

Ø Area under the spectral curve for any

temperature = Total radiant exitance at that
temperature
Ø As the temperature increases total radiant
exitance increases and hence the area
under the curve
Ø Represents the Stefan-Boltzman’s law
graphically
Black Body Radiation…

 Peak of the radiant exitance varies with wavelength

 With increase in temperature, the peak shifts towards left

 Wien’s displacement law

Ø Dominant wavelength at which a black body radiates λm is
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the
black body (in K)

λm = A / T

A = 2898 μm K, a constant

 Solar radiation Spectral energy distribution of blackbody

at various temperatures
- Sun’s temperature is around 6000 K
- In the spectral curve at 6000K visible part of the energy
(0.4-0.7 μm) dominates
Remote Sensing of Electromagnetic Radiation

 Selective wavelength bands are used in remote sensing

 Electromagnetic energy interacts with the atmospheric gases and particles

- Scattering and Absorption

- Atmosphere absorbs / backscatters a fraction of the energy and transmits the remainder

 Atmospheric windows : Wavelength regions through which most of the energy is

transmitted through atmosphere
Remote Sensing of Electromagnetic Radiation…
40

Atmosphere is mostly opaque for the areas marked in Blue colour

Atmospheric windows

Atmospheric windows in electromagnetic radiation (EMR) spectrum (Source: Short, 1999)

 Most remote sensing instruments operate in one or more of these windows

Remote Sensing: M1L2 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Introduction and Basic Concepts

(iii) Energy Interactions in

the Atmosphere
 Objectives

 Composition of the atmosphere

 Interactions of the electromagnetic radiation with the atmospheric particles

 Scattering

 Absorption
 Composition of the Atmosphere

 Atmosphere : Gaseous envelop that surrounds the Earth’s surface

Ø Much of the gases are concentrated within the lower 100km of the atmosphere

Ø Only 3x10-5 percent of the gases are found above 100 km (Gibbson, 2000)

Composition of the Earth’s atmosphere (from Gibbson, 2000)

Component Percentage

Nitrogen (N2) 78.08

Oxygen (O2) 20.94
Argon 0.93
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.0314
Ozone (O3) 0.00000004
Composition of the Atmosphere…

 Oxygen and Nitrogen

- Present in the ratio 1:4

- Both together add to 99 percent of the total gaseous composition

 Ozone
- Present in very small quantities

- Mostly concentrated in the atmosphere between 19 and 23km

 The atmosphere also contains water vapor, methane, dust particles, pollen from
vegetation, smoke particles etc.
- Dust particles and the pollen form about 50% of the total particles

- Size of these particles varies from approximately 0.01μm to 100μm

 The gases and the particles present in the atmosphere cause scattering and absorption
of the electromagnetic radiation passing through it
 Energy Interactions
45

 From the source to the sensor, the radiation passes through the atmosphere

 Path length: The distance traveled by the radiation through the atmosphere

- Varies depending on the remote sensing

techniques and sources

- Space photography using solar energy

• Path length = 2x Thickness of the earth’s

atmosphere

- Airborne thermal sensors using emitted energy

from the objects on the earth

• Path length = One way distance from the

earth’s surface to the sensor

Remote Sensing: M1L3 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Energy Interactions…

 The intensity and the spectral composition of the incident radiation are altered by the
atmospheric effects

 Atmospheric interaction depends on the

- Properties of the radiation such as magnitude and wavelength

- Atmospheric conditions

- Path length

 Interaction with the atmospheric particles

- Scattering

- Absorption
 Scattering

 Process by which small particles in the atmosphere diffuse a portion of the incident
radiation in all directions

 There is no energy transformation during scattering

 Spatial distribution of the energy is altered

 Types of scattering

Ø Rayleigh scattering

Ø Mie scattering

Ø Non-selective scattering

http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~joel/g110_w08/lecture_not
es/radiation_atmosphere/radiation_atmosphere.html
 Scattering
-Rayleigh Scattering

 Scattering caused by the atmospheric molecules and other tiny particles

 Also known as selective scattering or molecular scattering

 Dependent on the wavelength

 Occurs when particles are much smaller than the wavelengths of the radiation
Ø Particle size less than (1/10)th of the wavelength

 Intensity of the scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength
Ø Shorter wavelengths are scattered more than longer wavelengths

http://home.comcast.net/~vinelandrobotics/
Rayleigh Scattering of the Visible Part of the EM Energy

 Scattering of the visible bands is caused mainly by the molecules of Oxygen and Nitrogen

§ Blue (shorter wavelength) is scattered more

- Blue light is scattered around four times the red light
- UV light is scattered about 16 times the red light
- A "blue" sky is a manifestation of Rayleigh scatter

§ Orange or red colour during sunrise and sunset

- Sun rays have to travel a longer path
- Complete scattering (and absorption) of shorter wavelength radiations
- Only the longer wavelength (orange and red) which are less scattered are visible

§ Other examples
- The haze in imagery
- Bluish-grey cast in a color image when taken from high altitude
 Scattering
-Mie Scattering

 Occurs when the wavelengths of the energy is almost equal to the diameter of the
atmospheric particles
– Usually caused by the aerosol particles such as dust, smoke and pollen

– Gas molecules are too small to cause Mie scattering of the radiation commonly used for remote
sensing

 Longer wavelengths also get scattered compared to Rayleigh scatter

 Intensity of the scattered light varies approximately as the inverse of the wavelength

Source: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
 Scattering
-Non-selective Scattering

 When the diameters of the atmospheric particles are much larger

– Diameter is greater than10 times the wavelengths being sensed

– Particles such as pollen, cloud droplets, ice crystals and raindrops can cause non-selective
scattering of the visible light.

 Non-selective scattering of visible light (of wavelength 0.4-0.7μ)

– Generally caused by water droplets (5 to 100 μm diameter)

– All visible and IR wavelengths get scattered equally

– Gives white or grey color to the clouds

 Absorption

 Absorption : Process in which the incident energy is retained by particles in the

atmosphere

 Energy is transformed into other forms

 Unlike scattering, atmospheric absorption causes an effective loss of energy

 Absorption depends on

– Wavelength of the energy

– Atmospheric composition

– Arrangement of the gaseous molecules and their energy level

 The absorbing medium will not only absorb a portion of the total energy, but will also
reflect, refract or scatter the energy. The absorbed energy may also be transmitted back
to the atmosphere.
Absorption…

 The most efficient absorbers of solar radiation are

Ø Water vapour, carbon dioxide, and ozone

 Gaseous components are selective absorbers of the electromagnetic radiation

Ø Absorb electromagnetic energy in specific wavelength bands

Ø Depends on the arrangement of the gaseous molecules and their energy levels

Atmospheric window

 The ranges of wavelength that are partially or wholly transmitted through the atmosphere

 Remote sensing data acquisition is limited through these atmospheric windows

Atmospheric Window
 Wavelengths shorted than 0.1 μm
– Absorbed by Nitrogen and other
gaseous components
 Wavelengths shorter than 0.3μm
(X-rays, Gamma rays and part of
ultraviolet rays)
– Mostly absorbed by the ozone (O3)
 Visible part of the spectrum
– Little absorption occurs
 Oxygen in the atmosphere causes
absorption centered at 6.3μm.
 Infrared (IR) radiation
– Mainly absorbed by water vapour
and carbon dioxide molecules
 Far infrared region
– Mostly absorbed by the atmosphere
 Microwave region
– Absorption is almost nil
Absorption…

 The most common sources of energy are

Ø Incident solar energy
– Maximum energy in the visible region
Ø Radiation from the Earth
 Maximum energy in the thermal IR region
 Two atmospheric windows
– at 3 to 5μm and at 8 to 14μm

 Radar & Passive microwave systems operate through a window in the region 1 mm-1 m

Major atmospheric windows used in remote sensing and their characteristics

Atmospheric window Wavelength Characteristics
band (μm)
Upper ultraviolet, Visible 0.3-1 apprx. 95% transmission
and photographic IR
Reflected infrared 1.3, 1.6, 2.2 Three narrow bands
Thermal infrared 3.0-5.0 Two broad bands
8.0-14.0
Microwave >5000 Atmosphere is mostly
transparent
Sensor Selection for Remote Sensing

 Criteria for sensor selection

Ø The spectral sensitivity of the available sensors

Ø The available atmospheric windows in the spectral range(s) considered.

Ø The source, magnitude, and spectral composition of the energy available in the
particular range.

Ø Energy interactions with the features under investigation in the selected bands

Multi Spectral Sensors sense simultaneously through multiple, narrow wavelength

ranges
Introduction and Basic Concepts

(iii) Energy Interactions in

the Atmosphere
 Objectives

 Composition of the atmosphere

 Interactions of the electromagnetic radiation with the atmospheric particles

 Scattering

 Absorption
 Composition of the Atmosphere

 Atmosphere : Gaseous envelop that surrounds the Earth’s surface

Ø Much of the gases are concentrated within the lower 100km of the atmosphere

Ø Only 3x10-5 percent of the gases are found above 100 km (Gibbson, 2000)

Composition of the Earth’s atmosphere (from Gibbson, 2000)

Component Percentage

Nitrogen (N2) 78.08

Oxygen (O2) 20.94
Argon 0.93
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.0314
Ozone (O3) 0.00000004
Composition of the Atmosphere…

 Oxygen and Nitrogen

- Present in the ratio 1:4

- Both together add to 99 percent of the total gaseous composition

 Ozone
- Present in very small quantities

- Mostly concentrated in the atmosphere between 19 and 23km

 The atmosphere also contains water vapor, methane, dust particles, pollen from
vegetation, smoke particles etc.
- Dust particles and the pollen form about 50% of the total particles

- Size of these particles varies from approximately 0.01μm to 100μm

 The gases and the particles present in the atmosphere cause scattering and absorption
of the electromagnetic radiation passing through it
 Energy Interactions
61

 From the source to the sensor, the radiation passes through the atmosphere

 Path length: The distance traveled by the radiation through the atmosphere

- Varies depending on the remote sensing

techniques and sources

- Space photography using solar energy

• Path length = 2x Thickness of the earth’s

atmosphere

- Airborne thermal sensors using emitted energy

from the objects on the earth

• Path length = One way distance from the

earth’s surface to the sensor

Remote Sensing: M1L3 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Energy Interactions…

 The intensity and the spectral composition of the incident radiation are altered by the
atmospheric effects

 Atmospheric interaction depends on the

- Properties of the radiation such as magnitude and wavelength

- Atmospheric conditions

- Path length

 Interaction with the atmospheric particles

- Scattering

- Absorption
 Scattering

 Process by which small particles in the atmosphere diffuse a portion of the incident
radiation in all directions

 There is no energy transformation during scattering

 Spatial distribution of the energy is altered

 Types of scattering

Ø Rayleigh scattering

Ø Mie scattering

Ø Non-selective scattering

http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~joel/g110_w08/lecture_not
es/radiation_atmosphere/radiation_atmosphere.html
 Scattering
-Rayleigh Scattering

 Scattering caused by the atmospheric molecules and other tiny particles

 Also known as selective scattering or molecular scattering

 Dependent on the wavelength

 Occurs when particles are much smaller than the wavelengths of the radiation
Ø Particle size less than (1/10)th of the wavelength

 Intensity of the scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength
Ø Shorter wavelengths are scattered more than longer wavelengths

http://home.comcast.net/~vinelandrobotics/
Rayleigh Scattering of the Visible Part of the EM Energy

 Scattering of the visible bands is caused mainly by the molecules of Oxygen and Nitrogen

§ Blue (shorter wavelength) is scattered more

- Blue light is scattered around four times the red light
- UV light is scattered about 16 times the red light
- A "blue" sky is a manifestation of Rayleigh scatter

§ Orange or red colour during sunrise and sunset

- Sun rays have to travel a longer path
- Complete scattering (and absorption) of shorter wavelength radiations
- Only the longer wavelength (orange and red) which are less scattered are visible

§ Other examples
- The haze in imagery
- Bluish-grey cast in a color image when taken from high altitude
 Scattering
-Mie Scattering

 Occurs when the wavelengths of the energy is almost equal to the diameter of the
atmospheric particles
– Usually caused by the aerosol particles such as dust, smoke and pollen

– Gas molecules are too small to cause Mie scattering of the radiation commonly used for remote
sensing

 Longer wavelengths also get scattered compared to Rayleigh scatter

 Intensity of the scattered light varies approximately as the inverse of the wavelength

Source: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
 Scattering
-Non-selective Scattering

 When the diameters of the atmospheric particles are much larger

– Diameter is greater than10 times the wavelengths being sensed

– Particles such as pollen, cloud droplets, ice crystals and raindrops can cause non-selective
scattering of the visible light.

 Non-selective scattering of visible light (of wavelength 0.4-0.7μ)

– Generally caused by water droplets (5 to 100 μm diameter)

– All visible and IR wavelengths get scattered equally

– Gives white or grey color to the clouds

 Absorption

 Absorption : Process in which the incident energy is retained by particles in the

atmosphere

 Energy is transformed into other forms

 Unlike scattering, atmospheric absorption causes an effective loss of energy

 Absorption depends on

– Wavelength of the energy

– Atmospheric composition

– Arrangement of the gaseous molecules and their energy level

 The absorbing medium will not only absorb a portion of the total energy, but will also
reflect, refract or scatter the energy. The absorbed energy may also be transmitted back
to the atmosphere.
Absorption…

 The most efficient absorbers of solar radiation are

Ø Water vapour, carbon dioxide, and ozone

 Gaseous components are selective absorbers of the electromagnetic radiation

Ø Absorb electromagnetic energy in specific wavelength bands

Ø Depends on the arrangement of the gaseous molecules and their energy levels

Atmospheric window

 The ranges of wavelength that are partially or wholly transmitted through the atmosphere

 Remote sensing data acquisition is limited through these atmospheric windows

Atmospheric Window
 Wavelengths shorted than 0.1 μm
– Absorbed by Nitrogen and other
gaseous components
 Wavelengths shorter than 0.3μm
(X-rays, Gamma rays and part of
ultraviolet rays)
– Mostly absorbed by the ozone (O3)
 Visible part of the spectrum
– Little absorption occurs
 Oxygen in the atmosphere causes
absorption centered at 6.3μm.
 Infrared (IR) radiation
– Mainly absorbed by water vapour
and carbon dioxide molecules
 Far infrared region
– Mostly absorbed by the atmosphere
 Microwave region
– Absorption is almost nil
Absorption…

 The most common sources of energy are

Ø Incident solar energy
– Maximum energy in the visible region
Ø Radiation from the Earth
 Maximum energy in the thermal IR region
 Two atmospheric windows
– at 3 to 5μm and at 8 to 14μm

 Radar & Passive microwave systems operate through a window in the region 1 mm-1 m

Major atmospheric windows used in remote sensing and their characteristics

Atmospheric window Wavelength Characteristics
band (μm)
Upper ultraviolet, Visible 0.3-1 apprx. 95% transmission
and photographic IR
Reflected infrared 1.3, 1.6, 2.2 Three narrow bands
Thermal infrared 3.0-5.0 Two broad bands
8.0-14.0
Microwave >5000 Atmosphere is mostly
transparent
Sensor Selection for Remote Sensing

 Criteria for sensor selection

Ø The spectral sensitivity of the available sensors

Ø The available atmospheric windows in the spectral range(s) considered.

Ø The source, magnitude, and spectral composition of the energy available in the
particular range.

Ø Energy interactions with the features under investigation in the selected bands

Multi Spectral Sensors sense simultaneously through multiple, narrow wavelength

ranges
Thank You
Introduction and Basic Concepts

(iv) Energy Interactions with

Earth Surface Features
 Objectives

 Interactions of the electromagnetic radiation with the Earth surface features

Ø Reflection

Ø Absorption

Ø Transmission
 Energy Interactions

 Electromagnetic energy interactions with the surface features

Ø Reflection

Ø Absorption

Ø Transmission

Incident radiation
Reflection

Earth

Transmission
Absorption
Energy Interactions…

 Reflection

Ø Radiation is redirected after hitting the target

Ø Angle of incidence = Angle of reflectance

Energy Interactions…

 Absorption

Ø Radiation is absorbed by the target

Ø A portion absorbed by the Earth’s surface is available for emission as thermal

radiation
Energy Interactions…

 Transmission

Ø Radiation is allowed to pass through the target

Ø Changes the velocity and wavelength of the radiation

Ø Transmitted energy may be further scattered or absorbed in the medium

Energy Interactions…

 Reflection, Absorption or Transmission ?

Ø Energy incident on a surface may be partially reflected, absorbed or transmitted

Ø Which process takes place on a surface depends on the following factors:

 Wavelength of the radiation

 Angle at which the radiation intersects the surface

 Composition and physical properties of the surface

 Relationship between reflection, absorption and transmission

Ø Principle of conservation of energy as a function of wavelength

EI (λ) = ER (λ) + EA(λ) + ET (λ)
EI = Incident energy
ER = Reflected energy
OR
EA = Absorbed energy
ER (λ) = EI (λ) - EA(λ) - ET (λ)
ET = Transmitted energy
 Reflection Vs Scattering

Reflection Scattering
 Incident energy is redirected  A special type of reflection
 Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection  Incident energy is diffused in many
Ø The reflected radiation leaves the directions
surface at the same angle as it  Often called Diffuse Reflection
approached
Reflection Vs Scattering…

Reflection or Scattering?

 Depends on the roughness of the surface with respect to the incident wavelength

Roughness of the surface < Incident wavelength  Smooth surface  Reflection

Roughness of the surface > Incident wavelength  Rough surface  Scattering

 Roughness of the surface controls how the energy is reflected

 Mainly two types

Ø Specular reflection

Ø Diffuse (Lambertian) reflection

Specular Reflection

 Incident energy is completely reflected in one direction

 Angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence

– Reflection is maximum along the angle of reflectance

– Reflection is negligible in other directions

 Reflectance varies with sensor location and incidence angle

 Occurs when the surface is smooth and flat

 Wavelength > Roughness  Specular reflection dominates

Diffuse or Lambertian Reflection

 Incident energy is reflected uniformly in all directions

 Occurs when the surface is rough

 Wavelength < Roughness  Diffuse reflection

 Important in remote sensing

– Reflectance is same irrespective of the sensor location and incidence angle

– Diffuse reflection contains the colour information of the surface

Specular and Diffuse Reflection

Depends on the wavelength of the incident energy

Example

 Visible bands
 Shorter wavelengths

 Even fine materials such as sand appear as rough- cause diffuse reflection

 In long wavelength radio range

 Even larger features are less than the wavelength

 Even a rocky terrain may appear smooth to incident energy - cause specular reflection
Type of Reflectors

Based on the nature of reflection

 Ideal Specular Reflector

Ø Completely reflects the incident energy with angle of reflection equal to the angle
incidence

 Ideal Lambertian Reflector

Ø Scatters all the incident energy equally in all the directions

Type of Reflectors…

Most of the real surface features are not perfect specular or diffuse reflectors

 Near Specular Reflector

 Near Lambertian reflector

Type of Reflectors…

 Lambertian reflectors

Ø Ideal for remote sensing

Ø Reflection will be the same irrespective of the location of the sensor

Ø Most natural surfaces observed using remote sensing are approximately Lambertian
at visible and IR wavelengths

 Specular reflector

Ø Maximum brightness will be obtained only at one location

Ø Variation in the spectral signature for the same feature affects the interpretation of the
remote sensing data.

Ø Water provides specular reflection

– Generally gives a dark tone in the image

– Specular reflection provides a pale tone when the sensor is located along the angle of
reflection
 Spectral Reflectance

 Represents the reflectance characteristics of earth surface features

 Ratio of energy reflected by the surface to the energy incident on the surface

 Measured as a function of wavelength

 Also known as Albedo

 Mathematical representation of spectral reflectance or albedo

ER   
R 
EI   
Energy of wavelength  reflected from the object
  100
Energy of wavelength  incident on the object
Albedo of Earth Surface Features

Surface type Albedo %

Grass 25

Concrete 20
Large range is due to the
Water 5-70
specular reflection
characteristics.
Fresh snow 80

Forest 5-10

Thick cloud 75

Dark soil 5-10

Spectral Reflectance Curve

 Graphical representation of the spectral

response over different wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum
– Give an insight into the spectral characteristics
of different objects

– Used for the selection of a particular

wavelength band for remote sensing data
acquisition
Reflected Energy in Remote Sensing

 Energy reflected from the surface is recorded in remote sensing

 Fraction of energy that is reflected / scattered is unique for each material

Ø Used for distinguishing different features on an image

 Within a feature class, energy reflected / emitted / absorbed depends on the wavelength
Ø Features may be similar and hence indistinguishable using single spectral band

Ø Their reflectance properties may be different in another spectral band

Ø Use of multiple wavelength bands helps to further differentiate the features within one class

Ø Reflected energy from multiple wavelength bands are recorded in multi-spectral remote sensing
Use of Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing …

Example: Spectral reflectance within one class is not

unique, and hence the ranges are shown
Generalized spectral reflectance curves for
deciduous and coniferous trees

 Sensor selection to differentiate deciduous

and coniferous trees
– Curves overlap in the visible portion

– Both class will be seen in shades of green

– Deciduous and coniferous trees cannot

be differentiated through visible Maximum
reflectance in
spectrum green gives the
green colour
– Spectral reflectance are quiet different in NIR

– Deciduous and coniferous trees can be

differentiated through NIR spectrum
Use of Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing …

Panchromatic photograph using reflected sunlight over Black and white infrared photograph using
the visible wavelength reflected sunlight over 0.7 to 0.9 mm wavelength

• Coniferous and deciduous trees are not differentiable • Deciduous trees show bright signature
compared to coniferous trees
(Source: Lillesand et al., 2004)
Use of Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing …

A part of the Krishna River Basin as seen in different bands of the Landsat ETM+ imagery

• Reflectance from water, vegetation and fallow lands are different in different bands
• A combination of more than one spectral band helps to attain better differentiation of these features
Use of Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing…

 Spectral reflectance characteristics of the surface features is used to identify the features

and to study their characteristics

 Requires basic understanding of the general reflectance characteristics of different

features
Thank You
Introduction and Basic Concepts

(v) Spectral Reflectance

Curves
 Objectives

 Spectral reflectance curve of some of the important earth surface features

Ø Vegetation

Ø Bare soil

Ø Water
 Spectral Reflectance Curve

 Spectral Reflectance Rλ

 Spectral Reflectance Curve

Ø Graphical representation of the spectral response over different wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum
– Gives an insight into the spectral characteristics of different objects

– Used for the selection of a particular wavelength band for remote sensing data acquisition

Ø Essential to interpret and analyze an image obtained in any one or multiple

wavelengths
Spectral Reflectance Curves…

Typical spectral reflectance curves for vegetation, soil and water (Lillesand et al., 2004)

 Average reflectance curves of healthy vegetation, dry barren soil and clear water bodies
– Reflectance of individual features varies considerably above and below the average

– The average curves demonstrate some fundamental points concerning spectral reflectance
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation

 Spectral reflectance curve for healthy green vegetation exhibits the "peak-and-valley"
configuration
– Peaks indicate strong reflection in the wavelength bands

– Valleys indicate predominant absorption of the energy in the wavelength band

Healthy green vegetation

• Good absorption in visible region (0.4-0.7 μm)

• Absorption reduces and reflection increases in

the red/infrared boundary near 0.7 μm

• Reflectance is nearly constant from 0.7-1.3 μm

• Reflectance decreases for longer wavelengths

(Source : Lillesand et al., 2004)
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

 Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

Cell structure of a green leaf and interactions with the electro-magnetic radiation
(Gibson, 2000)
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

 Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

1. Strongly absorbs the energy in the visible region

Visible spectrum and the Chlorophyll pigments

• The palisade cells containing sacs of green pigment

(chlorophyll) strongly absorb energy in the bands
centered at 0.45 and 0.67 μm (blue and red)
– Causes valleys in the visible portion of the curve

• Reflection peaks for green in the visible region

– Makes our eyes perceive healthy vegetation as green
in colour

– Only 10-15% of the incident energy is reflected in the Spectral reflectance of healthy vegetation
in the visible and NIR wavelength bands
green band http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

 Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

2. High reflectance in the reflected IR or NIR region

NIR and the Mesophyll Cells

 IR radiation penetrates the palisade cells and

reaches the mesophyll cells

 Mesophyll cells reflect ~ 60% of the NIR radiation

reaching this layer
 At 0.7 μm, the reflectance increases

 In 0.7-1.3 μm, ~ 50% of the incident energy is reflected

 Healthy vegetation shows brighter response in the NIR

region compared to the green region
Spectral reflectance of healthy vegetation
 Most of the remaining energy is transmitted
in the visible and NIR wavelength bands
 Absorption in this spectral region is minimum http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

 Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

3. At wavelengths beyond 1.3 μm, leaf reflectance is approximately inversely related to

the total water present in a leaf
– Total water is a function of both the moisture content and the thickness of a leaf

 A little to no transmittance of energy beyond 1.3 μm

 Energy beyond 1.3 μm is absorbed or reflected Healthy green

vegetation

 Dips in reflectance occur at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 μm

Ø Water in the leaf strongly absorbs the energy at these wavelengths

Ø These wavelength regions are referred to as water absorption bands

 Reflectance peaks occur at 1.6 and 2.2 μm, between the absorption bands
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

 Spectral response of vegetation depends on the structure of the plant leaves

 Healthy vegetation

Ø Chlorophyll content in the palisade cells absorbs blue and

red in the visible region

Ø Mesophyll cells strongly reflects the NIR radaition

 Stressed vegetation

Ø Decrease in the chlorophyll content

Ø Less absorption in the blue and red bands

Ø Red and blue bands also get reflected along with the green
band, giving yellow or brown colour

Ø NIR bands are absorbed by the stressed mesophyll cells

Ø Causing dark tones in the image
(Source: Gibson, 2000)
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

Transmittance
 Transmittance of electromagnetic radiation is less in the visible region

 Transmittance increases in the infrared region

 A little to no transmittance of energy beyond 1.3 μm

Transmittance and reflectance

 Vegetation canopies display a layered structure

 Energy transmitted by one layer is available for

reflection or absorption by the layers below it
 Total infrared reflection from thicker canopies
will be more compared to thin canopy cover

 From the reflected NIR, the density of the

vegetation canopy can thus be interpreted.
Reflectance from dense forest and thin
vegetation canopies (Gibson, 2000)
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

 Total infrared reflection from thicker canopies will be more compared to thin canopy cover

Example:

1. For a densely grown agricultural area, the NIR signature will be more

2. Deciduous and coniferous trees

– Spectral reflectance may be similar in the green band

– Coniferous trees show higher reflection in the NIR band

 Spectral Reflectance of Soil

 Spectral reflectance curve for soil shows considerably less peak-and-valley variation
compared to that for vegetation
– The factors that influence soil reflectance act over less specific spectral bands

Dry bare soil

 Factors affecting soil reflectance

Ø Moisture content

Ø Soil texture (proportion of sand, silt, and clay)

Ø Surface roughness

Ø Presence of iron oxide and organic matter

(Source : Lillesand et al., 2004)

 These factors are complex, variable, and interrelated

 Spectral Reflectance of Soil…

 Dry soil
Ø Coarse texture  Less reflectance  Dark tone

Ø Fine texture  more reflectance  Light tone

 Wet soils display reverse tendency

 Moisture content reduces the reflectance

Ø Coarse texture  better drainage  less moisture content  good reflectance

Ø Fine texture  poor drainage  more moisture content poor reflectance

o Water absorption bands are at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 μm wavelengths

Ø Clay soils have hydroxyl ion absorption bands at 1.4 and 2.2 μm.

Ø Surface roughness reduces the reflectance

Ø Presence of organic matter reduces the soil reflectance

Ø Presence of iron oxide significantly decreases soil reflectance, at least in the visible region
 Spectral Reflectance of Water

 Water provides a semi-transparent medium for the electromagnetic radiation

 Electromagnetic radiations get reflected, transmitted or absorbed in water

 Spectral responses varies with

– Wavelength of the radiation

– Physical and chemical characteristics of the water

Water

 Water in liquid phase (Source : Lillesand et al., 2004)

– High reflectance in the visible region between 0.4μm and 0.6μm

– Wavelengths beyond 0.7μm are completely absorbed.

 Water in solid phase (ice or snow)

– Good reflection at all visible wavelengths
Spectral Reflectance of Water…

 Liquid water
Ø High reflectance in the visible region between 0.4μm and 0.6μm

Ø Wavelengths beyond 0.7μm are completely absorbed.

 Clear water appears darker in tone in the NIR image

 Mapping of water bodies with remote sensing data is done in reflected infrared wavelengths

Part of the Krishna River Basin in different bands of the Landsat ETM+ imagery

• The water body appears in dark colour in all bands and displays sharp contrast in the IR bands.
Spectral Reflectance of Water…

 Reflectance from a water

body can be from
Ø An interaction with the water's
surface (specular reflection)

Ø An interaction with material

suspended in the water

Ø An interaction with the bottom

surface of the water body

Complex spectral response from a water body

(Gibson, 2000)
Spectral Reflectance of Water…

 Reflectance properties of a water body also depends on the materials present in water

 Clear water
– Absorbs relatively little energy having wavelengths shorter than 0.6 μm.

– High transmittance typifies these wavelengths with a maximum in the blue-green portion of the
spectrum.

 Turbidity : Presence of suspended sediments increases visible reflectance

 Chlorophyll : Decrease blue wavelength reflection and increase green wavelength reflection

 Dissolved oxygen concentration, pH, and salt concentration

– Cannot be observed directly through changes in water reflectance

– Correlation between these parameters and observed reflectance is used

More details on the remote sensing applications for monitoring water quality parameters
can be found in Nagesh Kumar and Reshmidevi (2013)
Spectral Reflectance of Water…

 Variation in the spectral reflectance in the visible region can be used to differentiate
 Shallow and deep waters

 Clear and turbid waters

 Rough and smooth water bodies

 Reflectance in the NIR range are generally used to

 Delineate the water bodies

 To study the algal boom and phytoplankton concentration in water

Further details on the spectral characteristics of vegetation, soil, and water can be found in

Swain and Davis (1978)

Spectral Reflectance of Some Natural Features
Spectral Reflectance in Remote Sensing

Multi spectral remote sensing

 Multiple sensors are used to sense the reflectance in different wavelength bands

 Reflectance recorded in multiple bands are analysed to find spectral reflectance variation
with wavelength

 Using the average spectral reflectance curves as the basic information, the spectral
reflectance variation is used to identify the target features.
Multi Spectral Remote Sensing-Example

Aerial photographs of a stadium normal colour Aerial photographs of a stadium in colour IR

 Artificial turf inside the stadium and the natural  Artificial turf appears dark, whereas the natural
vegetation appears in the same colour vegetation shows high reflectance in the IR region

(Images are taken from Lillesand et al., 2004)

Multi Spectral Remote Sensing-Example

 Artificial turf inside the stadium and the natural vegetation appear in the same colour in
the visible region

 Artificial turf appears dark, whereas the natural vegetation shows high reflectance in the
IR region

Spectral reflectance curves of the natural vegetation and the artificial turf (From Lillesand et al., 2004)
 Bibliography

1. American Society of Photogrammetry (1975) “Manual of Remote Sensing”, Falls

Church, Va.

2. Gibson P.J (2000) “Introductory Remote Sensing- Principles and Concepts” Routledge,
London.

3. Lillesand, T. M., Kiefer, R. W., Chipman, J. W. (2004). “Remote sensing and image
interpretation”, Wiley India (P). Ltd., New Delhi.

4. Nagesh Kumar D and Reshmidevi TV (2013). “Remote sensing applications in water

resources” J. Indian Institute of Science, 93(2), 163-188.

5. Sabbins Jr. F. F. (1978). “Remote Sensing – Principles and Interpretation”, W.H.

Freeman and Company, San Francisco.

6. Short N.M (1999). “Remote Sensing Tutorial - Online Handbook”, Goddard Space Flight
Center, NASA, USA.

7. Swain, P.H. and S.M. Davis (eds). (1978) “Remote sensing: The Quantitaive Approach”,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Thank You
 Remote Sensing Systems

(iv) Multispectral, Thermal

and Hyperspectral Remote
Sensing
 Introduction

 Multi-spectral scanners selectively sense the energy reflected in multiple

narrow bands

 Multi-spectral scanners operate in visible, near infrared (NIR), mid-infrared

(MIR) and thermal infrared regions of the EMR spectrum

 A wide range from 0.3 to ~14 micro-meter is used in multi-spectral imaging

 Special types of MSS

 Thermal scanner : Operate only in the thermal portion of the EMR spectrum

 Hyperspectral scanner: Hundreds of very narrow, contiguous spectral bands of the

visible, NIR, MIR portions of the EMR spectrum are employed

This lecture gives a brief description of Multispectral, thermal and

hyperspectral remote sensing
 Multispectral Imaging
125

 A Multispectral scanner (MSS) simultaneously acquires images in multiple

bands of the EMR spectrum

 Most commonly used scanning system in remote sensing

Example:

 Landsat MSS- Used 4 bands: 0.5-0.6, 0.6-0.7, 0.7-0.8, 0.8-1.1μm

 IRS LISS-III sensors uses 4 bands (0.52-0.59, 0.62-0.68, 0.77-0.86, 1.55-1.70 μm)

 3 in the visible and NIR regions., and 1 in the MIR region of the EMR spectrum

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

 Why Multispectral Imaging ?
126

 Spectral reflectance of the features differs in different wavelength bands

 Features can be identified from the image by comparing their responses over

different distinct spectral bands

 Broad classes viz., water and vegetation,

can be separated using very broad
wavelength ranges like visible and near-
infrared

 Finer wavelength ranges and hence finer

spectral resolution are required for more
specific classes viz., vegetation type, Typical Spectral Reflectance curves for
Vegetation, Soil and Water
rock classification etc.

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Bands 4, 5, 6 and 7 from Lansdat1 MSS, and the standard FCC

127
Band 4 (0.5-0.6 μm) Band 5 (0.6-0.7 μm)

Band 6 (0.7-0.8 μm) Band 7 (0.8-1.1 μm)

Bands 456, Standard FCC

Source: http://www.fas.org/

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

 Types of Multi Spectral Scanners
128

 MSS systems generate two-dimensional images of the terrain using

v Across-track (whiskbroom) scanning

v Along-track (pushbroom) scanning

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

 Across-Track Scanning
129

 Across-track scanner is also known as whisk-broom scanner

 Rotating or oscillating mirrors are used

 Scan lines at right angles to the flight

line are scanned successively as the

platform moves forward

 Continuously measures the energy from

one side to the other side of the platform

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Across-track scanning…
130

 Incoming radiation is separated into several

thermal and non-thermal wavelength

components using a dichroic grating and a
prism

 An array of electro-optical detectors, each

having peak spectral sensitivity in a specific

wavelength band, is used to measure each
wavelength band separately

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

 Along-track scanning
131

 Along-track scanner is also known as push-broom scanner.

 No scanning mirrors are used

 A linear array of detectors is used to

simultaneously record the energy received

from multiple ground resolution cells along the
scan line

 The array of detectors are pushed along the

flight direction to scan the successive scan

lines  push-broom scanner (Source: http://stlab.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/)

 Size of the ground resolution cell is

determined by the IFOV of a single detector

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc
Along-track scanning…
132

 The linear array of detectors consists of numerous (more than 10,000) charged coupled
devices (CCDs)

 Each linear array is dedicated to record energy in a single band

 Each detector element is dedicated to record the energy in a single column

 The arrays of detectors are arranged in the focal plane of the scanner such that each
scan line is viewed simultaneously by all the arrays

 Advantages of along-track scanning

Ø Linear array of detectors provides longer dwell time over each ground resolution cell

Ø Higher signal strength

Ø Finer radiometric resolution

Ø Finer spatial and spectral resolution without impacting radiometric resolution

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

 Thematic Mapper
133
 Thematic Mapper (TM) : Advanced MSS used by NASA in the Landsat 4 and 5 missions
Ø Higher spatial, spectral and radiometric accuracy

Ø 7 bands : More refined compared to the MSS

Ø Each band was designated for some potential application

Landsat TM bands and their principal applications (http://www.fas.org)

Band Spectral Principal application
range μm
1 0.45-0.52 Coastal water mapping, soil-vegetation differentiation,
deciduous-coniferous differentiation
2 0.52-0.6 Green reflectance by healthy vegetation
3 0.63-0.69 Chlorophyl absorption for plant species differentiation
4 0.76-0.90 Biomass surveys, water body delineation
5 1.55-1.72 Vegetation moisture measurement, snow-cloud differentiation
6 10.4-12.5 Plant heat stress measurement, other thermal mapping
7 2.08-2.35 Hydrothermal mapping

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

 Thermal Scanner
134

 A special kind of across track multispectral scanner

 Senses the energy in the thermal wavelength range of the EMR spectrum
Ø Thermal infrared radiation : Electromagnetic waves with wavelength 3-14 μm

Ø Significant atmosphere absorption in the ranging from 5-8 μm

Ø Thermal scanners are restricted to 3-5 μm and 8-14 μm wavelength ranges.

Source: http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~jeff/115a/remote_sensing/thermal/thermalirinfo.html

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Thermal Scanners…
135

 Thermal scanners
 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) onboard Terra

 TIMS developed jointly by NASA JPL and the

Daedalus Corporation

 TIMS uses 6 wavelength channels

[8.2-8.6, 8.6-9.0, 9.0-9.4, 9.4-10.2, 10.2-11.2,

11.2-12.2 μm]

Day time thermal image of the

San-Francisco region recorded
using 8.5-13.0 μm thermal
wavelength region

Source : http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~jeff/115a/remote_sensing/thermal/fig6_12daytimirofsf_airport.jpg

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Principle Used in Thermal Scanning
136

 Radiant energy from the surface is measured using thermal sensors

Ø Thermal emission is the portion of internal energy of surface that is transformed into
radiation energy

Radiant exitance (M) is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law

For a black body M   T
4
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant = 5.6697x10-8 W m-2 K-4
T = Temperature of the black body (K)
For a real material M   T 4
ε = Emissivity of the material

Blackbody : Hypothetical, ideal radiator that totally absorbs and re-emits all energy
incident upon it

• Thermal sensors record the radiant energy M from the surface

• If ε is known, T can be calculated

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Principle Used in Thermal Scanning…
137

Emissivity

radiant exitance of an object at a given temperature

 
radiant exitance of a blackbodyat the same temperature

 For an ideal blackbody ε =1

 Emissivity for real surfaces

 Ranges from 0 to 1

 Varies with the wavelength, viewing angle and temperature

 Selective radiator: Emissivity varies with wavelength

 Grey body: Material which has constant emissivity, which is less than 1, in all the

wavelengths

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Brightness Temperature
138

 Brightness temperature of an object is defined as the temperature of a

blackbody at which the radiant exitance recorded from it is equal to that from
the target object

 In thermal imaging, the radiant energy (M) from the target surface is measured

 If the emissivity ε is known, surface temperature of the target object can be

determined using the Stefen-Boltzmann’s Law

 If the emissivity is unknown, the brightness temperature of the surface is

determined

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Sensors Used in Thermal Scanning
139

 Quantum or photon detectors containing

electrical charge carriers

 Mercury-doped germanium (sensitive in the
range 3-14 micro-meter)

 Indium antimonide (sensitive in the region 3-5

micro-meter)

 Mercury cadmium telluride (sensitive in the Source: http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/

region 8-14 micro-meter)

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Thermal Image Interpretation
140

 A thermal scanner image is known as Thermogram

 A pictorial representation of the detector’s response on a line-by-line basis

 Information extraction from a thermal image

 Information about the temperature extremes, heating and the cooling rates are used to
interpret the type and condition of the object

 Example: Water reaches maximum temperature slower than rocks or soils and
therefore, terrain temperatures are normally higher than the water temperature during
the day time and lower during the night

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Thermal Remote Sensing Applications
141

 Important applications of thermal remote sensing

Ø Geological studies: determining rock type and structures

Ø Soil mapping

Ø Soil moisture studies

Ø Study of evapotranspiration in vegetation

Ø Detection of heat looses in buildings

Ø Detection of damages of steam pipelines and caliducts

Ø Detection of subsurface fires(e.g. coal seams)

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Thermal Remote Sensing…
142

 Advantages of thermal scanning

 Since relatively longer wavelengths are used, atmospheric scattering is minimal

 Since the reflected solar radiation is not measured both day and night time operations
are possible

 Limitation

 Larger IFOVs are generally used to ensure that enough energy reaches the detector
for a reliable measurement, leading to a coarse spatial resolution

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

 Hyperspectral Senosrs
143
 Acquire images in several, narrow, contiguous spectral bands in the visible, NIR, MIR,
and thermal infrared regions of the EMR spectrum

o Typically more than 100 bands are recorded

o Enables the construction of a continuous reflectance spectrum for each pixel

 Hyperspectral sensors are also known

as imaging spectrometers

 Hyperspectral scanners may be along-

track or across-track
Example:

Hyperion sensor : 220 bands (from 400 -2.5

μm)
AVIRIS sensor : 224 individual CCD detectors
each with 10nm spectral resolution

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Hyperspectral Image Interpretation
144

 Spectral curves of the pixels are compared with the existing spectral library to identify the
targets

 All pixels whose spectra match the target spectrum to a specified level of confidence are
marked as potential targets

 Depending on whether the pixel is a pure feature class or the composition of more than
one feature class, the resulting plot will be either a definitive curve of a "pure" feature or a
composite curve containing contributions from the several features present

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Hyperspectral Image
145

Spectral curves for different crop classes

generated using the reflectance from
multiple bands of the AVIRIS image

Vegetation or crop type in the circular

fields were identified using the spectral
Hyperspectral AVIRIS image of the San
curves generated from the image
Juan Valley of Colorado

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Applications of Hyperspectral Imaging
146

 Hyperspectral imaging has wide range of applications

Ø Mining

Ø Geology

Ø Forestry

Ø Agriculture

Ø Environmental management

Remote Sensing: M2L4 D. Nagesh Kumar, IISc

Thank You
 Remote Sensing Systems

(iv) Features of the Remote

Sensing Satellites
 Introduction

Ø Remote sensing satellite programs

Ø Landsat program

Ø SPOT mission

Ø IRS satellite program

Ø Very high resolution satellites

Ø IKONOS

Ø QuickBird

Ø Geo-stationary satellites
 Landsat Program

v Longest running program for acquiring satellite imageries of the Earth

v Landsat-1 was launched in July 1972

v A collaborative effort of NASA and the US Department of the Interior

v The program was earlier called Earth Resources Technology Satellites (ERTSs)

and was renamed as Landsat in 1975

v The mission consists of 8 satellites launched successively

v The recent one in the series Landsat-8, which is also called Landsat Data

Continuity Mission (LDCM) was launched in February, 2013

Time Line of the Landsat Satellite Program

(http://landsat.usgs.gov/about_landsat7.php)
Landsat Program…

v Sensors used

Ø Return Beam Vidicom (RBV)

Ø Multispectral Scanner (MSS)

Ø Thematic Mapper

Ø Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM)

Ø Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+)

v Satellite orbit

Ø Sun-synchronous, near polar orbits at different altitudes for each mission

 Landsat Program…

Landsat Mission 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8(LCDM)

Mission period 1972-78 1975-82 1978-83 1982-2001 1984-2012 1993, failed 1999 - 2013 -
Orbit Sun-synchronous, near-polar
Altitude 917 km 705-706 km 705km
Inclination 99.2 deg 98.2 deg 98.2deg
Eq. crossing 9:30am 9:45am 10am
Period (min) 103 99 98.9
No. orbits /day 14 14 14

Repeat 18 16 16
cycle(days)
Swath width 185 185 185
Sensors RBV MSS MSS TM ETM ETM+ TIRS
Spatial resolution 80 82 79 30 30 30 100
(m) B6:120 B6: 120 B6: 60
B8: 15 B8: 15

Radiometric 6 B1-B3:7 B1-B3:7 8 8 8 12

resolution (Bits) B4: 6 B4: 6
Landsat Program…

 Landsat satellites typically completes 14 orbits in a day

 Sensors used in the Landsat Missions 1-7

 MSS used in the Landsat programs employs across line scanning to generate two-
dimensional image.

Spectral sensitivity and spatial resolution of the sensors used in the Landsat missions
Sensors
RBV MSS TM ETM ETM+
Wavelength Wavelength Wavelength Wavelength Wavelength
Band (μm) Band (μm) Band (μm) Band (μm) Band (μm)
1 0.475-0.575 4 0.5-0.6 1 0.45-0.52 TM B1-B7 Same as TM ETM B1-B8 Same as ETM
2 0.580-0.680 5 0.6-0.7 2 0.52-0.60
3 0.690-0.830 6 0.7-0.8 3 0.63-0.69 8 0.5-0.90
4 0.505-0.750 7 0.8-1.1 4 0.76-0.90
8 10.4-12.6 5 1.55-1.75
6 10.4-12.5
7 2.08-2.35
Sensors used in the Landsat -8 Mission

v Two sensors

Ø Operational Land Imager (OLI) : 9 bands including 1 panchromatic band

Ø Thermal Infrared Scanner (TIRS): 2 thermal bands

Spectral bands of the OLI and TIPS sensors of the Landsat-8 mission

Operational Land Imager (OLI) Thermal Infrared Scanner (TIRS)

Ban Wavelength Remark Band Wavelength Remark
d (μm) (μm)
Coastal aerosol
1 0.43-0.45 1 10.60-11.19 Thermal infrared
detection
2 0.45-0.51 Blue 2 11.50-12.51 Thermal infrared
3 0.53-0.59 Green
4 0.64-0.67 Red
(Source:
5 0.85-0.88 Near infrared landsat.usgs.gov/band_designations_landsat_sat
ellites.php)
6 1.57-1.65 Short wave infrared
 SPOT Satellite Program

 SPOT (Systeme Pour l’Observation de la Terre)

 Designed by the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES), France

 Commercially oriented Earth observation program

 The first satellite of the mission, SPOT-1 was launched in February, 1986.

 First Earth observation satellite that used a linear array of sensors and the pushbroom
scanning techniques

 First system to have pointable optics, enabling side-to-side off-nadir viewing capabilities
Time Line of the SPOT Missions

(Source: http://smsc.cnes.fr/SPOT/index.htm)
Sensors Used in the SPOT Missions

 SPOT 1, 2 and 3
 Two identical High Resolution Visible (HRV) imaging systems

 Operational either in the panchromatic mode or in the MSS mode

 Along-track, push-broom scanning method

 Each HRV contained four CCD sub-arrays

 Off-nadir viewing capability enables stereoscopic imaging

 SPOT 4
 Two identical High Resolution Visible and Infrared (HRVIR) sensors and a Vegetation instrument
(VI)

 SPOT-5
 Two high resolution geometric (HRG) instruments, a single high resolution stereoscopic (HRS)
instrument, and a VI
Characteristics of the Sensors Used in
SPOT 4 and 5

SPOT-4 SPOT-5
HRVIR VI HRG HRS and VI
Band Wavelength Band Wavelength Band Wavelengt Wavelength
s (μm) s (μm) s h (μm) Bands (μm)

1 0.53-0.59 1 0.43-0.47 PAN 0.48-0.71 PAN 0.49-0.69

2 0.61-0.68 2 0.61-0.68 1 0.50-0.59 0 0.45-0.52
3 0.79-0.89 3 0.79-0.89 2 0.61-0.68 2 0.61-0.58
4 1.58-1.75 4 1.58-1.75 3 0.78-0.89 3 0.78-0.89
4 1.58-1.75 4 1.58-1.75
Characteristics of the Sensor Used in SPOT-6

 SPOT-6

 Employs two New AstroSat Optical Modular Instruments (NAOMI)

 NAOMI operates in 5 spectral bands, including one panchromatic band

Band Wavelength (μm) Remark

PAN 0.45-0.745 Panchromatic

1 0.450-0.525 Blue
2 0.530-0.590 Green
3 0.625-0.695 Red
4 0.760-0.890 Near infrared
 Details of the SPOT Missions

Mission SPOT-1 SPOT-2 SPOT-3 SPOT-4 SPOT-5 SPOT-6

2012-
Mission period 1986-2003 1990-2009 1993-1997 1998-2013 2002-
Orbit Sun-synchronous, near-polar, circular
Altitude 822 822 822 694
Inclination 98.7 98.7 98.7 98.2
Eq. crossing 10:30 AM 10:30 AM 10:30 AM 10:30 AM
Period 101.4 101.4 101.4 98.79
26 days
Repeat cycle
(More frequent revisit is achieved due to the off-nadir viewing capability)
NAOMI
Sensors HRV HRVIR VI HRG HRS VI
Bands PAN and B1-B3 B1-B4 B0 PAN B1-B4 PAN B0 PAN
B2-B4 B2-B4 B1-B4

Spatial PAN:10m , MSS:20m B1-PAN: 10m 1000 PAN:2.5-5m 10m 1000 PAN: 2m
resolution B1-B4 MSS: 20m MSS: 10m MSS: 8m
B4: 20m

Radiometric
resolution 8bit 8bit 10 bit 8 bit 10 bit 12 bit
SPOT Missions…

 Pointable optics

 Enable off-nadir viewing

 Increases the revisit period

 7 additional viewings at equator and 11 additional viewings at 45o latitude

 Due to the off-nadir viewing capabilities, stereo imaging is also possible

 Stereo pairs are formed from two SPOT images

 Used for relief perception and elevation plotting (Digital Elevation Modelling)
 IRS Satellite Program

 Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite system

 One of the largest civilian remote sensing satellite constellations in the world used for
Earth observation

 Program objective: To provide a long-term space-borne operational capability for the

observation and management of the natural resources

 The first satellite of the mission IRS-1A was launched in 1988

 Orbit: Sun-synchronous, near-polar orbits at low altitude

 Sensors: LISS-1, LISS-2, LISS-3, WiFS, AWiFS etc.

 Applications
 Agriculture, Hydrology, Geology, Drought and flood monitoring, Marine studies, Land use analyses
Characteristics of the IRS Sensors

Sensor LISS-1 and 2 LISS-3 LISS-4 WiFS AWiFS

Wa v e l e n g t h 0.45-0.52 0.52-0.59 0.52-0.59 0.62-0.68 0.52-0.59

bands (μm) 0.52-0.59 0.62-0.68 0.62-0.68 0.77-0.86 0.62-0.68
0.62-0.68 0.77-0.86 0.77-0.86 0.77-0.86
0.77-0.86 1.55-1.70 1.55-1.70
 Details of the satellites of the IRS program

Satellite IRS-1A IRS-1B IRS-1C IRS-1D IRS-P2 Cartosat-2 Resourcesat-2

Period 1988-96 1991-2003 1995-2007 1997-2010 2003- 2007- 2011-

Orbit Sun-synchronous, Polar

Eq. crossing 10:30am
Altitude 904 817 817 630 822
Inclination 99.08 98.6 98.7 97.91 98.73
Repeat cycle 310
(days) 22 24 24 24
Revisit: 4
LISS-1, LISS-3 and 4, LISS-3 and 4,
Sensors LISS-2A and 2B PAN, LISS-3, WiFS AWiFS PAN camera AWiFS
PAN, LISS-3 B1-B4 LISS-3 B1-B4
LISS-3 B1-B4 LISS-4 B1-B3 PAN LISS-4 B1-B3
Bands B1-B4
WiFS B1-B2 AWiFS B1-B4 (0.5-0.85μm) AWiFS B1-B4
LISS-3:23.5 LISS-3:23.5
Spatial PAN:5.8m
72.5m 36.25m LISS-4: 5.8 0.81m LISS-4: 5.8
resolution LISS-3: 23m (B4:70m)
AWiFS: 56m AWiFS: 56m
Radiometric
LISS-3 and 4: 7 LISS-3 and 4: 10
resolution 7 7 7 7 10
AwiFS: 10 AwiFS: 12
(Bits)
IRS Satellite Images

IRS-P6 (Resourcesat-2) LISS-IV multispectral mode image shows

the centre of Marseille, France, in natural colours (www.nrsc.gov.in)
IRS Satellite Images…

Parts of Paris as viewed by

Cartosat-2 in 2011
(www.nrsc.gov.in)

Parts of Himalayas as viewed by

the AWiFS sensor
(www.nrsc.gov.in)
 Very High Resolution Systems

v IKONOS

Ø Commercial high resolution system operated by GeoEye.

Ø The satellite was launched in September 1999

Ø Employs linear array technology and collects data in four multispectral bands and one

panchromatic band

Ø IKONOS was the first successful commercial satellite to collect sub-meter resolution

images
• 1 m in panchromatic mode

• 4 m in the MSS mode

Ø Imagery from the panchromatic and multispectral sensors can be merged to create 0.82-

meter color imagery (pan-sharpened).

IKONOS Images

IKONOS (0.8m) image of the Tadco Farms,

Saudi Arabia IKONOS image of the Denver Broncos
Stadium, Denver, Colorado, USA
Details of the IKONOS Satellite

Satellite IKONOS
Launch date Sep, 2009

Orbit Sun-synchronous
Eq. crossing 10:30am
Altitude 682 km
Inclination 98.1 deg
Repeat cycle 11 days (more frequent imaging due to the off-
nadir viewing capabilities up to 45 deg)

Sensor PAN and MSS

Wavelength bands (μm) PAN 0.45-0.90
MSS: 0.45-0.52
0.52-0.60
0.63-0.69
0.76-0.90
Spatial resolution PAN : 0.81m
MSS: 4m
Radiometric resolution 11 bits
Very High Resolution Systems…

v QuickBird

Ø Commercial high resolution remote sensing system

Ø Operated by Digital Globe, Inc

Ø Launched in October 2001

Ø Relatively low orbit, at an altitude 450 km.

Ø Payloads: Panchromatic camera and a four-band multispectral scanner

Ø QuickBird sensors are composed of linear arrays detectors

Ø Spatial resolution

 0.61 m in the panchromatic mode

 2.4 m in the multispectral mode

Details of the QuickBird satellite

Satellite QuickBird
Launch date Oct, 2011

Orbit Sun-synchronous
Eq. crossing 10:00 am
Altitude 450 km
Inclination 98 deg
Revisit period Average revisit time is 1-3.5days depending upon the
latitude and the image collection angle
Sensor PAN and MSS
Wavelength bands (μm) PAN 0.405-1.053
MSS: 0.43-0.545
0.466-0.620
0.590-0.710
0.715-0.918

Spatial resolution PAN : 0.61 m

MSS: 2.4 m
Radiometric resolution 11 bits
QuickBird Image

QuickBird (61cm) true colour image for a small region in Nigeria

(Source : www.satimagingcorp.com )
 Geo-stationary satellites

v INSAT Program

Ø The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system

Ø One of the largest domestic communication systems in the Asia-Pacific region

Ø Communication satellites of the INSAT program are placed in Geo-stationary orbits at

approximately 36,000 km altitude

Ø The program was established with the commissioning of INSAT-1B in 1983.

Ø INSAT space segment consists of 24 satellites out of which 9 are in service

 (INSAT-3A, -4B, -3C, -3E, KALPANA-1, INSAT-4A, INSAT-4CR, GSAT-8, GSAT-12 and GSAT-10)
INSAT Program…

v GSAT-10

Ø The recent one in the INSAT program

Ø Communication and navigation purposes

Ø Launched in September 2012

Ø Geo-stationary orbit located at 83oE longitude

Coverage of the GAGAN payload onboard GSAT-10

(Source: http://www.isro.org/satellites/geostationary.aspx)
INSAT Program…

v KALPANA-1

Ø Launched in September 2002

Ø The satellite was originally named Metsat, and was renamed in 2003 in the memory of

astronaut Kalpana Chawla

Ø First satellite launched by ISRO, exclusively for the meteorological purposes

Ø Geostationary orbit located at an altitude ~35,786 km and above 74o E longitude

Ø Carries two pay loads: Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) and Data Relay

Transponder (DRT)
 VHRR operates in 3 bands: visible, thermal infrared and water vapor infrared

 Gives images in every half an hour

Images from the KALPANA Satellite

Image from the KALPANA satellite Image from the KALPANA satellite in
in the Visible spectral band the Thermal infrared band
KALPANA Images…

Image from the KALPANA satellite

in the Water vapor band
 Bibliography / Further Readings

1. Gibson, P. J., 2000.Introductory Remote Sensing- Principles and Concepts, Routledge,

London.

2. Kruse, F. A., 2012. Mapping surface mineralogy using imaging spectrometry.

Geomorphology, 137 (1), 41-56.

3. Lillesand, T. M., Kiefer, R. W., Chipman, J. W., 2004. Remote sensing and image
interpretation. Wiley India (P). Ltd., New Delhi.

4. Morisette, J.T., Privette, J.L., Justice, C.O., 2002. A framework for the validation of
MODIS Land products. Remote Sensing of the Environment, 83 (2). 77-96.

5. Sabbins Jr. F. F., 1978. Remote Sensing – Principles and Interpretation. W.H. Freeman
and Company, San Francisco.
Thank You