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Programming in C
 About the Author

E Balagurusamy, is presently the Chairman of EBG Foundation, Coimbatore. In the past he has also
held the positions of member, Union Public Service Commission, New Delhi and Vice-Chancellor, Anna
University, Chennai. He is a teacher, trainer and consultant in the fields of Information Technology
and Management. He holds an ME (Hons) in Electrical Engineering and PhD in Systems Engineering
from the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee. His areas of interest include Object-Oriented Software
Engineering, E-Governance: Technology Management, Business Process Re-engineering and Total
Quality Management.
A prolific writer, he has authored a large number of research papers and several books. His best-selling
books, among others include:
∑ Fundamentals of Computers
∑ Computing Fundamentals and C Programming, 2e
∑ Programming in C#, 3/e
∑ Programming in Java, 5/e
∑ Object-Oriented Programming with C++, 7/e
∑ Numerical Methods
∑ Reliability Engineering
A recipient of numerous honors and awards, he has been listed in the Directory of Who's Who of
Intellectuals and in the Directory of Distinguished Leaders in Education.
Programming in C

E Balagurusamy
Chairman
EBG Foundation
Coimbatore

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

CHENNAI

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 McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Programming in C

Copyright © 2018, by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. No part of this publication may be repro-
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 Contents

Preface xiii

UNIT 1: BasIcs of c ProgrammINg

1. overview of c 3
History of C 3
Importance of C 5
Sample Program 1: Printing a Message 5
Sample Program 2: Adding Two Numbers 8
Sample Program 3: Interest Calculation 9
Sample Program 4: Use of Subroutines 11
Sample Program 5: Use of Math Functions 12
Basic Structure of C Programs 14
Programming Style 15
Executing a ‘C’ Program 15
UNIX System 16
MS-DOS System 18
Key Concepts 19
Always Remember 19
Review Questions 20
Debugging Exercises 21
Programming Exercises 22

2. constants, Variables and Data Types 24

Introduction 24
Character Set 24
C Tokens 26
Keywords and Identifiers 27
vi Contents

Constants 27
Variables 31
Data Types 32
Declaration of Variables 35
Declaration of Storage Class 38
Assigning Values to Variables 39
Defining Symbolic Constants 44
Declaring a Variable as Constant 46
Declaring a Variable as Volatile 46
Key Concepts 46
Always Remember 47
Brief Cases 47
Review Questions 50
Debugging Exercises 51
Programming Exercises 52

3. operators and Expressions 53

Introduction 53
Arithmetic Operators 54
Relational Operators 56
Logical Operators 57
Assignment Operators 58
Increment and Decrement Operators 60
Conditional Operator 61
Bitwise Operators 61
Special Operators 61
Arithmetic Expressions 63
Evaluation of Expressions 64
Precedence of Arithmetic Operators 65
Some Computational Problems 67
Type Conversions In Expressions 68
Operator Precedence and Associativity 71
Key Concepts 74
Always Remember 74
Brief Cases 75
Review Questions 77
Debugging Exercises 80
Programming Exercises 80
 Contents vii

4. Managing Input and Output Operations 83

Introduction 83
Reading a Character 84
Writing a Character 87
Formatted Input 88
Formatted Output 96
Key Concepts 103
Always Remember 104
Brief Cases 104
Review Questions 108
Debugging Exercises 110
Programming Exercises 110

5. Decision making and Branching 113

Introduction 113
Decision Making with If Statement 114
Simple If Statement 114
The If.....Else Statement 117
Nesting of If....Else Statements 120
The Else If Ladder 123
The Switch Statement 127
The ? : Operator 131
The Goto Statement 135
Key Concepts 138
Always Remember 138
Brief Cases 139
Review Questions 143
Debugging Exercises 147
Programming Exercises 148

6. Decision making and Looping 151

Introduction 151
The While Statement 153
The Do Statement 155
The For Statement 158
Jumps in Loops 168
Concise Test Expressions 175
Key Concepts 175
Always Remember 175
viii Contents

Brief Cases 176

Review Questions 183
Debugging Exercises 186
Programming Exercises 187

7. The Preprocessor 191

Introduction 191
Macro Substitution 192
File Inclusion 196
Compiler Control Directives 196
ANSI Additions 200
Key Concepts 202
Always Remember 202
Review Questions 203
Debugging Exercises 204
Programming Exercises 204

UNIT 2: arrays aND sTrINgs

8. Array 207
Introduction 207
One-Dimensional Arrays 209
Declaration of One-Dimensional Arrays 210
Initialization of One-Dimensional Arrays 212
Two-Dimensional Arrays 218
Initializing Two-Dimensional Arrays 222
Multi-Dimensional Arrays 230
Dynamic Arrays 231
More About Arrays 232
Key Concepts 232
Always Remember 232
Brief Cases 233
Review Questions 246
Debugging Exercises 247
Programming Exercises 248

9. character arrays and strings 252

Introduction 252
Declaring and Initializing String Variables 253
Reading Strings from Terminal 254
 Contents ix

Writing Strings to Screen 260

Arithmetic Operations on Characters 264
Putting Strings Together 266
Comparison of Two Strings 267
String-Handling Functions 267
Table of Strings 273
Other Features of Strings 275
Key Concepts 275
Always Remember 275
Brief Cases 276
Review Questions 280
Debugging Exercises 282
Programming Exercises 283

UNIT 3: fUNcTIoNs aND PoINTErs

10. User-Defined Functions 287
Introduction 287
Need for User-Defined Functions 288
A Multi-Function Program 288
Elements of User-Defined Functions 291
Definition of Functions 292
Return Values and Their Types 294
Function Calls 295
Function Declaration 297
Category of Functions 298
No Arguments and no Return Values 298
Arguments but no Return Values 300
Arguments With Return Values 304
No Arguments but Returns a Value 309
Functions that Return Multiple Values 309
Nesting of Functions 310
Recursion 311
Passing Arrays to Functions 313
Passing Strings to Functions 317
The Scope, Visibility, and Lifetime of Variables 318
Multifile Programs 328
Key Concepts 329
x Contents

Always Remember 330

Brief Cases 331
Review Questions 334
Debugging Exercises 337
Programming Exercises 338

11. Pointers 340

Introduction 340
Understanding Pointers 341
Accessing the Address of a Variable 343
Declaring Pointer Variables 344
Initialization of Pointer Variables 345
Accessing a Variable Through its Pointer 346
Chain of Pointers 348
Pointer Expressions 349
Pointer Increments and Scale Factor 351
Pointers and Arrays 351
Pointers and Character Strings 355
Array of Pointers 357
Pointers as Function Arguments 358
Functions Returning Pointers 361
Pointers to Functions 362
Pointers and Structures 364
Troubles with Pointers 367
Key Concepts 367
Always Remember 368
Brief Cases 368
Review Questions 374
Debugging Exercises 376
Programming Exercises 376

UNIT 4: sTrUcTUrEs
12. Structures and Unions 381
Introduction 381
Defining a Structure 382
Declaring Structure Variables 383
Accessing Structure Members 385
 Contents xi

Structure Initialization 386

Copying and Comparingstructure Variables 388
Operations on Individual Members 390
Arrays of Structures 390
Arrays Within Structures 393
Structures Within Structures 394
Structures and Functions 396
Unions 399
Size of Structures 400
Bit Fields 400
Key Concepts 403
Always Remember 403
Brief Cases 404
Review Questions 408
Debugging Exercises 411
Programming Exercises 411

13. Dynamic Memory Allocation and Linked Lists 414

Introduction 414
Dynamic Memory Allocation 414
Allocating a Block of Memory: Malloc 415
Allocating Multiple Blocks of Memory: Calloc 417
Releasing the Used Space: Free 418
Altering the Size of a Block: Realloc 418
Concepts of Linked Lists 420
Advantages of Linked Lists 423
Types of Linked Lists 424
Pointers Revisited 424
Creating a Linked List 426
Inserting an Item 430
Deleting an Item 433
Application of Linked Lists 435
Key Concepts 435
Always Remember 436
Brief Cases 436
Review Questions 443
Debugging Exercises 444
Programming Exercises 445
xii Contents

UNIT 5: fILE ProcEssINg

14. file management in c 449
Introduction 449
Defining and Opening a File 450
Closing a File 451
Input/Output Operations on Files 452
Error Handling During I/O Operations 458
Random Access to Files 460
Command Line Arguments 467
Key Concepts 469
Always Remember 470
Review Questions 470
Debugging Exercises 471
Programming Exercises 471

Annexure 1: Model Question Papers with Hints and Short Solutions 473
annexure 2: Developing a c Program: some guidelines 492
Appendix I: Bit-Level Programming 507
appendix II: ascII Values of characters 512
Appendix III: ANSI C Library Functions 514
 Preface

C
is a powerful, flexible, portable and elegantly structured programming language. Since C
combines the features of high-level language with the elements of the assembler, it is suitable
for both systems and applications programming. It is undoubtedly the most widely used general-
purpose language today in operating systems, and embedded system development. Its influence
is evident in almost all modern programming languages. Since its standardization in 1989, C has
undergone a series of changes and improvements in order to enhance the usefulness of the language.
The version that incorporates the new features is now referred to as C11.

Why this book?

This book has been designed for enhanced higher learning. It is thoroughly updated with outcome
based learning approach as per standard ‘Bloom’s Taxonomy’. Additional write-ups, projects, worked-
out- problems, review exercises, programming and debugging exercises are fused around the content
for reference of the user.

salient features of the Book

∑ Learning Objectives
∑ Key Concepts
∑ Content Tagged with LO
∑ Worked Out Problems
∑ Tips
∑ Closing Vignette
∑ Review Exercises – True False, Fill in the blanks, Questions, Programming Exercises – categorized
into LO and Difficulty level (E for Easy, M for Medium and H for High)

Digital supplements
The digital supplement can be accessed at the given link (http://www.mhhe.com/balagurusamy/picau17)
It contains the following components:
∑ Write up on Self Referential Structures
∑ Write up on Selection sort, linear and binary search
∑ Additional Programs for practice
xiv Preface

feedback
I welcome any constructive criticism of the book and will be grateful for any appraisal by the readers.
Feedback to improve the book will be highly appreciated.
E Balagurusamy

Publisher’s Note
McGraw Hill Education (India) invites suggestions and comments from you, all of which can be sent
to [email protected] (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line). Piracy-
related issues may also be reported.
 UNIT 1
Basics of C Programming

Chapter 1 Overview of C
Chapter 2 Constants, Variables and Data Types
Chapter 3 Operators and Expressions
Chapter 4 Managing Input and Output Operations
Chapter 5 Decision Making and Branching
Chapter 6 Decision Making and Looping
Chapter 7 The Preprocessor
 Chapter
Overview of C
1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO 1.1 Produce an overview of C programming language
LO 1.2 Exemplify the elementary C concepts through sample programs
LO 1.3 Illustrate the use of user-defined functions and math functions through sample programs
LO 1.4 Describe the basic structure of C program
LO 1.5 Recognize the programming style of C language
LO 1.6 Describe how a C program is compiled and executed

hIstorY of C
‘C’ seems a strange name for a programming language. But this strange sounding language is one of
the most popular computer languages today because it is a structured, high-level, machine independent
language. It allows software developers to develop programs without worrying about the hardware
platforms where they will be implemented.
The root of all modern languages is ALGOL, introduced in the early 1960s. ALGOL was the first
computer language to use a block structure. Although it never became popular in USA, it was widely used
in Europe. ALGOL gave the concept of structured programming to the computer science community.
Computer scientists like Corrado Bohm, Guiseppe Jacopini and Edsger Dijkstra popularized this concept
during 1960s. Subsequently, several languages were announced.
In 1967, Martin Richards developed a language called BCPL (Basic Combined Programming
Language) primarily for writing system software. In 1970, Ken Thompson created a language using
many features of BCPL and called it simply B. B was used to create early versions of UNIX operating
system at Bell Laboratories. Both BCPL and B were “typeless” system programming languages.
C was evolved from ALGOL, BCPL and B by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Laboratories in 1972. C uses
many concepts from these languages and added the concept of data types and other powerful features.
Since it was developed along with the UNIX operating system, it is strongly associated with UNIX. This
operating system, which was also developed at Bell Laboratories, was coded almost entirely in C. UNIX
is one of the most popular network operating systems in use today and the heart of the Internet data
superhighway.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 GOD'S OMNISCIENCE AND MAN'S ERE I- Win 295 when it
is noticed that there is a Rrcat difference whether a thing it
predicated of God or of us, the truth will become clear. The diffcrctuc
I that which is ascribed to God and that which is ascribed to man is
ex in the words above mentioned, " And your ways arc not my
ways." CHAPTI'.R XX I There is a great difference between the
knowledge which the producer of a thing possesses concerning it,
and the knowledge which other pcrw)n» possess concerning the
same thing. Suppose a thing is produced in accordance with the
knowledge of the producer, the producer was then guided by his
knowledge in the act of producing the thing. Other people, however,
who examine this work and acquire a knowledge of the whole of it,
depend for that knowledge on the work itscU. E.g., An artisan makes
a box in which weights move with the running of the water, and thus
indicate how many hours have passed of the day and of the ni^'lit.
The whole quantity of the water that is to run out, the different ways
in which it runs, every thread that is drawn, and every little ball that
descends — all this is fully perceived by him who makes the clock ;
and his knowledge is not the result of observing the movements as
they are actually going on ; but, on the contrary, the movements are
produced in accordance with his knowledge. But another person who
looks at that instrument will receive fresh knowledge at every
movement he perceives ; the longer he looks on, the more
knowledge docs he acquire ; he will gradually increase his
knowledge till he fully understands the machinery. If an infinite
number of movements were assumed for this instrument, he would
never be able to complete his knowledge. Besides, he cannot know
any of the movements before they take place, since he only knows
them from their actual occurrence. The same is the case with every
object, and its relation to our knowledge and God's knowledge of it.
Whatever we know of the things is derived from observation ; on
that account it is impossible for us to know that which will take place
in future, or that which is infinite. Our knowledge is acquired and
increased in proportion to the things known by us. This is not the
case with God. His knowledge of things is not derived from the
things themselves ; if this were the case, there would be change and
plurality in His knowledge ; on the contrary, the things arc in
accordance with His eternal knowledge, which has established their
actual properties, and made part of them purely spiritual, another
part m.itcrial and constant as regards its individual members, a third
part material and changeable as regards the individual beings
according to eternal and constant law*. Plurality, acquisition, and
change in His knowledge is therefore impoMiblc. He fully knows His
unchangeable essence, and has thus a knowledge of all that results
from any of His acts. If we were to try to understand in what
manner this is done, it would be the same as if we tried to be the
same as God, and to make our knowledge identical with His
knowledge. Those who seek the truth, and admit what is true, must
believe that nothing is hidden from God ; that everything is revealed
to His knowledge, which is identical with His essence ; that this kind
of knowledge cannot be comprehended by u» ; for if we knew its
method, we would possess that intellect by which «uch
 296 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED knowledge could be
acquired. Such intellect does not exist except in God, and is at the
same time His essence. Note this well, for I think that this is an
excellent idea, and leads to correct views ; no error wiU be found in
it ; no dialectical argument ; it does not lead to any absurd
conclusion, nor to ascribing any defect to God. These sublime and
profound themes admit of no proof whatever, neither according to
our opinion who believe in the teaching of Scripture, nor according
to the philosophers who disagree and are much divided on this
question. In all questions that cannot be demonstrated, we must
adopt the method which we have adopted in this question about
God's Omniscience. Note it. CHAPTER XXn The strange and
wonderful Book of Job treats of the same subject as we are
discussing ; its basis is a fiction, conceived for the purpose of
explaining the different opinions which people hold on Divine
Providence. You know that some of our Sages clearly stated Job has
never existed, and has never been created, and that he is a poetic
fiction. Those who assume that he has existed, and that the book is
historical, are unable to determine when and where Job lived. Some
of our Sages say that he lived in the days of the Patriarchs ; others
hold that he was a contemporary of Moses ; others place him in the
days of David, and again others believe that he was one of those
who returned from the Babylonian exile. This difference of opinion
supports the assumption that he has never existed in reality. But
whether he has existed or not, that which is related of him is an
experience of frequent occurrence, is a source of perplexity to all
thinkers, and has suggested the above-mentioned opinions on God's
Omniscience and Providence. This perplexity is caused by the
account that a simple and perfect person, who is upright in his
actions, and very anxious to abstain from sin, is afflicted by
successive misfortunes, namely, by loss of property, by the death of
his children, and by bodily disease, though he has not committed
any sin. According to both theories, viz., the theory that Job did
exist, and the theory that he did not exist, the introduction to the
book is certainly a fiction ; I mean the portion which relates to the
words of the adversary, the words of God to the former, and the
handing over of Job to him. This fiction, however, is in so far
different from other fictions that it includes profound ideas and great
mysteries, removes great doubts, and reveals the most important
truths. I will discuss it as fully as possible ; and I will also tell you
the words of our Sages that suggested to me the explanation of this
great poem. First, consider the words : " There was a man in the
land Uz." The term Uz has different meanings ; it is used as a proper
noun. Comp. " Uz, his first-born " (Gen. rxii. 21) ; it is also
imperative of the verb Uz, " to take advice." Comp. uzu, " take
counsel " (Isa. viii. 10). The name Uz therefore expresses the
exhortation to consider well this lesson, study it, grasp its ideas, and
comprehend them, in order to see which is the right view. " The
sons of God then came to present themselves before the Lord, and
the adversary came also among them and in their number " (chap. i.
6, ii. l). It is not said : " And the sons of God and the adversary
came to present themselves before the Lord " ; this sentence would
have implied that the
 JOB AND rilS FRfl-NDS 297 existence of all that came was
of the same kind anJ rank. The words u»cd are these : " And the
sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord, and the
adversary came also among them." Such a phrase is only used in
reference to one that comes without being expected or invited ; he
only comes among others whose coming has been sought. The
adversary \a then described as going to and fro on the earth, and
walking up and down thereon. He is in no relation to the beings
above, and has no place among them. For this reason it is said, "
from going to and fro on th(r earth, and walking up and down on it,"
for his " going " and " walking " can only take place on the earth.
[Job], the simple and righteous man, is given and handed over to
the adversary ; whatever evils and misfortunes befell Job as regards
his property, children, and health, were all caused by this adversary.
When this idea is sufficiently indicated, the author begins to reflect
on it ; one opinion Job is represented to hold, whilst other opinions
are defended by his friends. I will further on expound these opinions
which formed the substance of the discussion on the misfortunes of
Job, caused by tlie adversary alone. Job, as well as his friends, were
of opinion that God Himself was the direct agent of what happened,
and that the adversary was not the intermediate cause. It is
remarkable in this account that wisdom is not ascribed to Job. The
text does not say he was an intelligent, wise, or clever man ; but
virtues and uprightness, especially in actions, are ascribed to him. If
he were wise he would not have any doubt about the cause of his
suffermg, as will be shown later on. Besides, his misfortunes are
enumerated m the same order as they rank in man's estimation.
There are some who arc not perplexed or discouraged by loss of
property, thinking little of it ; but are terrified when they are
threatened with the death of their children and are killed by their
anxiety. There are others who bear without shock or fainting even
the loss of their children, but no one endowed with sensation is able
to bear bodily pain. We generally extol God in words, and praise Him
as righteous and benevolent, when we prosper and are happy, or
when the grief we have to bear is moderate. But [it is otherwise]
when such troubles as are described in Job come over us. Some of
us deny God, and believe that there is no rule in the Universe, even
if only their property is lost. Others retain their faith in the existence
of justice and order, even when suffering from loss of property
whereas loss of children is too much affliction for them. Others
remain firm in their faith, even with the loss of their children ; but
there is no one who can patiently bear the pain that reaches his own
person ; he then murmurs and complains of injustice either in his
heart or with his tongue^ ^^ Now consider that the phrase, " to
present themselves before the Lord, is used in reference to the sons
of God, both the first and the second times, but in reference to the
adversary, who appeared on either occasion among them and in
their number, this phrase is not used the first time, whilst in h.s
second appearance " the adversary also came among them to
present himself before the Lord." Consider this, and see how very
extraordinary it is !- 1 hcsc ideas presented themselves hke an
inspiration to me.- 1 he phrase, to present themselves before the
Lord," implies that they are beings who are forced by God's
command to do what He desires. This may be inferred from the
words of the prophet Zechariah concerning the four chariots hat
came forth He says : " And the angel answered and said to me,
These lour
 298 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED winds of the heavens
come forth from presenting themselves before the Lord of the whole
earth " (Zech. vi. 5). It is clear that the relation of tlie sons of God to
the Universe is not the same as that of the adversary. The relation of
the sons of God is more constant and more permanent. The
adversary has also some relation to the Universe, but it is inferior to
that of the sons of God. It is also remarkable in this account that in
the description of the adversary's wandering about on the earth, and
his performing certain actions, it is distinctly stated that he has no
power over the soul ; whilst power has been given to him over all
earthly affairs, there is a partition between him and the soul ; he has
not received power over the soul. This is expressed in the words, "
But keep away from his soul " (Job. ii. 6). I have already shown you
the homonymous use of the term " soul " {nefesh) in Hebrew (Part
I., chap. xli.). It designates that element in man that survives him ; it
is this portion over which the adversary has no power. — After these
remarks of mine listen to the following useful instruction given by
our Sages, who in truth deserve the title of " wise men " ; it makes
clear that which appears doubtful, and reveals that which has been
hidden, and discloses most of the mysteries of the Law. They said in
the Talmud as follows : R. Simeon, son of Lakish, says: " The
adversary (satan), evil inclination (yezer ^d-r^'), and the angel of
death, are one and the same being." Here we find all that has been
mentioned by us in such a clear manner that no intelligent person
will be in doubt about it. It has thus been shown to you that one and
the same thing is designated by these three different terms, and
that actions ascribed to these three are in reality the actions of one
and the same agent. Again, the ancient doctors of the Talmud said :
" The adversary goes about and misleads, then he goes up and
accuses, obtains permission, and takes the soiJ." You have already
been told that when David at the time of the plague was shown the
angel " with the sword drawn in his hand stretched out over
Jerusalem " (2 Sam. xxiv. 17), it was done for the purpose of
conveying a certain idea to him. The same idea was also expressed
in the vision concerning the sins of the sons of Joshua, the high
priest, by the words, " And the adversary stood on his right hand to
accuse him " (Zech. iii. 1). The vision then reveals that [the
adversary] is far from God, and continues thus : " The Lord will
rebuke thee, O adversary, the Lord who hath chosen Jerusalem will
rebuke thee " (ibid. ver. 2). Balaam saw prophetically the same
vision in his journey, addressing him with the words, " Behold I have
come forth to be a hindrance to thee " (Num. xxii. 32). The Hebrew,
satan, is derived from the same root as seteh, "turn away" (Prov. iv.
15); it implies the notion of turning and moving away from a thing ;
he undoubtedly turns us away from the way of truth, and leads us
astray in the way of error. The same idea is contained in the
passage, " And the imagination of the heart of man is evil from his
youth " (Gen. viii. 21). The theory of the good and the evil
inclinations (y^zer ha-tob, ve-yezer ha-ra^) is frequently referred to
in our religion. Our Sages also say, " Serve God wath your good and
your evil inclinations." (B. T. Rer. 57^.) They also say that the evil
inclination we receive at our birth ; for " at the door sin croucheth "
(Gen. iv. 7), as is distinctly said in the Law, " And the imagination of
the heart of man is evil from his youth " {ibid. viii. 21). The good
inclination, however, comes when the mind is developed. In
explaining the allegory representing the body
 JOB AND HIS FRIHNDS 2tyc) of man and his dillcrcnt
faculties, our Sa«cs (H. T. Ned. yzl>) wid • " Tl.r evil inclination is
called a great king, whilst the g
 300 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED eous and the wicked are
equal before God, who holds all mankind in contempt. Job therefore
says (ix. 22, 23) : " This is one thing, therefore I said it, He
destroyeth the perfect and the wicked. If the scourge slay suddenly,
he will laugh at the trial of the innocent." He thus declares that
when a scourge comes suddenly, killing and destroying all it meets,
God laughs at the trial of the innocent. He further confirms this view
in the following passage : " One dieth in his full strength, being
wholly at ease and quiet. His vessels are full of milk, etc. And
another dieth in the bitterness of his soul, and never eateth with
pleasure. They shall lie down alike in the dust, and the worms shall
cover them " {ibid. xxi. 23-26). In a similar manner he shows the
good condition and prosperity of wicked people ; and is even very
explicit on this point. He speaks thus : " Even when I remember I
am afraid, and trembling taketh hold on my ilesh. Wherefore do the
wicked live, become old, yea, are mighty in power ? Their seed is
established in their sight with them," etc. (ibid. 6-8). Having thus
described their prosperity, he addresses his opponents, and says to
them : " Granted that as you think, the children of this prosperous
atheist will perish after his death, and their memory will be blotted
out, what harm will the fate of his family cause him after his death ?
For what pleasure hath he in his house after him, when the number
of his months is cut of? in the midst ? " (ibid. 21). Job then explains
that there is no hope after death, so that the cause [of the
misfortune of the righteous man] is nothing else but entire neglect
on the part of God. He is therefore surprised that God has not
abandoned the creation of man altogether ; and that after having
created him, He does not take any notice of him. He says in his
surprise : " Hast thou not poured me out as milk, and curdled me
like cheese ? " etc. (ibid. x. 10, seq.). This is one of the different
views held by some thinkers on Providence. Our Sages (B. T. Baba B.
i6a) condemned this view of Job as mischievous, and expressed their
feeling in words like the following : " dust should have filled the
mouth of Job " ; " Job wished to upset the dish " ; " Job denied the
resurrection of the dead " ; " He commenced to blaspheme." When,
however, God said to Eliphaz and his colleagues, " You have not
spoken of me the thing that is right, as my servant Job hath " (xlii.
7), our Sages assume as the cause of this rebuke, the maxim " Man
is not punished for that which he utters in his pain " ; and that God
ignored the sin of Job [in his utterances], because of the acuteness
of his suffering. But this explanation does not agree wdth the object
of the whole allegory. The words of God are justified, as I wiU show,
by the fact that Job abandoned his first very erroneous opinion, and
himself proved that it was an error. It is the opinion which suggests
itself as plausible at first thought, especially in the minds of those
who meet with mishaps, well knowing that they have not merited
them through sins. This is admitted by all, and therefore this opinion
was assigned to Job. But he is represented to hold this view only so
long as he was without wisdom, and knew God only by tradition, in
the same manner as religious people generally know Him. As soon
as he had acquired a true knowledge of God, he confessed that
there is undoubtedly true felicity in the knowledge of God ; it is
attained by all who acquire that knowledge, and no earthly 'trouble
can disturb it. So long as Job's knowledge of God was based on
tradition and communication, and not on research, he believed that
such imaginary good
 JOn AND HIS FRIENDS loi as is possessed in health, riches,
and children, was the utmost that men tan attain ; this was the
reason why he was in perplexity, and why he uttered the above-
mentioned opinions, and this is also the meaning of hit words : " I
have heard of thee by the hearing of the car ; but now mine eye
»ceih thee. Wherefore I abhor myself, and repent because of dust .r
' '■ i " (xlii. 5, 6) ; that is to say, he abhorred all that he had desired
; , 4t»J that he was sorry that he had been in dust and ashes ;
comp. " and he Mt down among the ashes " (ii. 8). On account of
this last utterance, which implies true perception, it is said
afterwards in reference to him, " for you have not spoken of mc the
thing that is right, as my servant Job hath." The opinion set forth by
Eliphaz in reference to Job's suffering is likcwitc one of the current
views on Providence. He holds that the fate of Job was in
accordance with strict justice. Job was guilty of sins for which he
deserved his fate. Eliphaz therefore says to Job : " Is not thy
wickcdnc** great, and thine iniquities infinite ? " (xxii. 5). He then
points out to him that his upright actions and his good ways, nn
which he relics, need not be so perfect in the eyes of God that no
punishment should be inflicted on him. " Behold, he putteth no trust
in his servants ; and his angels he chargcth with folly : how much
less in them that dwell in houses of clay." etc. (iv. 17-18). Eliphaz
never abandoned his belief that the fate of man is the result of
justice, that we do not know all our shortcomings for which we are
punished, nor the way how we incur the punishment through them.
Bildad the Shuhite defends in this question the theory of reward and
compensation. He therefore tells Job that if he is innocent and
without sin, hii terrible misfortunes will be the source of great
reward, will be followed by the best compensation, and will prove a
boon to him as the cause of great bli»» in the future world. This idea
is expressed in the words : " If thou l>c pure and upright, surely
now lie will awake for thee, and make the habitation of thy
righteousness prosperous. Though thy beginning was small, yet thy
latter end will greatly increase " (viii. 6-8). This opinion concerning
Providence is widespread, and we have already explained it. Zofar
the Naamathite holds that the Divine Will is the source of cver)'thing
that happens ; no further cause can be sought for His actions, and
11 cannot be asked why He has done this and why He has not done
that. Fhat which God docs can therefore not be explained by the
way of justice or the result of wisdom. His true Essence demands
that He docs what He wUh ; we are unable to fathom the depth of
His wisdom, and it .s the bw and ru.c of this wisdom that whatever
He does is done because U is H.s will and for no other cause. Zofar
therefore says to Job : But oh that God wouKl speak, and open his
lips against thee; and that he would ^^ow thee the secrets of
wisdom, for wisdom hath two portions ! Know, therefore, ha God
exacteth of thee less than thine iniquity ^^cscrvctlu Canst thou bv
searching find out God ? canst thou find out the Almighty unto
perfec''Tn'tllf later' consider well how the Book of Job discusse. the
probletn. wh^ch has perplexed many people, and led them to adopt
in reference » Divine Providence some one of the theories wh.ch I
have eipla.ned above . aU possible different theories arc mentioned
therein^ Ihe pr. described either by way of fiction or in accord.,ncc
with real fact. ..
 302 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED manifested itself in a man
famous for his excellency and wisdom. The view ascribed to Job is
the theory of Aristotle. Eliphaz holds the opinion taught in Scripture,
Bildad's opinion is identical with that of the Mu'tazilah, whilst Zofar
defends the theory of the Asha'riyah. These were the ancient views
on Providence ; later on a new theory was set forth, namely, that
ascribed to Elihu. For this reason he is placed above the others, and
described as younger in years but greater in wisdom. He censures
Job for his foolishly exalting himself, expressing surprise at such
great troubles befalling a good man, and dwelling on the praises of
his own deeds. He also tells the three friends that their minds have
been weakened by great age. A profound and wonderful discourse
then follows. Reflecting on his words we may at first thought be
surprised to find that he does not add anything to the words of
Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zofar ; and that he only repeats their ideas in
other terms and more explicitly. For he likewise censures and
rebukes Job, attributes justice to God, relates His wonders in nature,
and holds that God is not affected by the service of the worshipper,
nor by the disobedience of the rebellious. All this has already been
said by His colleagues. But after due consideration we see clearly
the new idea introduced by Elihu, which is the principal object of his
speech, an idea which has not been uttered by those who spoke
before him. In addition to this he mentions also other things set
forth by the previous speakers, in the same manner as each of the
rest, viz., Job and his three friends, repeat what the others have
said. The purpose of this repetition is to conceal the opinion peculiar
to each speaker, and to make all appear in the eyes of the ordinary
reader to utter one and the same view, although in reality this is not
the case. The new idea, which is peculiar to EHhu and has not been
mentioned by the others, is contained in his metaphor of the angel's
intercession. It is a frequent occurrence, he says, that a man
becomes ill, approaches the gates of death, and is already given up
by his neighbours. If then an angel, of any kind whatever, intercedes
on his behalf and prays for him, the intercession and prayers are
accepted ; the patient rises from his illness, is saved, and returns to
good health. This result is not always obtained ; intercession and
deliverance do not always follow each other ; it happens only twice,
or three times. Elihu therefore says : " If there be an angel with him,
an interpreter, one among a thousand, to show unto man his
uprightness," etc. (xxxiii. 29). He then describes man's condition
when convalescent and the rejoicing at his recovery, and continues
thus : " Lo, all these things worketh God twice, three times with man
" {ibid. 29). This idea occurs only in the words of EHhu. His
description of the method of prophecy in preceding verses is likewise
new. He says : " Surely God speaketh in one way, yea in two ways,
yet man perceiveth it not. In a dream, in a vision of the night, when
deep sleep falleth upon man, in slumberings upon the bed " {ibid.
14, 1 5). He afterwards supports and illustrates his theory by a
description of many natural phenomena, such as thunder, lightning,
rain, and winds ; with these are mixed up accounts of various
incidents of life, e.g., an account of pestilence contained in the
following passage : " In a moment they die, and at midnight ; the
people become tumultuous and pass away " (ixxiv. 20). Great wars
are described in the following verse : " He breaketh in pieces mighty
men without number, and setteth others in their stead " {ibid. 24).
 JOB AND JUS i-Rn-wns 301 There arc many more passages
of this kind. In a similar manner the Revelation that reached Job
(chap, xxxviii., chap, xli.), and explained to him the error of his
whole belief, constantly describes natural objccu, and nothing else ;
it describes the elements, meteorological phenomena, and
pcculiaritic* of various kinds of living beings. The sky, the heavens,
Orion and Pleiadc* are only mentioned in reference to their influence
upon our atmosphere, u* that Job's attention is in this prophecy only
called to things below the lunar sphere. Elihu likewise derives
instruction from the nature of various kindi of animals. Thus he says
: " He teacheth us through the beasts of the earth, and maketh us
wise through the fowls of heaven" (xxxv. ii). He dwells longest on
the nature of the Leviathan, which possesses a combination of bodily
peculiarities found separate in different animals, in those that walk,
those that swim, and those that fly. The description of all these tin- .
serves to impress on our minds that we are unable to comprehend
how ti. transient creatures come into existence, or to imagine how
their natural properties commenced to exist, and that these are not
like the things which we are able to produce. Much less can we
compare tin- manner in which God rules and manages His creatures
with the manner in which we rule and manage certain beings. We
must content ourselves with this, and believe that nothing is hidden
from God, as Elihu says : " For his eyes arc upon the ways of man,
and he secth all his goings. There is no darkness nor shadow of
death, where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves " (xxxiv.
21, 22). But the term management, when applied to God, has not
the same meaning which it has when applied to us ; and when we
say that He rules His creatures we do not mean that He does the
same as we do wh
 304 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED CHAPTER XXIV The
doctrine of trials is open to great objections ; it is in fact more
exposed to objections than any other thing taught in Scripture. It is
mentioned in Scripture six times, as I will show in this chapter.
People have generally the notion that trials consist in afflictions and
mishaps sent by God to man, not as punishments for past sins, but
as giving opportunity for great reward. This principle is not
mentioned in Scripture in plain language, and it is only in one of the
six places referred to that the literal meaning conveys this notion. I
will explain the meaning of that passage later on. The principle
taught in Scripture is exactly the reverse ; for it is said : " He is a
God of faithfulness, and there is no iniquity in him " (Deut. xxxii. 4).
The teaching of our Sages, although some of them approve this
general belief [concerning trials], is on the whole against it. For they
sav, " There is no death without sin, and no affliction without
transgression." (See p. 285.) Every intelligent religious person should
have this faith, and should not ascribe any wrong to God, who is far
from it ; he must not assume that a person is innocent and perfect
and does not deserve what has befallen him. The trials mentioned in
Scripture in the [six] passages-, seem to have been tests and
experiments by which God desired to learn the intensity of the faith
and the devotion of a man or a nation. [If this were the case] it
would be very difficult to comprehend the object of the trials, and
yet the sacrifice of Isaac seems to be a case of this kind, as none
witnessed it, but God and the two concerned [Abraham and Isaac].
Thus God says to Abraham, " For now I know that thou fearest
God," etc. (Gen. xxii. 12). In another passage it is said : " For the
Lord your God proveth you to know whether ye love," etc. (Deut.
xili. 4). Again, "And to prove thee to know what was in thine heart,"
etc. {ibid. viii. 2). I will now remove all the difficulties. The sole
object of all the trials mentioned in Scripture is to teach man what
he ought to do or believe ; so that the event which forms the actual
trial is not the end desired ; it is but an example for our instruction
and guidance. Hence the words " to know (la-da'at) whether ye
love," etc., do not mean that God desires to know whether they
loved God ; for He already knows it ; but la-da'at, " to know," has
here the same meaning as in the phrase " to know (la-da'at) that I
am the Lord that sanctifieth you " (Exod. xxxi. 13), i.e., that all
nations shall know that I am the Lord who sanctifieth you. In a
similar manner Scripture says : — If a man should rise, pretend to
be a prophet, and show you his signs by which he desired to
convince you that his words are true, know that God intends thereby
to prove to the nations how firmly you believe in the truth of God's
word, and how well you have comprehended the true Essence of
God ; that you cannot be misled by any tempter to corrupt your faith
in God. Your religion will then aflFord a guidance to all who seek the
truth, and of all religions man will choose that which is so firmly
established that it is not shaken by the performance of a miracle. For
a miracle cannot prove that which is impossible ; it is useful only as
a confirmation of that which is possible, as we have explained in our
Mishnch-torah. (Yesodc ha-torah vii. f. viii. 3.) Having shown that the
term " to know" means "that all people may know," we apply this
interpretation to the following words said in reference to the
 THE OBJECT ()}■ I RIALS 305 manna : " To humble thee,
and to prove iliee, to kiu)W what wa» in thine heart, whether thou
wouldst keep his commandments, or not " (I)cul. viii. 2). All nations
shall know, it shall be published throughout the world, that those
who devote themselves to the service of God arc supported beyond
their expectation. In the same sense it was said when the manna
commenced to come down, " that I may prove them whether they
will walk in my law or no " (Exod. xvi. 4) ; i.e., let every one who
desires try and see whether it is useful and sufficient to devote
himself to the service of God. It is, however, said a third time in
reference to the manna : " Who fed thee in the wilderness with
manna, which thy fathers knew not, that he mi^'ht humble thee,
and that Ijaonight prove thee, to do thee good at thy latter end "
(Deut. viii. 16). Tnis might induce us to think that God sometimes
afflicts man for the purpose of increasing his reward. Hut in truth
this is not the case. We may rather assume one of the two following
explanations ; either this passage expresses the same idea as is
expressed in the first and second passages, viz., to show [to all
people] whether faith in God is sufficient to secure man's
maintenance and his relief from care and trouble, or not. Or the
Hebrew term le-nassoteka means " to accustom thcc " ; the word is
used in this sense in the following passage : " She has not
accustomed (nisseta) the sole of her foot to set it upon the ground "
{ibid, xxviii. 56). The meaning of the above passage would then be :
" God has first trained you in the hardships of the wilderness, in
order to increase your welfare when you enter the land of Canaan."
It is indeed a fact that the transition from trouble to ease gives more
pleasure than continual case. It is also known that the Israelites
would not have been able to conquer the land and fight with its
inhabitants, if they had not previously undergone the trouble and
hardship of the wilderness. Scripture says in reference to this : " For
God said. Lest peradventure the people repent when tlicy sec war,
and they return to Egypt. But God led the people about, through the
way of the wilderness of the Red Sea ; and the children of Israel
went up harnessed out of the land of Egypt" (Exod. xiii. 17, 18).
Ease destroys bravery, whilst trouble and care for food create
strength ; and this was [also for the Israelites] the good that
ultimately came out of their wandering* in the wilderness. The
passage, " For God is come to prove you, and that his fear may be
before your faces, that ye sin not " {ibid. xx. 20), expresses the
same idea as is expressed in Deuteronomy (xiii. 4) in reference to a
person who prophesies in the name of idols, namely in the words :
"For the I>ord your God froveth you to know whether ye love the
Lord." We have already explained the meaning of the latter passage.
In the same sense Moses said to the Israehtes when thev stood
round Mount Sinai : " Do not fear ; the object of this great sight
which you perceived is that you should sec the truth with your own
eyes. When the Lord your God, in order to show your faithfulness to
Him, will prove you by a false prophet, who wiU tell you the reverse
of what you have heard, you will remain firm and your steps will not
slide. If I had come as a messenger as you desired, and had told
you that which had been said unto me and which you had not heard,
you would perhaps consider as true what another might tell you in
opposition to that which you heard from me. But it is different now,
as you have heard U in the midst of the great sight,"
 306 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED The account of Abraham
our father binding his son, includes two great ideas or principles of
our faith. First, it shows us the extent and limit of the fear of God.
Abraham is commanded to perform a certain act, which is not
equalled by any surrender of property or by any sacrifice of life, for it
surpasses everything that can be done, and belongs to the class of
actions which are believed to be contrary to human feelings. He had
been without child, and had been longing for a child ; he had great
riches, and was expecting that a nation should spring from his seed.
After all hope of a son had already been given up, a son was born
unto him. How great must have been his delight in the child ! how
intensely must he have loved him ! And yet because he feared God,
and loved to do what God commanded, he thought little of that
beloved chUd, and set aside all his hopes concerning him, and
consented to kill him after a journey of three days. If the act by
which he showed his readiness to kill his son had taken place
immediately when he received the commandment, it might have
been the result of confusion and not of consideration. But the fact
that he performed it three days after he had received the
commandment, proves the presence of thought, proper
consideration, and careful examination of what is due to the Divine
command and what is in accordance with the love and fear of God.
There is no necessity to look for the presence of any other idea or of
anything that might have affected his emotions. For Abraham did not
hasten to kill Isaac out of fear that God might slay him or make him
poor, but solely because it is man's duty to love and to fear God,
even without hope of reward or fear of punishment. We have
repeatedly explained this. The angel, therefore, says to him, " For
now I know," etc. (ibid. ver. 12), that is, from this action, for which
you deserve to be truly called a God-fearing man, all people shall
learn how far we must go in the fear of God. This idea is confirmed
in Scripture ; it is distinctly stated that one sole thing, fear of God, is
the object of the whole Law with its affirmative and negative
precepts, its promises and its historical examples, for it is said, " If
thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this Law that are written
in this book, that thou mayest fear this glorious and fearful name,
the Lord thy God," etc. (Deut. xxviii. 58). This is one of the two
purposes of the 'akedah (sacrifice or binding of Isaac). The second
purpose is to show how the prophets believed in the truth of that
which came to them from God by way of inspiration. We shall not
think that what the prophets heard or saw in allegorical figures may
at times have included incorrect or doubtful elements, since the
Divine communication was made to them, as we have shown, in a
dream or a vision and through the imaginative faculty. Scripture thus
tells us that whatever the Prophet perceives in a prophetic vision, he
considers as true and correct and not open to any doubt ; it is in his
eyes like all other things perceived by the senses or by the intellect.
This is proved by the consent of Abraham to slay "his only son whom
he loved," as he was commanded, although the commandment was
received in a dream or a vision. If the Prophets had any doubt or
suspicion as regards the truth of what they saw in a prophetic dream
or perceived in a prophetic vision, they would not have consented to
do what is unnatural, and Abraham would not have found in his soul
strength enough to perform that act, if he had any doubt [as regards
the truth of the commandment]. It was just the right thing that this
lesson derived from the
 GOD'S WORK NOT PURPOSHLESS 307 'akedah (" sacrifice
") should be taught through Abraham and a man like Isaac. For
Abraham was the first to teach the Unity of God, to ntabliih the faith
[in Him], to cause it to remain among coming generation*, and to
win his fellow-men for his doctrine ; as Scripture says of him : " I
know him, that he will command," etc. (Gen. viii. 19). In the same
manner at he was followed by others in his true and valuable
opinions when they were heard from him, so also the principles
should be accepted that may be Icarni from his actions ; especially
from the act by which he confirmed the principle of the truth of
prophecy, and showed how far we must go in the fear and the love
of God. This is the way how we have to understand the accounts of
trials ; we must not think that God desires to examine us and to try
us in order to know what He did not know before. Far is this from
Ilim ; He is far above tli.it which ignorant and foolish people imagine
concerning Ilim, in the evil of their thoughts. Note this. CHAPTER
XXV [Man's] actions are divided as regards their object into four
classes ; they are either purposeless, unimportant, in vain, or good.
An action is m vain if the object which is sought by it is not obtained
on account of some obstacles. Thus people frequently use the
phrase " thou hast worked in vain " in reference to a person who
looks out for some one and cannot find him ; or who undertakes the
troubles of a journey for his business without profit. Our endeavours
and exertions are in vain as regards a patient that is not cured. This
applies to all actions which are intended for certain purposes that arc
not realized. Purposeless are such actions, which serve no purpose
at all. Some persons, e.g., do something with their hands whilst
thinking of something else. The actions of the insane and confused
are of this kind. Unimportant are such actions by which a trivial
object is sought, an object that is not necessary and is not of great
use. This is the case when a person dances without seeking to
benefit his digestion by that exercise, or performs certain actions for
the purpose of causing laughter. Such actions arc certainly mere
pastimes. Whether an action belongs to this class or not depends on
the intention of those who perform it, and on the degree of their
perfection. For many things are necessary or ven/ useful in the
opinion of one person and superfluous in the opinion of another.
E.g., bodily exercise, in its different kinds, is necessary for the proper
preservation of health in the opinion of him who understands the
science of medicine ; writing is considered as very useful by
scholars. When people take exercise by playing with the baU,
wrestling, stretching out the hands or keeping back the breathing, or
do certain things as preparation for writing, shape the pen and get
the paper ready, such actions are mere pastimes in the eyes of the
ignorant, but the wise do not consider them as unimportant. Useful
"^ such actions as serve a proper purpose ; being either necessary
or useful f.^r the purpose which is to be attained. This division [of
man's actions] is as I believe, not open to any objection. For every
action is either intended for a certain purpose or is not intended ;
and if intended for a certain purpose, that pur 
 ^.o8 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED o pose may be important
or unimportant, is sometimes attained and sometimes missed. This
division is therefore complete. After having explained this division, I
contend that no intelligent person can assume that any of the
actions of God can be in vain, purposeless, or unimportant.
According to our view and the view of all that follow the Law of
Moses, all actions of God are " exceedingly good." Thus Scripture
says, " And God saw everything that he had made, and behold, it
was very good " (Gen. i. 31). And that which God made for a certain
thing is necessary or [at least] very useful for the existence of that
thing. Thus food is necessary for the existence of living beings ; the
possession of eyes is very useful to man during his life, although
food only serves to sustain living beings a certain time, and the
senses are only intended to procure to animals the advantages of
sensation. The philosophers likewise assume that in Nature there is
nothing in vain, so that everything that is not the product of human
industry serves a certain purpose, which may be known or unknown
to us. There are thinkers that assume that God does not create one
thing for the sake of another, that existing things are not to each
other in the relation of cause and effect ; that they are all the direct
result of the Will of God, and do not serve any purpose. According to
this opinion we cannot ask why has He made this and not that ; for
He does what pleases Him, without following a fixed system. Those
who defend this theory must consider the actions of God as
purposeless, and even as inferior to purposeless actions ; for when
we perform purposeless actions, our attention is engaged by other
things and we do not know what we are doing ; but God, according
to these theorists, knows what He is doing, and knowingly does it
for no purpose or use whatever. The absurdity of assuming that
some of God's actions are trivial, is apparent even at first sight, and
no notice need be taken of the nonsensical idea that monkeys were
created for our pastime. Such opinions originate only in man's
ignorance of the nature of transient beings, and in his overlooking
the principle that it was intended by the Creator to produce in its
present form everything whose existence is possible ; a different
form was not decreed by the Divine Wisdom, and the existence [of
objects of a different form] is therefore impossible, because the
existence of all things depends on the decree of God's wisdom.
Those who hold that God's works serve no purpose whatever believe
that an examination of the totality of existing things compels them
to adopt this theory. They ask what is the purpose of the whole
Universe ? they necessarily answer, like all those who believe in the
Creation, that it was created because God willed it so, and for no
other purpose. The same answer they apply to all parts of the
Universe, and do not admit that the hole in the uvea and the
transparency of the cornea are intended for the purpose of allowing
the spiritus visus to pass and to perceive certain objects ; they do
not assume that these circumstances are causes for the sight ; the
hole in the uvea and the transparent matter over it are not there
because of the sight, but because of the Will of God, although the
sense of sight could have been created in a different form. There are
passages in the Bible which at first sight we might understand to
imply this theory. E.g., " The Lord hath done whatever he pleased "
(Ps. cxxxv. 6) ; " His soul desired it and he made it " (Job xxiii. 13) ;
" Who will say unto thee, \\ hat doest thou ? " (Eccles. viii. 4). The
meaning of these and similar
 THE OBJECT OF THE CRl.M lOS 300 verses is this :
whatever God desires to do is necessarily done ; there is nothing
that could prevent the realization of His will. The object of Hit will is
only that which is possible, and of the things possible only such as
His wisdom decrees upon. When God desires to produce the best
work, no obstacle or hindrance intervenes between Him and that
work. This is the opinion held by all religious people, also by the
philosophers ; it is also our opinion. For although we believe that
God created the Universe from nothing, most of our v«se and
learned men believe that the Creation was not the exclusive result of
His will ; but His wisdom, which we arc unable to comprehend,
made the actual existence of the Universe necessary. The same
unchangeable wisdom found it as necessary that non-existence
should precede the existence of the Universe. Our Sages frequently
express this idea in the explanation of the words, " He hath made
everything beautiful in his time " (Eccles. iii. 11), only in order to
avoid that which is objectionable, viz., the opinion that God does
things without any purpose whatever. This is the belief of most of
our Theologians ; and in a similar manner have the Prophets
expressed the idea that all parts of natural products are well
arranged, in good order, connected with each other, and stand to
each other in the relation of cause and effect ; nothing of them is
purposeless, trivial, or in vain ; they arc all the result of great
wisdom. Comp. " O Lord, how manifold arc thy works ! in wisdom
hast thou made them all : the earth is full of thy riches " (Ps. civ. 24)
; " And all his works are done in truth " {ibid, xxiiii. 4) ; " The Lord
by wisdom hath founded the earth " (Prov. iii. 19). This idea occurs
frequently ; there is no necessity to believe otherwise ; philosophic
speculation leads to the same result ; viz., that in the whole of
Nature there is nothing purposeless, trivial, or unnecessar>',
especially m the Nature of the spheres, which are in the best
condition and order, in accordance with their superior substance.
Know that the difficulties which lead to confusion in the question
what is the purpose of the Universe or of any of its parts, arise from
two causes : first, man has an erroneous idea of himself, and
believes that the whole world exists only for his sake ; secondly, he
is ignorant both about the nature of the sublunary world, and about
the Creator's intention to ?;^'«^/^^'^^;<=°"jP all beings whose
existence is possible, because existence is undoubtedly good. The
consequences of that error and of the ignorance about the two
things named, are doubts and confusion, which lead many to
imagme that some of God's works are trivial, others purposeless,
and others in, vain. 1 hose who adopt this absurd idea that God's
actions are utterly purposeless and refuse to consider them as the
result of His wisdom, are afraid they might othenvisc be compeUed
to admit the theory of the Eternity of the Universe, and guard
themselves against it by the above theory. I have already
'fy^^'l^J;^^ which is set forth in Scripture on this question, and
which it ^J^^^ accept. It is this : it is not unreasonable to assume
that the works o G^^, their existence and preceding non-existence
are the result O' "'^ ^"^^"^^ but we are unable to understand
many of the ways of His ^^f-^J^^^^ works. On this principle the
whole Law of Moses is based ; it b^K n with this principle: "And God
saw aU that He had made, -'i' behold u« as verv eood '' (Gen. i. ^i) ;
and it ends with this principle : 1 he Kcxk. peSe?
tTHiswork''(Deut.xxxU.4;. Note it. When you examine dus
 310 GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED view and that of the
philosophers, taking into consideration all preceding cliapters which
are connected with this subject, you will find that there is no other
difference of opinion as regards any portions of the Universe, except
that the philosophers believe in the Eternity of the Universe and we
believe in the Creation. Note this. CHAPTER XXVI As Theologians are
divided on the question whether the actions of God are the result of
His wisdom, or only of His will without being intended for any
purpose whatever, so they are also divided as regards the object of
the commandments which God gave us. Some of them hold that the
commandments have no object at all ; and are only dictated by the
will of God. Others are of opinion that all commandments and
prohibitions are dictated by His wisdom and serve a certain aim ;
consequently there is a reason for each one of the precepts ; they
are enjoined because they are useful. All of us, the common people
as well as the scholars, believe that there is a reason for every
precept, although there are commandments the reason of which is
unknown to us, and in which the ways of God's wisdom are
incomprehensible. This view is distinctly expressed in Scripture ;
comp. " righteous statutes and judgments " (Deut. iv. 8) ; " the
judgments of the Lord are true, and righteous altogether " (Ps. xix.
lo). There are commandments which are called hukkim, "
ordinances," like the prohibition of wearing garments of wool and
linen (sha^atnez), boiling meat and milk together, and the sending
of the goat [into the wilderness on the Day of Atonement]. Our
Sages use in reference to them phrases like the following : " These
are things which I have fully ordained for thee ; and you dare not
criticize them " ; " Your evil inclination is turned against them " ; and
" non-Jews find them strange." But our Sages generally do not think
that such precepts have no cause whatever, and serve no purpose ;
for this would lead us to assume that God's actions are purposeless.
On the contrary, they hold that even these ordinances have a cause,
and are certainly mtended for some use, although it is not known to
us ; owing either to the deficiency of our knowledge or the
weakness of our intellect. Consequently there is a cause for every
commandment ; every positive or negative precept serves a useful
object ; in some cases the usefulness is evident, e.g., the prohibition
of murder and theft ; in others the usefulness is not so evident, e.g.,
the prohibition of enjoying the fruit of a tree in the first three years
(Lev. xix. 23), or of a vineyard in which other seeds have been
growing (Deut. xxii. 9). Those commandments, whose object is
generally evident, are called " judgments " {mishpatim) ; those
whose object is not generally clear are called " ordinances "
{hukkim). Thus they say [in reference to the words of Moses] : Ki lo
dabar rek hu tni-kem (lit. " for it is not a vain thing for you," Deut.
xxxii. 74) ; " It is not in vain, and if it is in vain, it is only so through
you." That is to say, the giving of these commandments is not a vain
thing and without any useful object ; and if it appears so to you in
any commandment, it is owing to the deficiency in your
comprehension. You certainly know the famous saying that Solomon
knew the reason for all commandments except that of the " red
heifer." Our Sages also said that God concealed
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