COMPUTER STUDIES

INTRODUCTION
The introduction of Computer Studies Syllabus into the secondary school curriculum is a big
advancement in the education system. Computer literacy has become, is becoming and will become
more indispensable to a literate modern secondary school graduate and will not only introduce him
her into the employment world but also into a world of creativity and research with the use of the
internet and other related technologies.

AIM
The subject aims at equipping the learner with computer information and communication technology
in order to enhance ones productivity and development of creative skills for problem solving and
efficiency.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES (REASONS FOR STUDYING COMPUTERS)

By the end of this course, the learner should be able to:

 To demonstrate general knowledge and skills in the use of computers and the use of computer
and related technologies

 To use the knowledge acquired in computer studies to enhance learning in other subjects

 To understand important issues of technology-based society and exhibit ethical behavior in the
use of computer and other technologies

 To exhibit basic computer skills for employment

 To acquire knowledge as a foundation for further studies in computer technology

 To use a variety of computer technologies to access, analyze, interpret, synthesize, apply and
communicate information
TOPIC I

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1.1 COMPUTERS TODAY

Information and communication plays an important role in our day-to-day activities. This information
and communication has been greatly enhanced by the advent of computers. Computers can now be
found in banks, shops, and government offices and media houses. It has therefore become very
important that a person becomes a knowledgeable and competent user of computer based
technologies or Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to survive in this technological
world.
DEFINITION:
What is a computer?
A computer is a general purpose machine which can receive data, manipulate (process) it and output
information
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
For any device to be called a computer, it must manifest some or all of the following
characteristics:
 Speed
 Accuracy
 Storage
 Diligence
 Artificial intelligence
 Automation
 Versatility

1. SPEED: Computers are very fast in their operation in that their speed is measured in millions of
instructions per second. An average computer today is able to process 15 million instructions per
second. The speed of a computer can be expressed in Millions of Instructions per Second (MIPS).

3. ACCURACY: Computers are accurate. This means that they hardly make any mistake.
Computers are capable of detecting and correcting any mistakes made. They have self-check
systems which can report any error iwhere data is stored before it is processed or where
information is stored before being output to particular devices. This storage space is called the
Memory.
4. DILIGENCE: Computers are diligent. This means that computers have ability to perform the
same task over and over again for a long time without getting tired or bored. Unlike humans,
computers do not complain.

5. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: Computers have artificial intelligence. This means that they
can respond to commands or requests given to them and provide solutions. The computer’s
intelligence is said to be artificial because it is enabled by the computer programs installed in
them.
A computer program is a set of instructions written in a computer language.

6. AUTOMATION: This means that computers have the ability to work without human
supervision. Compumters do not need any supervision in order to perform programmed routines.
In other words, they are automatic.

7. VERSATILITY: This means that a computer has the ability to perform more than one task at the
same time. For example, a computer should be able to play music while one is typing.
The ability of the computer to perform more than one task is called Versatility or Multi-tasking
TERMINOLOGIES AND CONCEPTS
Data is unorganized facts e.g. a list of students in school, irrespective of their class, sex or age.
Information is organized facts or data that has been turned into more meaningful form e.g. a list of
students in school according to their classes, sex and age.
1.3 USES AND FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTERS
USES OF COMPUTERS
Computers are widely used in our everyday life to accomplish large number of useful applications or
various tasks.
Some of the areas that computers are widely used include:-
 Business.
 Military.
 Education.
 Research.
 Science and Engineering.
 Entertainment and Leisure (Recreation)

1. BUSINESS APPLICATIONS.
  Phones, cars, Elevators and vending machines work by use of computers.
 They help in business data processing. This is seen in receipt creation, analyzing
business performance and sales summary at the end of each day/ month, years etc.
 Computers reduce inventory costs (cost of keeping records)
 Sophisticated financial analyses to determine production costs, forecast labor needs and
eliminate production bottlenecks.

2. SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING:

Today, the computer is used and can help in almost every area of science and engineering.
 Computers can make millions of complex calculations per second this help in scientific
communication which requires speed and accuracy in making complex computations.
 Help astronomers test physics theories. Needed in forecasting complicated weather
patterns.
 They are used to unlock the mysteries of DNA molecules.
Help in processing and enhancing images or pictures; a process called image
processing.
3. HEALTH CARE:
 Small inexpensive personal computers have been used in ambulances to locate invalids
and other patients quickly.
 Used to diagnose potential problems and prescribe their remedies at the scene of an
accident.
 Some computer programs are designed to help those overweight to lose some weight,
stress, depression and tension. Some programs are designed to solve them.
 Computers are used in hospitals to develop colorful graphic scans that can show slices
through the brain or other parts of the body.
 Small central processors are used in developing cardiac pace makers that are placed in
the human body helping to regulate the heart.
 Can also be used to analyze the nutrition of a meal, develop dietary plans for hospitals
and other medical facilities and keep track of exercise programs for all types.
 Automated vision systems, such as the auto perimeters by Humphrey Instrument can
check for glaucoma and other eye disorders.
 Used in medical research and hospitals to perform day to day business for example,
designing medical bills, forms, communication etc.
4. SPORTS:
 Computers are used to analyze and design new plays, make draft picks and day today
business operation of any sports’ franchise.
 They have also been used to analyze the smallest movements an athlete can make.
Computers have been used by experts to pin point wasted energy and movements for
many athletic events.
 A special tennis computer called computerennis records the important plays of a match.
Then the data is used to determine how a player can improve.
5. COMPUTERS IN HOMES.
 Computers can be used to entertain, educate, keep track of your personal budget, plan
meals and determine what food items to buy in a week.
 Many banks now offer home banking. You can make transfers, deposits and
withdrawals with ease from the comfort of one’s home.
 Computers are used in home education. One can use the computer to register for a
course, attend lectures at home and possibly graduate at home. This can be done
through teleconferencing
 Personal computers can also be used to communicate with friends, relatives or business
associates anywhere in the world as long as they have personal computers and access to
an e-mail network.
 Computers can be sensitive to smoke, water leakage, etc. They can therefore be
programmed to call you automatically at another phone number or call the police or the
fire department.

6. ENTERTAINMENT AND LEISURE

 Computers are extensively used in the entertainment and leisure industry. Movies such
as Tron and Last star Fighter used computer to make vivid images on the big screen.
 Computers are used to analyze and create beautiful musical sounds and tones. We can
even get more sent to you electrically over telephone lines.
 Novels and all kinds of pleasure reading downloaded off the internet and stored in your
computer, read or printed any time.
 One can use the computer to make airline schedules and hotel reservation
 Personal Computers were used to help scale Mt. Everest the highest mountain in the
world. They determine the best route up the mountain depending on factors such as
lumps, snowfall and available equipment.
 They can be used to monitor the expedition members and record such important
 medical information as pulse rates and food intake.
 Image processing thru photo touch up and cartoon making can also be a very important
part of computers in leisure and entertainment

7. COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION.
 With computer aided instructions (CAI) teachers can use computers and other IT equipment to
present teaching materials in a more interesting way and computers help students to learn.
 CAL (Computer Assisted Learning) students use comp software to answer and learn at their
own pace
 CAA (Computer Assisted Assessment) This reduces time and labour to mark the students
scripts.
 Distance Learning (Comp or Web based learning) Enables one to study from home which
saves on the travel costs, accommodation, and feeding
 It has also enabled sharing of educational material amongst the scholars. This has been
possible with the use of the internet
 They have enabled educational research because information on every topic can be got from
the internet
 Electronic Library to search for books, borrowing and returning…use of bar codes
 School Management systems for keeping records for students and staff, producing report
cards and other reports
 They have been used to supplement on textbooks by availing information to the scholars
through projects like Cyber Schools and through the internet.
 Edutainment – type of software that provides education with entertainment
8. COMPUTERS IN GOVERNMENT AND THE MILITARY.
 They are used to monitor government accounts in different areas.
 They are used to design conventional and modern weapons like drones and warships
 They can carry to day to day government business like word processing, communication and
mail delivery.
 Buy analyzing satellite information some governments have been able to seek and destroy
their enemies using warships and planes

10. OFFICE AUTOMATION.

The computer has made a profound effect in office procedures. Today, many companies are
employing computers to streamline office operations, perform word processing, electronically handle
mail and messages and handle electronic voice storage and forwarding.
  Word Processing: computes are used to create documents which can be stored for future
use. These documents are usually very accurate, neat, and they don’t occupy any office
space for storage.
 E-mail: Emails are used like mail boxes and postal services, the computer quickly and
efficiently routes messages to the appropriate individuals instantly despite the distance.
 Voice storage and forwarding: offices can now use the telephone to dial up a computer,
to leave instructions or messages for other people. They can be stored for future reference.
 Facsimile (fax): This is used to transmit both graphic data and alpha-numeric data from
one location to another. Facsimile is a copy machine where the original document is
placed in the fax machine at one location and a copy of the original appears on another fax
machine at another location. This has made document delivery easier
 Teleconferencing: This is a technology where data does the traveling instead of the
people. Individuals can attend a conference even when they are far apart because the
images and sound keep streaming in. Teleconferencing can also involve the sending of
messages without pictures and sound similar to online chatting as long as the discussion
between the conference attendants is upheld.
 Local Area Networks (LAN). The purpose of the LAN is to electronically share
documents, electronic mail, video storage, printer, scanner and even copying machines.
This reduces the cost of acquiring these equipment by the company

FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTERS

There are four basic functions performed by a computer. These are,

 Input.  Output.
 Processing.  Storage.

Input: This refers to capturing/obtaining the original data; original documents are called Source
documents.

Processing: Depending on what's to be done, the input data can be classified, sorted, summarized,
calculated and stored for future use
Output: The results of these activities are communicated to those who will be using the information.
For example, Payroll production (Data processing/data production)

Processing: The procedure of transforming data into desired output (Data processing)
Information Processing: Process of transferring data into which can be used to make better
decisions (pay cheques, pay slips)
Data processing systems include all people, procedures, devices used to produce desirable output.
Information-process-system is useful information that can be used in decision makin
ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS
Qn1: Discuss the importance of using computers in society today
Qn2: “Computers have brought so many advantages tour society” Discuss
Qn3: “The usage of computers has led to many disadvantages in our society” Discuss

1. They have improved communication facilities and communication in society. This is seen in
the usage of electronic mails, telephone exchange, social networks like facebook, voice calls
through skype; where people can send and deliver messages instantly.
2. They have enabled the sharing of data and information between people in different areas. This
has facilitated easy exchange of data and ideas and thus increased the speed for executing
operations.
3. Computers have increased data accuracy, reliability and data integrity. This is because
computers do not make mistakes because they have self-check systems which can detect
errors which detect and correct errors
4. Employment opportunities have increased because of computers. Machine operators,
computer technicians, data analysts, computer engineers, software engineers, programmers,
network administrators, lab attendants and computer tutors and trainers have been recruited
and this had improved the society’s standards of living and thus improved the economy in
general because these people pay taxes to the country.
5. It has improved data management and reduced inventory costs (costs of storage) whereby a lot
of data can be stored on computer in a very organized way and a lot of space has been saved
as we shifted from the paper files, which consumed a lot of space to electronic files
6. Computers have facilitated the availability of stronger and more reliable defense systems. This
has been through the easy accessibility of information through satellites, internet and
designing of sophisticated weapons, usage of CCTV cameras, finger print scanners and smoke
detectors.
7. It has made trade across continents easy and simpler. With computers E-commerce and online
 shopping have made business easy because business can be done without leaving ones
doorstep. This reduces on the costs of travel, accommodation, food and thus reducing the cost
of doing business. This has also been termed as PC – trading
8. Computers have increased and improved the rate of accessing data and information in our
society. This has been done through the use of the internet where any info in any part of the
world can be accessed as it happens.
9. Computers are very fast, which means that a lot of work is done in little time thereby
increasing productivity and profitability
10. Due to the computers accuracy and reliability, production of high quality products by factories
has been enabled. This is because most of the factories’ systems are automated

11. Tasks can now be completed faster because computers work at an amazing speed. They can
complete millions of instructions per second because the computers are known to be very fast
in their operation. This has led to the extinction of the typewriter
Negative
1. Moral degradation/decadence/decay. This is due to the influx of ill or immoral materials like
pictures, and videos which can be accessed by everyone including the young children from the
internet. This has increased the chances of rape, defilement, homosexuality etc
2. Computers have increased cases of loss of sight and other eye defects due to the radiations
(emissions) from the computer screens. This is especially with long use of computers.
3. Consume a lot of power which has increased power bills in homes schools and other places.
4. Computers have caused a lot of unemployment in society today as a result of some tasks being
done by the computer or automated. Some jobs such as messengers, typists, postmen, have
reduced in importance because they can be easily done by the computer
5. Computers have increased the cost of living in our society. This is because computers require
servicing and maintenance; they increase power bills, internet charges, which may be very
expensive for some people and thus stiffening the economy.
6. Computers are liable to virus attacks especially if the computers are on the internet. These
viruses which are usually spread from one infected system or network usually cause heavy
data loss to organizations.
7. Computers have increased the rate of forgery in society today. People use computers to forge
receipts, invoices, reports and other documents to obtain money by false pretence which has
led to many losses to some organizations.
8. Personal security has been jeopardized. With the internet, personal information like bank
account numbers, PIN, and other personal info can be easily found by hackers who may use
 them in wrong deals.
9. Computers have increased diseases and pollution of the environment. Computers consist of
dangerous metal elements like lead, which can be dangerous to the environment once they are
not properly disposed of
10. Computers have increased laziness and overdependence in society. Most work is done by the
computer today and some people can’t do anything when the computer breaks down. For
example in factories, offices, banks, business comes to a standstill when the computer system
breaks down.
11. Computers use power which may not be available in all areas. This has left some areas, regions
lagging behind others in this information and technological age.
1.6 CATEGORIES OF COMPUTERS

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Modern computers fall into various categories. These categories are classified in the following ways:-

 Classification by size/capacity.
 Classification by process/function.
 Classification by purpose.
 Classification by Processor Power

1. CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE.
Under this classification, computers are categorized depending on the physical size. Some computers
are very large while others are very small. The categories under this classification include:

 Super computers or Monster computers

 Mainframe computers.
 Mini computers.
 Micro computers

(i). Super computer (Monster computers).

 These are the biggest of all computers.
 They have high mathematical capacity and they are used for complex calculations.
 They can process trillions of instructions in few seconds.
 They are the most expensive in price
(ii) Mainframe computers
 These are large general purpose computers with a high processing speed
 They have an extended memory or storage space.
 They have extensive input and output capabilities (capacities).
 They can accommodate many users at a time (500-1000 users)
Each uses separate keyboard and monitor but one CPU (processor).
This type of computers can be found in large companies, central government, Banks e.t.c.

(iii) Mini computers.

 These are smaller than mainframe computers.
 They can be used by 50-500 users a time.
 They have a high storage capacity but lower than mainframe computers.
 They have high processing speed but lower than mainframe computers.
They are used in medium sized organizations or government departments’ e.g. Local governments.

(iv) Micro computers.

 These are the smallest computers in physical size.
 They can be used by only one person at a time.
 They have a high processing speed
 They have a low storage capacity compared to the others
 They consume less power
 They are easily portable hence suitable for mobile computing
NB. Micro computers are often referred to as PCs (Personal Computer) because they accommodate
only one person at a time

Examples of micro computers include:

 Desktop computers (PC)
 Tower computers (PC)
 Laptop
 Palmtop
 Note books
 PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants)

Desktop: Designed to be stationed in one place probably on top of a desk; they are the standard PC’s.
The development of other micro computers evolved around these.
Tower Computers: These have their system units standing erect like a tower. It is designed to be
placed anywhere.
Laptop: These are designed for mobile computing. They are designed to be placed on ones lap that’s
why they are called laptops. They have batteries which enable them to continue working in the
absence of electricity.

Palmtops: These are hand held devices. They can fit in the palm of a hand, hence the name.

PDA (Personal Digital Assistant). These are hand held devices. Although they may not emulate all
the features of a desktop (PC), they have most features which can be used in computing. They are
designed for persons ever on move.
Can fit in a shirt pocket and at any time, one can check e-mail; take a few notes, etc.

2. CLASSIFICATION BY FUNCTION/PROCESS
Under this classification, computers are classified according to how they process and present data or
how the computer is designed to operate (function)

The categories under this classification are;

 Digital computers
 Analog computers
 Hybrid computers

(i) Digital computers

Digital computers process and present data in form of discrete values. Discrete values include
numbers like 1, 2, 3 … they don’t present decimals or fractions. Examples of digital computers
include pocket calculators, digital watches, etc.

(ii) Analog computers

Analog computers process and present data in form of continuous measurable quantities/units like
pressure, temperature, volume and weight. Examples of Analog computers include thermometers,
voltmeters, speedometer etc.

(iii) Hybrid
These combine both the characteristics of Digital and Analog computers. These may include the
Micro computers that are widely used today.

3. CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE

Computers here are classified according to the work they are designed to do.
These are categorized into two.
 Special purpose machine.
 General purpose computer.
(i) Special Purpose Computers
They are designed to handle only a specific task(s). Their form of operation is restricted in nature, e.g.
digital watches and pocket calculators.
Special purpose computers can be employed in devices like missiles.
(ii) General Purpose Computers
Designed to solve a wide range of problems, they perform a variety of tasks by means of specially
written programs. These can perform calculations, keep date and time, process documents, store
databases, etc.

4. CLASSIFICATION BY PROCESSOR POWER

Under this, computers are classified according to the speed with which a computer responds to the
user requests.

Processor power has been rapidly increasing due to the changes in technology. Computers are getting
faster and faster each year.

Earlier, computers had a processing power of 0.4 MIPS but today 15MIPS is the minimum.
It is common for people to classify computer according to the type of processor power they posses.

The categories are;

 80286 or 286
 80386 or 386
 80486 or 486
 Pentium I (80586)
 Pentium II or Pentium Pro
 Pentium III
  Pentium IV
 Dual Core Processor
1. Input devices
1.8 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM (hardware)
A computer system refers to the hardware, 2. Output
software, data and data processing personnel. devices
A computer system actually refers to the co- (hardware)
ordination that is required between the 3. Processing
hardware, software and human ware to hardware
produce and to enable the computer to produce devices
work or perform the required tasks. 4. Storage
devices
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER 5. Communicat
SYSTEM ion
The components of a computer system are hardware.
divided into 4 categories:-
 Hardware 1. INPUT DEVICES/HARDWARE
 Software These are devices or gadgets that are used to
 Human ware (Data Processing feed data into the computer. They are devices
Personnel) which help to enter data into the computer.
 Data
Each input device inputs data in a specialized
HARDWARE COMPONENTS OR way. This means that each input device is
COMPUTER HARDWARE designed to enter a specific type of data. So,
 Hardware components of a computer the device to be used depends on the type of
system are the physical parts of the data to be input.
computer system.
 They are the tangible parts of the The data to be entered into the computer may
computer. These parts can be touched take the following forms:
and felt. Example; monitor/screen,  graphics
keyboard, mouse, system unit etc.  images/photos/pictures
 sounds (Audio)
The computer hardware components are also  Video (Moving pictures)
categorized further according to the functions  Text
they perform. These are:-
Examples of input devices include the objects on the screen, click at them and
 Keyboard,j move them around the screen.
 mouse,  Right clicking
 joystick,  Pointing
 scanner,  Clicking
 Digital cameras,  Double clicking
 Touch screens.  Dragging
i) THE KEYBOARD  Drawing pictures
This is an electro-mechanical component  Scrolling
designed to create special standardized  Selecting/highlighting
electronic codes when a key is pressed.  Moving the pointer
These codes are transmitted into the computer
analyzed and converted into the appropriate Clicking refers to the action of pressing the
computer usable codes. The keyboard was left mouse button once
developed from a standard QWERTY Double clicking refers to the action of pressing
typewriter. the left mouse button twice in quick succession
The keyboard is most useful in typing texts Right clicking refers to pressing right mouse
(creating documents) button.
Types of keyboards Dragging is the act of moving items around
 82 keyboard the screen
 102 keyboard Scrolling refers to moving the long pages up
 102/3 keyboard or down the screen
 105 keyboard The mouse basically is used to move the
102/3 is most common and standard keyboard pointer to different positions on the screen.
currently. PARTS OF A MOUSE
Parts of a keyboard The mouse has 2 or 3 push buttons that are
A standard keyboard has 3 main divisions, used for its input process,
 The Typewriter Area (Main  The left mouse button or
Typing Area). primary button
 The Numeric Keypad and the  The right mouse button or
cursor control key. secondary button
 The Function Keys area.  The wheel

ii) THE MOUSE The left mouse button or the primary button
This is a hand held device that lets one point at is the most commonly used button. It is found
on the left hand side of the mouse. It carries incorporated in between the two
out all the functions of the mouse apart from buttons. This makes scrolling
right clicking. the long web pages over the
internet easy to do.
The Right Mouse button or the secondary  Track Ball Mouse (common on
button is found on the right hand side of the laptop computers).
mouse. It is used for right clicking A rolling ball and buttons
embedded with in the keyboard.
The wheel is found in the middle of the left Just a small head protruding
and right mouse buttons. It is used to scroll through the keys on the
long pages up or down. keyboard is the one which is
used to move the mouse pointer
NB. The action of pressing the left mouse bypassing a finger over it.
button once is called clicking and not left  Touch pad mouse (Laptops).
clicking as it may be the case with the Right This has a rectangular pad with
mouse button 2 push buttons. The movement
of a figure on the pad causes the
mouse pointer to the position
accordingly.
 The Optical mouse
MICE TYPES This employs the principle of
 The Desktop Mouse. laser beam of light to transmit
This is commonly used with signals to the CPU
desktop PC and it has two push  The cordless Mouse
buttons on top and a ball on the This is a recent invention in the
underside. This mouse employs mouse technology. It does not
the principle of moving a ball have a cord (wire) attached to
which in turn moves rollers the system unit. The computer
adjacent to it. These then senses the mouse when it is
transmit the electrical codes that within reach because of the
relocate the pointer or cursor on program installed in it.
the different co-ordinates of the iii) THE DIGITIZER
screen. A digitizer looks like a mouse except that; it
With the rise of the internet and has a glass with a crosshair in the middle. The
a rolling wheel has been cross hair acts as a guide during the input if
data. It is used in conjunction with a digitizing vii) TOUCH SCREENS
tablet. It is mainly used in cartography (map These are screens that can sense when a
making) and architectural drawings to particular part of a screen is touched or pressed
accurately trace outlines on a map. and hence respond accordingly. These are
iv) OPTICAL SCANNER commonly used with security systems which
Optical scanners look like photocopiers but for can lead the fingure prints of an individual.
them, the images are not output on paper but Most PDAs use touch screens as their basic
are transmitted as an image to the computer. input device.
The image can be a photograph, an art work or Some sophisticated mobile phones use touch
just a text. Pen pocket readers use these screen digits instead of the press and button
scanners principle to read lines of text which is digits.
displayed on the peris screen or downloaded to viii) LIGHT PENS
the PC. Most pocket readers can translate the Light pens commonly used in high technical
scanned text into another language other than designs have a beam of light that is radiated
the original. This makes them a very good into different parts of a specialized screen to
companion for travelers in foreign land. input data. These beams of light are very
small and sharp, therefore very precise. Light
v) JOYSTICK AND GAME PADS pens are commonly used in hitech designs like
A joystick looks so much like the normal gear in the designing of integrated circuits (IC).
lever in a car. They also have the same ix) DIGITAL CAMERA
principle like a mouse except for them they are These take photographs like the normal camera
a bit freer. They enjoy a combination of does. The major difference is that they do not
features of a mouse plus cursor control keys. create an image on a film and in the ordinary
This enables them rotate through a much wider camera but instead, the image is stored and
angle. Joysticks are commonly used in later downloaded into a PC for further editing
modern computer games. or printing
2. OUTPUT DEVICES.
vi) VOICE RECOGNITION EQUIPMENT These are devices used to bring out the
(VRQS) computer held information to the users’
The VRQS include all types of microphones disposal. They accept/transfer information
which are used to capture sound. Most from the central processing unit and produce it
multimedia computers have at least one in a suitable form for the user.
microphone. Musicians use multimedia These devices include:-
computer computers to edit, record  Monitors/VDU,
(computerize) their musical tracks.  Printers,
  plotters,
 speakers
 3–D spectacles
 Projectors
 Facsimile machine

Information output by these devices is either in form of hardcopy or softcopy

Hardcopy refers to the tangible copy of computer held while softcopy refers to the non-tangible
(intangible) copy of computer-held information.

The common hardcopy output devices are printers and plotters while softcopy output devices are the
monitors / VDU, Projectors, 3-D spectacles and loudspeakers.

Forms of computer output

A computer can output information in one or more of the following ways:-
- Text
- Graphics
- Images
- Video (motion pictures)
- Sound (audio)

The type of output device to be used depends on the type of data or information to be output i.e
whether one needs to produce hardcopy, softcopy or any of the above forms of output.

1. THE MONITOR
This is the output device which brings out a copy of the computer held in the screen.
The output in the screen is referred to as the softcopy (Non- tangible copy).

Monitors are determined/categorized in three ways.

 According to their size
 According to their resolution
 According to their color
By size
Monitors can be categorized according to their sizes. Their size is measured in inches diagonally
across the screen. Monitor sizes ranged from 5 – 25 inches.
By Resolution
This refers to the number of distinct tiny points visible on the screen or the sharpness and clearness of
an image. These tiny points are known as Pixels (Picture elements). The higher number of pixels, the
better the resolution and thus the clearer the image on the screen.

By Color
Monitors can also be categorized according to the color they display. Some monitors display one
color while others can display many colors.
Monitors which display one color are referred to as Monochrome Monitors while those which display
many colors are called Polychrome monitors.
A monochrome monitor works just like a black and white TV screen and a polychrome monitor
works like a color monitor TV
There are also,
 Flat panel monitors for laptops and other small computers.
 Touch screen monitors- allows one to touch with ones finger on the desired icon or menu on
the screen to perform the action one wants.
The monitor works by converting information generated by the computer into visual information.
There are two main types of display devices or monitors
- A video screen with a cathode ray tube (CRT) or
- A video screen with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
* A CRT- based screen, or monitor looks like a TV set; information from the CPU is displayed using a
beam of electrons that scans a phosphorescent surface that emits light and creates images.

Advantages of CRTs
 Can produce fast and good color output
 They have a very wide viewing angle
 They are cheaper than LCDs
Disadvantages of CRTs
 Emit higher EMR (Electromagnetic radiation) than LCD monitors
 Consume more energy than LCD Monitors
 Consume a lot of space in a room
* An LCD based screen displays visual information on a flatter and smaller screen than a CRT-based
video monitor. LCDs are frequently used in laptop computers and flat screen monitors. They use a
liquid crystal rather than a cathode ray tube to create images on the screen
Advantages of LCDs
 They are lighter and therefore easy to transport
 Occupy little space on the desk or table
 Use less power
 Have little radiation and thus have less effect on the eyes
Disadvantages of LCDs
 They are more expensive than CRTs
 They have a very narrow viewing angle
 They have a relatively poor output compared to CRTs
 Slow response at time

2. SPEAKERS
These produce sound outputs with today’s multimedia programs (e.g. windows, media player),
speakers have become such an important necessity. Their quality is mainly measured in Watts of
power output. Most speakers use a cone diaphragm to produce sound.

3. 3–D SPECTACLES
These are common in modern computer games especially on flights.
The user wears the glasses like ordinary glasses/sun/except that instead of seeing through the glasses,
one will be treated to a high quality three dimensional (3D) picture. It is similar to being in a cinema
hall.

4. PROJECTORS
These are softcopy output devices. They are used to display information for bigger audiences on
bigger screens or special wall. However, projectors require great light control for maximum results.

5. PLOTTERS
These can be compared to line printers. Because they have a pen like print head that can accurately
draw straight, thin and meandering lines. This makes them suitable for architectural drawings and
map making. Modern plotters can produce color images with the help of various color print heads
controlled electronically.
These are used in printing the best graphics or sophisticated drawings. They can produce very
accurate copies. They are very useful to engineers, architects and others who need detailed drawings
in their work.
These printers can also be categorized by the type of paper they use:-
  Single sheet printer (d) – a.k.a feed one sheet of paper is fed and printed out at a time.
 Continuous – Form or fan hold printing:- use long paper connected with perforated lines.

6. PRINTERS
A printer is an output device that brings out computer held information on paper or any physical
medium.
This text or graphics printed on paper is called HARDCOPY (tangible copies). A printer is capable of
printing characters, symbols and sometimes graphics on paper.
Printers are categorized according to whether the image produced is by the physical contact of the
print mechanism with the paper or not. Thus, there are 2 categories of printers, namely;
 Impact printers
 Non-impact printers.

1. IMPACT PRINTERS
This type of printers produces a hardcopy output when their print heads are physically touching the
print medium. This is the reason why they make noise during printing.
Print media include paper, transparencies, cloths, some plastics, wood e.t.c.

Impact printers include:-

 Character printers
 Line printers
 Dot matrix printers.
(i) Character Printers.
These are low speed printers that mimic the action of typewriters by printing one character at a time.
The characters are engraved on the print head directly. This means that the character font type cannot
be modified easily. Examples include the Daisy wheel printer and thimble printer.

(ii) Line Printers.

They also use the same principle during printing just like the character printers except that these are
much faster. Unlike character printers, line printers print a whole line of characters at once. They
print from one end of a paper to the other end of the line hence line printers.
In line printers, a set of hammers lined across the papers hit the respective characters on the paper
they pass by on a circular drum. These were more common in printing press but now they are extinct
(almost).
(iii) Dot Matrix Printers.
These are the most commonly used impact printers. These might either be 9-pin dot matrix printers or
24-pin dot matrix printers. Dot matrix printers form characters by the print head pins forming a
pattern of dots on paper to make out a character.
Typical examples of Dot matrix impact printers include;
 Epson LQ 1170 Esc/P2 (24-pin)
 Epson LQ 2170 Esc/P2 (24-pin)
 Epson FX 880 (9-pin) 1030, LX 86

Advantages of Impact Printers

1. They are flexible inexpensive devices, capable of printing various font styles and heavy
graphics. In most cases they are used as an alternative to plotters which are very expensive,
reason why they are preferred (widely used) in commercial printing.
2. Today, they are very fast; they go over a speed of 160cps there by increasing productivity.
3. They are easier to maintain- their print heads require fewer periodic cleaning. Not affected
by dust.
4. They are reliable that’s why they are used in commercial printing. A typical Dot-Matrix can
print over 100 million characters in its useful life span.
5. They can print on continuous paper especially dot-matrix printers
Disadvantages
1. They are noisy during operation because of the contact between print heads and the print
medium
2. They have a lower print resolution compared to other types of printers especially for high
quality graphics.
3. The head usually overheats which slows the entire process of production. This is especially
during long periods of printing.
4. they are slower in printing compared to non–impact printers
5. They are more expensive than non-impact printers
2. NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
These are printers that produce a hard copy output when their print heads are not physically touching
the print medium.
Examples of non-impact printers include:-
 Inkjet Printers
 DeskJet printers.
 Bubble jet (Thermal inkjet) printers.
  Thermal printers.
 Laser printers.
Inkjet/DeskJet printers
Inkjet and DeskJet printers almost share the same principle of printing. These work by liquid ink
being spray painted onto a paper. Ink is sprayed on paper by either a drop-on-demand technique or
intermittent technique.

In the drop-on-demand technique, liquid ink is pushed out of the printer nozzles drop by drop. In the
intermittent technique, the ink is pushed out of the nozzles in a continuous stream.

Nozzles are tiny holes in the print head through which ink passes. The ink is pushed out by the ink
pumps which are found on every nozzle.

Examples include:
Hp DeskJet 690
Epson stylus 640
Bubble Jet printers
BubbleJet printers, also known as Thermal inkjet printers.
Thermal printers use a bubble to force out a droplet of ink. This is done by the ink pumps heating ink
in a column until when a bubble is formed. The bubble grows larger and larger until it bursts forcing
out a droplet of ink through the print head nozzle on to the print media.

Since the droplet is hot it dries faster on paper than on the DeskJet.
Although these pumps work much faster, they are restricted to a rate of only 1000 dots per second
because the mechanism needs time to cool otherwise the temperature would dry out the ink.
Example of bubble jet printers are Canon BJC200.
Thermal printers
Thermal printers’ print heads do not need to strike the paper directly or through a ribbon in order to
create character on a paper.

With thermal technology, the printer’s print head contains dot heaters (heating elements) which cause
dots to appear on special paper (temperature sensitive paper) when heated.

During the printing process, the printer head transfers electrical energy every dot heater which heats
up rapidly. The heated up dot heater then causes specific points on special paper to discolor
accordingly.
Thermal printing papers normally discolor to a black or blue color in accordance to its make.
Thermal printers have a few disadvantages associated with them, these include;
 They cannot print on any paper because the heat generated will not cause any discoloration
without burning the entire paper.
 These papers are also limited to a particular shelf life, the longer they stay unused or used the
more they will be affected by age, sunlight, humidity and chemical vapors which may cause it
to discolor completely thereby causing the words to disappear.
 The paper(s) has to be specially prepared before they can be used in printing. This caused an
inconvenience in commercial production because they can only be stored only for a few years
before they go bad.
 Their print heads cannot be serviced or repaired even if a single dot heater fails. The whole
print head has to be replaced thus making them expensive to maintain.
 The print speed is also so slow because the heads have to be allowed time to cool before the
next printing cycle.
 Thermal print heads have a shorter life span than other print heads they are expected to print a
maximum of 10 million characters accurately where as other print heads like dot matrix
printers go over 50 million characters in their life span.

Advantages of using thermal printers

 They are nearly noiseless since they do not have any moving parts to generate the noise. It is
just a matter of placing paper into the printer and removing it with test formed.
 They also consume very little power (almost a sixth) compared to other printers. This makes
them ideal for mobile computing or battery operated printers.
 Their print mechanisms are reliable because they do not experience inconveniences with paper
jams or blocked nozzles, there by increasing productivity.
 Thermal printers produce clear and crisp images with very high resolutions almost laser
quality prints are obtainable with even the cheapest thermal printer. This provides good
quality work at a far cheaper cost.

Laser printers
These are high quality printers with a greater NLQ (Near Letter Quality). They have a high speed in
printing.
They are also low noise printers during printing unlike dot matrix. Excellent graphics are obtainable
with these types of printers.
A laser beam of light is used to transfer the image stored in the printer’s memory on to a special
drum. The drum attracts the toner (the ink used to print the words) and the paper is pressed against
the drum so that the image is transferred to the paper. The image is then heated before it comes out of
the printing paper.
Laser printers are the best modern printers today.
Examples,
- Hp LaserJet 1100 (series)
- Hp Laser Jet 5M (color) printer
- Hp Laser Jet 1020

3. STORAGE DEVICES OR BACKUP DEVICES

These are devices which are used to store computer held information. Storage hardware provides
permanent storage of information and programs for retrieval by the computer. Storing information in
computer studies is referred to as saving.
NB Storage devices/hardware/ secondary storage devices or Auxiliary storage devices are very
essential because the memory (RAM) which is mainly used during processing as the storage space
loses its contents when power is switched off.

Storage devices are divided into two categories;

 The Secondary storage devices
 The Primary Storage devices

Secondary Storage devises store data in a seemingly permanent form whereas primary storage
devices store data in a temporary form.

The most common secondary storage devices in micro computers are:-

 Hard disks/fixed disks  Tapes
 Floppy disk/diskette  Zip drives
 The compact disks (CD-ROM)  Punched cards.
or CD  MemoryCard
 Flash disks

1. HARD DISK
This is a round pan cake shaped, permanently sealed metallic magnetic storage device with in the
processor. It is tightly sealed to keep out contaminants like dust and smoke.

The hard disk is also known as the fixed disk because it is not portable; it is always fixed within the
system unit. It’s fixed in a mechanism called the HARD DRIVE inside the computer.
It is fixed into the computer for storing data and computer software programs.

It stores a vast/huge amount of information than other storage devices like the floppy diskette. Its
capacity is higher than that of floppy diskette.

The hard disk space is measured in Megabytes or Gigabytes. Typical size; 540MB, 10GB, 20GB,
40GB etc

ADVANTAGES OF USING HARD DISKS

- The data stored on the hard disk is always secure since they reside inside the computer
casing. There are fewer chances of them being stolen or misplaced.
- The destruction rate is low since they remain in one position.
- They store vast/huge/large amounts of information compared to other storage devices.
However, it must be noted that their storage capacity depends on the model of the
computer. Their capacity ranges of 20MB to120GB nowadays.
- Their speed and time of accessing data is very fast and convenient. This is because they
are circular and reside inside the computer.
- Their data life is long once in use compared to other storage devices, although a few disks
have been known to fail with very long periods of non-use.
- They never get misplaced or lost since they reside inside the computer.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING HARD DISKS
- Any attack of viruses causes heavy data loss. Hard disks are susceptible/prone/vulnerable
to virus attacks especially if the system is unprotected.
- Hard disks expand and contract with temperature change. This may also cause data loss.
This factor has led to the use of air-conditioned computer rooms. The expansion takes
place because they are metallic.
- The hard disk may fail due to violent shaking and vibrations. This is why computers
should never be moved about or dragged especially when they are in power.
- Transfer of data from one machine to another may be difficult if not connected to the
internet or on a network. It may require to first unscrewing opening the computer system
 unit (casing), which may be difficult in some cases.
- Hard disks are very expensive to buy

2. THE FLOPPY DISKETTES

These are small portable plastic disks made of a thin circular plastic material coated with a magnetic
recording surface where data is stored as tiny magnetic particles. They however store less information
compared to hard disks.

Floppy diskettes are available in three basic sizes:

- 8” (8 Inch floppy diskette)
- 2.25” (5 ¼ inch floppy diskette)
- 3.5” (3 ½ inch floppy diskette)
- 2” (2 inch floppy diskette for laptops - not common)

The 3.5” Inch diskettes are now the most common ones. It has a storage capacity of 1.44MB.
Each size works only with a drive made for its size.
Floppy diskettes are inserted in a mechanism called the Floppy drive, which spins it at a high speed.
There is a head in the drive which reads, writes and stores new information on the floppy disk. This
head is also known as the Read/Write head

NOTE: A drive- is a slot or opening on the computer system unit where a storage disk is inserted.

ADVANTAGES OF USING DISKETTES

 They are portable hence the transfer of information from computer to computer is possible
 They carry enormous size of data compared to their sizes. A floppy diskette which is only 3.5”
in diameter that can fit in the shirt pocket can carry a whole ream of text on paper.
 Data with a floppy diskette can easily be accessed in a shorter time.
 They are cheap to purchase.

DISADVANTAGES
 They are vulnerable to harsh conditions of storage like temperature changes, moisture,
bending and breaking, which might cause the data life being unreliable. This is mainly
because diskettes are external media and are made of plastic.
 It can lose data so quickly once the magnetic media is exposed to a magnetic field.
 They store less data compared to any other mentioned storage device. Maximum of 1.44MB
 of data is stored.
 They are expensive in the long run since their destruction rate is high resulting into buying all
the time.
 They can be attacked by virus which causes data loss

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF DISKETTES

- Don’t fold the spindle or mutilate it
- Don’t place diskettes near a magnetic field such as near the radio, speakers, on top of your
CPU case, near electric motors etc.
- Do not expose it to direct sunlight for a long period.
- Remove a diskette from its drive before turning off the computer.
- Do not drop diskettes on the hard surface e.g. the floor.
- Do not remove or insert it from its drive when the drive active light is on.
- Do not force it into the drive; it should slip in with no resistance.
- Keep them away from intensive heat.
- Store them in boxes when not being used.

3. THE COMPACT DISK (THE CD-ROMs)

Compact Disks are optical disks used to hold pre-recorded text, graphics and sound. They are flat,
round portable storage medium of 4.75” in diameter and can hold up to 700MB of programs,
instructions and information

Compact disks are a recent development in the computer industry. It is capable of storing vast amount
of information. Most of the computer software stored is supplied on a CD.
CD-ROM can store as much information as hard disks but have a slower rate of information retrieval.
They are called compact disks because they are small with a diameter of 12cm and thick ness of a few
millimeters.

CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk – Read Only Memory. Read only memory means that the
information on a compact disk is stored in a permanent accessible form. On CD-ROMs, nothing new
can be recorded.

A CD-ROM can store programs, text, pictures, animation, movies and sound.

ADVANTAGES OF USING CD – ROMs

  They have a high storage capacity. They can store 700MB of data.
 They are easily portable hence the transfer of information from one machine to another is
possible. This explains why software developers prefer CD-ROMS
 Their data life is nearly 100% reliable. The information on CD-ROMs could even still be
available after 100 years. This is because they have their information grooved in during
manufacture.
 They are relatively cheap compared to other storage devices.
 They are resistant to virus attacks unlike other storage devices and this makes them very
reliable.

DISADVANTAGES
 Their destruction rate is high since a single scratch may lead to its destruction.
 They are prone to scratches which render the entire CD worthless or useless
 Some CDs are read only, which means that the data can’t be deleted or customized whenever
one needs to.
 Their average access time is slower compared to other storage devices like the CD
 Some CDs may not be read by all computers. Even some computers don’t have CD drives
 To record data on a CD one needs to have a data writing software and this may not be
available all the time

TYPES OF CDs
CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable)
CD-RW (Compact Disk Re-writable)
CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory)
CD – Rs are used only for one recording after which it becomes a CD – ROM.
CD – RWs can be written on and or re-written more than once. Once the data is written on it, it
remains on until the user decides to alter it.
CD-ROMs can not allow the user to write there anything. They usually contain the manufacturer’s
instructions o
n the usage of a particular hardware piece and the user is not allowed to make any changes.
Read Only Memory means that the user only reads what is on the CD and can not make any changes
to it.

Their advantages and disadvantages are the same as the CD-ROMs discussed above.
4. THE FLASH DISK
A flash disk is in the same way like the hard disk only that it is an external storage disk while the hard
disk is internal and at times referred to as the default storage device.

5. THE ZIP DISKS

These are related to the hard disks that can be removed from their drives. Zip disks are medium-
capacity storage devices. Most can store up to 100MB of data. Some Zip disks plug into the printer
socket/Port on the computer.
Like CD-ROMS, zip disks/drives also employ a laser (beam of light) to read and write on the disk.
- They are capable (suitable) for back up storage transferring large files like clip Art, video,
or sound files.
- They have storage capacities which run a guaranteed data life.

6. PUNCHED CARDS
These were among the first forms of storage devices in computers. They are/were flat cards which
consisted of rows of numbers and letters neatly arranged in columns.

To store data, the card was inserted in a computer drive and the computer punched a series of holes in
the rows of characters to represent data stored. In the read process, a computer read out words in the
order of holes previously punched

DISADVANTAGES
 Because they were made of paper, they could easily be destroyed by moisture, cockroaches,
rats and tear.
 The storage capacity was very small. They were small rectangular paper/cards about 5x10cm.
This means that only a few sentences would be stored on (24 characters).
 Because of limited capacity, one would need very many of them to store just a few records in
the data base. This renders them bulky.
 Their data life was rather limited because paper depreciates with time.

STORAGE MEDIA DRIVES (DISK DRIVES)

 A drive is a slot or an opening where a storage device or disk is inserted
 Drives are hardware components which are used to read and write on the storage media.
During the write process, the drive spins the medium (diskette, CD, zip disk……) and in the
process, the drive heads convert electrical signals that represent data into magnetic fields on
 the medium or diskette
 When reading data from the disk, the drive spins the disk and magnetic fields that represent
data are converted back into electrical signals which can be read.
 Various media for storage have their representative drives in which they are contained during
read or write process. These disk/tape drives and are represented by letters of the alphabet
followed by a colon.

Drive Name Drive Letter

3.5” Floppy Drive A:
5.25” Floppy Drive B:
Hard disk (non movable) C:
(CD-ROM drive) system drives (normally network drives non- D:
movable)
Others (Flash disk,Tapes etc. E:-Z:

UNITS OF COMPUTER-HELD INFORMATION (MEMORY CAPACITIES)

(Units of storage capacity)
 The standard unit for measuring computer memory is called BYTE.
 Information is kept in the computer memory in the form of binary codes (0s and1s).
 A single binary digit or code (i.e. 0 or 1) is called a BIT.
 A BIT is the basic unit of memory. BIT is an acronym (abbreviation) for Binary digIT.
A bit is represented by either a 0 or 1
 A sequence of eight bits is called a BYTE. One byte therefore consists of 8 bits e.g.
01010011.
 Nibble – One Nibble consists of four bits e.g. 0101 is one nibble.
 A single character is equivalent to one byte.
There are other larger units for measuring computer data or information, which include the
following:-
 Kilobytes (KB)
 Megabytes (MB)
 Gigabytes (GB)
 Terabytes (TB)

1KB (kilobyte) = 1024 bytes (210 bytes) ----≈ 1024 bytes.

1MB (megabyte) = 1024KB (220 bytes) ----≈1million bytes.
 1GB (Gigabyte) = 1024MB (230 bytes) ----≈1 billion bytes.
1TB (terabyte) = 1024 GB (240 bytes) ----≈1 trillion bytes.

 Bit-----The basic unit of a memory is the Binary digit, called a BIT.

 Nibble----One Nibble consists of four bits e.g. 0101 is one nibble
 Byte----One byte consists of eight bits e.g. 01010101 is one byte.

NB: Of all the secondary storage devices, only the floppy diskette, the hard disk, flash and CD-
ROMs, the others are no longer in use due to drastic changes in technology.

PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICES /THE MAIN MEMORY (PRIMARY MEMORY)

There are two types of main memory or primary Memory or Primary Storage
1. RAM (Random Access Memory).
2. ROM (Read Only Memory).

1. RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)

This is the heart of the computer. A computer will be slow with little RAM. [Used to keep
information temporary while you are working, it allows then user to freely read from and write to it
hence the name RAM, stores prays apparently used by the user when the PC is working.

This is the most common type of memory. It’s called RAM because its contents can be read directly
regardless of the sequence in which it was stored.
Its contents are held temporarily, its contents are lost once the computer is turned off. This is why we
should always save our work on a secondary storage before switching off.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAM
 Data can be read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it.
 RAM is temporary (volatile) storage because its contents disappear when the computer is
switched off.
 Its contents are user defined i.e. they can decide what can be contained in RAM.
 RAM can be changed or removed.
 It’s a primary storage device.
 It’s volatile. If you have data in this memory and there is a power failure, all your work will be
lost (wiped off) to avoid this, you should always save your work on a permanent memory.
Such as diskettes, CDs, etc (secondary storage).
  Occupies the major portion (70%) of the main memory.

NB:
 Its size is very significant in determining how good the computer is.
 It’s measured in bytes.
 The bigger the RAM, the better the computer.

TYPES OF RAM
There are two types:-
 Static RAM (SRAM) and
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

 Static RAM is very fast compared to DRAM and holds its contents as long as there is power.
 DRAM however; can hold its contents for only a short period of time even when power is on.
 The contents of DRAM can be maintained by refreshing the memory chip several times per
second.
 SRAM is more expensive. It’s used to make special types of memories.

2. ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)

Can not be changed or deleted hence the name. ROM is non-volatile, stores information permanently

It’s used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or semi permanently.
Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required to remain unchanged for long periods of time
e.g. booting instructions.

TYPES OF ROM
There are four types of ROM. This depends on the permanence of the instructions or data written
there.

Mask Rom: Once data has been written there, it can never be changed.
Programmable ROM: (PROM) - This allows the user to alter it only once after the content has
been written on it.
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) - This has a transparent quartz window through which its
contents can be erased by exposing it to ultra violent (UV) light and then reprogrammed for another
use.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Rom (EEPROM) This can be erased and reprogrammed using
electricity. An example is the basic input and output system (BIOS).

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROM
 One can only read its contents but you can not write on it unless it’s a special type of ROM.
 It’s non-volatile i.e. its contents can not be lost when the computer is switched off.
 Stores permanent or semi-permanent instructions from manufacturers called FIRMWARE. It
can store semi-permanent instructions because some variations of ROM chips can be
programmed according to the user’s specifications.
This is part of the main memory which keeps only in-built set of instructions and information called
FIRMWARE. The firmware is entered into the computer at the manufacturing period.ROM keeps this
information permanently whether power is off or on.

The computer can read the instructions in Rom but it can’t write to it or the instructions hence the
name Read Only Memory. The user can not keep his/her information in ROM. Rom occupies a
smaller portion of the main memory.

Memory allows fast access to permanently stored data but prevents addition modification of the data.
It’s a memory chip that permanently stores instructions and data.
Is used for storing the program in the control unit of the computer. Used for program designs for
repeated use with out modification.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RAM AND ROM

RAM ROM
It is Volatile It is non-volatile
It can be read and written to Its contents can only be read
It offers temporary storage Offers permanent storage
Its size can be increased Its size may not be increased

SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES

Apart from RAM and ROM there are several types of special purpose memories found inside the
CPU or in the input and output devices.

These memories are very vital because they increase the overall performance of data and instructions
moving in and out of the CPU.
These memories include buffers, registers and catch memory.

BUFFERS
This is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an input or output device.
Because the CPU is very fast compared to the input or output devices; buffers provide temporary
storage so that the CPU is set free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be
entered or information to be output. For example, since a printer can not work at a speed of a CPU,
the printer buffers temporary holds the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to perform other
functions.
Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.

REGISTERS
Unlike buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU.

Examples of registers are:-

An accumulator: - This temporarily holds the results of the last step of ALU.
Instruction Register: - This temporarily holds an instruction just before its interpreted into a form
that CPU can understand it.
An address register: - This temporarily holds the next piece of data waiting to be processed.
Storage Register: - This temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU and
the main memory.

CACHE MEMORY
Most modern processors incorporate small high-speed type of SRAM called Cache Memory. The
purpose of cache memory is to allow the processor to access data and instructions even faster than it
would have taken to fetch it from the relatively slow DRAM.
 4. PROCESSING HARDWARE
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) carries out all the data processing in the computer. It’s usually
referred to as the brain of the computer.
The CPU is sometimes referred to as the processor or central processor or the micro-processor

In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important computing element of a computer system.

The CPU consists of three main parts:-

- The control unit (CU)
- The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
- The Registers.
Other areas used by the CPU in Processing include:
- Main memory
- Auxiliary Processor.

THE CONTROL UNIT

The control unit (or brain) controls the entire operation of the processor system during the execution of a
program.
 It fetches, decodes, and executed instructions.
 It controls the flow of data between the main memory and the periphery devices.
 Periphery devices or peripherals are called so because they operate from the periphery (from
outside) or outer edges of the system or outside the CPU and the main memory.
 The control unit determines the instruction to be executed, the task to be performed by the
instruction where the results are to be stored and where the next instruction is located.
 It fetches the data from the main memory and puts it in the proper order for the processor.
 It also sends the processed results back to the main memory.
 Extracts instructions from memory decodes and executes them calling on ALU when necessary.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations. The arithmetic and logic computations/operations
include
 Additions.
 Multiplication.
 Division.
The ALU carries out all the logical and arithmetic processing. It decodes the instructions and then
processes the data.

Logical operation is the ability to compare two quantities or numbers to determine which is greater or
equal or less than the other. It also involves testing the existence of a condition encountered during the
processing of an application. Understanding the instructions accordingly

THE REGISTERS
A special high speed storage area with in the CPU, All the data must be represented in a register before it
can be processed. E.g. if 2 numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers must be in registers and the
result is also placed in the register.
The register can contain the address of a memory location where data is stored rather than the actual data
itself. The number of registers a CPU has and the size of each determine the power and speed of CPU.
E.g. 32-bit CPU is one with in which each register is 32 bit wide. Therefore each CPU instruction can
manipulate 32 bits of data.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE The term software can related to the word soft,
What is meant by computer software? which implies that computer software is soft and
It a set of detailed step-by-step instructions, flexible and changeable in nature.
which enable the computer hardware to perform
its assigned tasks COMPUTER SOFTWARE
It is a complete range of computer programs that CLASSIFICATION
enable the computer system to perform a Computer software is sub divided into two main
specific function. groups:
Computer software is sometimes referred to as 1. System
the machine’s intelligence. This is because it is software.
the software, which directs the hardware when 2. Application
performing its functions. software.

Computer software is made or designed by 1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE

human beings and this process is called These are the various programs that control the
Programming. Human beings who deal in way the computer operates. They manage the
programming are called Programmers or operation of the computer and makes sure the
Software Designers computer works efficiently. System software
deals with the hardware directly. System original. Allows the movement of hard
software is usually supplied with the computer disk contents to backup storage.
hardware.  Anti-virus:- This detects and removes
Some of these programs reside inside the ROM viruses from the computer.
and are known as firmware.  Data compression:- Helps to free space
on storage device (hard disk) by
Systems software can be grouped into the removing redundant data
following groups:-
a) The Operating b) PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES AND
system. LANGUAGE PROCESSORS
b) Utility Programming languages are the means of
programs. communicating with the processor. It is the
c) Programming logical flow of instructions in accordance to
languages and predetermined rule of grammar (syntax) of that
Language specific language in order to form a program.
processors
There are two basic categories of programming
a) UTILITY PROGRAMS languages.
These are also called service programs. They a) Low Level
are used to enhance the performance of the Languages.
computer. b) High Level
The most common utility programs are: Languages.
 Debuggers: - Tests the flow of a
program, it detects errors in the program a) Low Level Language.
and notifies the user These are called low level languages because
 Sorting Utility: - This allows data to be they are closely related to the computer
arranged as specified by the user i.e. processor. Thus these languages are easily
ascending order, Descending order or understood by the computer than the
otherwise. programmers. This is because they are written in
binary format i.e 0s and 1s
 Merging Utility: - Allows data from
more than one file to be combined into There are two examples of low level languages
one.  Machine Code (Object Code)
 Copying/Backup:- This allows the Language a.k.a 1st Generation
creation of a duplicate copy of the Language
  Assembly Language a.k.a 2nd done in less time. Most codes are automatically
Generation Language generated. They are problem oriented languages
and have a wide vocabulary of valid words,
Machine Code Language symbols and sentences. They were originally
This is also known as Object Code and is built for specific operations e.g. scientific or
referred to as the 1st Generation Language. It’s business purposes. However, these languages
very difficult to learn and very unfamiliar to cannot be understood by the computer
humans. It’s not user friendly at all. This is processor. They are grouped into the 3rd
because program codes must be written in generation, 4th generation and fifth generation
binary digits only. This makes programming languages.
very tiresome and very many errors are bound to
occur. Third Generation Language (3GL)
Computers understand and use machine code There are over 500 high level languages and
language only. An example of a machine code those which fall in the 3rd generation include;
instruction will look like 1000000001001 on a  PASCAL (Named after its
16-bit machine. inventor Pascal)
 COBOL (Common Business
Assembly Language Oriented Language)
This is referred to as the 2nd Generation  BASIC (Beginners All Purpose
Language. This was invented to simplify Symbolic Instruction Code)
machine code language. Though it closely  FORTRAN (FORmula
looks like a machine code language, at least, it TRANslation)
is easier to be understood and remembered by  C
humans. This is because it uses few English  C+
abbreviations or words e.g. SUB for subtract,  C++
FNO for First Number.  Java
These are easier to understand than the binary  Visual Basic etc.
digits.
Fourth Generation Language (4GL)
b) High Level Languages These are also classified among the high level
These were introduced as a further refinement languages and were designed to make
for Assembly Language. They make programming even easier.
programming much easier since they shield
programmers from knowing all the codes. They consist of mainly predefined functions and
Fewer instructions are written therefore a lot is procedures which need little customization
before they can be used. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
HTML is one of the main programming
With 4GL programming languages one doesn’t languages used to create web pages for the
need to know the details of the actual program internet.
codes. The codes are done automatically. The This language allows programmers to compose
programmer only changes a few codes in order text, pictures, sound animations and video for
to come up with a program he wants. This has the screen display.
simplified programming and increased
productivity. It also allows the programmer to add attachment
of Uniform Resource Locator (URL) which
An example of 4GL is SQL (Structured Query enables the linking (connecting) of different
Language) web pages to other pages on the internet.

Language Processors
Fifth Generation Language (5GLs) These are used to translate high level languages
These are normally used in intelligence based into machine code language so that they can be
systems such as robots. Unlike 4GLs, which understood by the computer. They work
manipulate numbers or data, these manipulate backwards to the processor.
various facts and rules to reach at a conclusion.
Therefore they can ‘think’, just like humans. Examples of Language processors include;
This is why they are extensively used in  Compilers
Artificial intelligence projects like in Mars  Assemblers
Exploration.  Interpreters
 Linkers

Compilers
These translate a program written in high level language into machine code or into an assembly code
program. The entire program is translated into machine code at compiling time.

Assemblers
These translate assembly instructions into binary code or machine code, a format that is understood by
the processor. They normally begin from where compilers stop.

Interpreters
An interpreter translated a source program line by line while the program is running. This is done each
time the program is executed and this makes the program runs.

Linkers
These programs combine compiled programs and determine where the program will be located in
memory. When the linker has transformed an object code, an executable file is generated. This normally
results in files with extensions .exe

c) THE OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system is a group of programs that manage all the activities on the computer

It co-ordinates the operation of the hardware components and application software programs of a
computer.

It is software through which the user communicates or interacts with the computer. This means that it
controls the user’s access to the computer facilities like the scanners and printers and the network.

The Operating system is loaded onto the computer’s memory (RAM) first. It checks and ensures that all
parts of the computer are functioning properly as the computer is booting.

The Operating system acts as a platform on which other programs can be placed. If the operating system
is not yet loaded other computer application programs cannot be loaded or used on that computer.

Every application program must be written to run on top of a particular operating system.

See illustration below

Application programs
Operating System

Hardware
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM
The operating system carries out all the activities in the computer but below is a summary of the clearest
functions carried out by an operating system.

 Memory management  Administering security

 Booting the computer  Monitoring system performance
 Providing the user interface  Helps in configuring devices
 Processor management  Scheduling computer jobs like printing
 File management  Error handling
 Managing the storage media

The Operating System creates an environment in which the user can run other programs. The general
functions of an Operating system are:-

1. Job Scheduling
This includes scheduling and monitoring jobs for continuous processing by the computer system.
A job is a group of tasks taken as a unit of work for a computer, which may include one or more
computer programs, files and instructions to the operating system. Some of the job scheduling functions
include controlling the loading and running of programs, communicating directly with the users and or
the operator and dealing with user commands to organize file and programs.

2. Resource Control
The operating system controls the use of computer resources by other system software and application
programs being executed. These resources include input and output devices and the CPU.

3. Processor Management.
A multi-user or multi-tasking computer system can be accessed by several users or applications at the
same time. However, the CPU can only execute one program at a time therefore access to the CPU must
be carefully controlled and monitored. The operating system must decide which program will be allowed
into the system and for how long.

4. Input/Output Handling (Hardware management).

Programs request then use of input/output devices during the course of their execution and in a multi-
user system conflicts are bound to arise when a device being utilized by one program is requested by
another. The operating system controls the allocation of these devices and resolves any conflicts which
arise. Apart from monitors the state of each device it also ensures that data is transmitted to the correct
device.

5. Providing the user interface

The type of interface used on the computer’s screen is provided by the operating system. An interface
provides the way through which the user interacts (interfaces) with the computer.

6. Memory Management
Operating systems determines how much memory is allocated to a particular program whenever it is
being used and for how long. Because the RAM is a scarce resource the operating systems determines
which data remains and which one is pushed out after execution.

7. Error Handling
The operating system deal with errors produced during program execution and keeps the computer
running when errors do occur or notifies the user and normally gives suggestions on how to handle it.

8. File Management
The operating system keeps track of the information in the computer, its location, use and status. The
collective facilities which manage computer files are called the file system.
A file system is concerned with the logical organization of the information and provides a means for
sorting, retrieving and sharing files. The operating system may also provide a means of protection for
data files and programs against unauthorized access and corruption.
For larger computers and networks, the operating system will have some additional functions such as
producing a record of all programs as they are being run, maintaining security, ensuring that users
authorized to use the computer system access it, organizing the use of storage since this has to be shared
among different users, working out the resources used by each program.

CLASSIFICATION/CATEGORIES OF OPERATINMG SYSTEMS

Operating systems are grouped according to the way or where they are used. The main categories
include.
 Desktop Operating systems
 Networking Operating Systems
  PDA Operating systems.
 Other Operating systems.

a) DESKTOP OPERATING SYSTEMS

These are operating systems which are commonly used on PCs and normally stand alone PCs (not on
network). They include:-

 DOS (Disk Operating System)

There are 2 types of DOS currently in use:
- PC-DOS, which was developed by IBM Corporation
- MS-DOS, which was developed by MS Corporation.
DOS is usually loaded with Windows 3x to complete desktop applications environment.

 Windows 3x
This is one of the earliest operating systems to be launched by Windows. It is used together with DOS to
give DOS a complete applications environment.

 Ms Windows 95 and Ms Windows 98

These were developed by Microsoft Corporation in an effort to improve Windows 3x. They came as a
result of greater technological advancement and requirements like multimedia and multi-tasking.
Windows 95 was later enhanced to Windows 98. The figures usually indicate the year or period within
which the operating was launched.

These provide better multi-tasking abilities; can provide network support, better power management,
improved battery life and productivity for laptop users.

Their new interface provides users with various options of starting application programs i.e. it’s either
from shortcut folders or the start menu.

They have plug and play ability which helps in installing new devices.

They supported long file names.

Unlike Windows 95, Windows 98 provided better support and integration with the internet explorer and
made it an ideal tool for web browsers.
  OS/2 (Operating Systems - 2)
This has also got multi-tasking abilities. It was designed for IBM model 50 and above computers. It was
designed by Microsoft and IBM Corporations collaboratively. It has GUI features. Doesn’t hang up
when one application program fails.

 BeOS (Be Operating System)

It is simply Be Operating System. It was developed due to increased demands in the multi media
industry for larger and robust file handling abilities. It is a 32-bit single user, multi-tasking operating
system and thus cannot support terminals since it is single user.
It can handle files that include video, sound and three dimensional images (3D-Images).
It can play multiple audio, video and animated files simultaneously even on a single processor.
OS/2 is more robust than windows 3.1 and windows 3.11. When multi-tasking under OS/2, the computer
(system) does not hang up when one of the applications fails.
It’s main disadvantage however is that it’s complicated and needs a lot of technical knowledge.

b) NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

These are designed to be used on several computers that exist on a network; however, they can also be
installed on stand alone computers. Examples include:

 Novell Netware
It’s a LAN Operating system for IBM standard computers running MS-DOS or OS/2. It has a Netware
Directory Service (NDS). It maintains a directory of network resources and limits access to
authenticated users only. It allows sharing of resources- files, programs, printers, E-mails etc. It’s very
useful in places which are interconnected. It was developed by Novell Inc in 1983.

 Windows NT 4.0.
It has features similar to those of Windows 95 and 98 but with integral/essential security and networking
abilities.

 Windows 3.11 (Windows for Workgroups)

This also allows sharing of resources like printers, copying machines and scanners. It is best suitable
peer-to-peer network.

 UNIX
This is a multi-user, multi-tasking and time sharing system, which was developed at AT and T Bell
Laboratories for mini and mainframe computers.

 LINUX
This has features similar to those of UNIX.

(c) PDA OPERATING SYSTEM

These are operating systems, which are specifically designed for hand held or very small computers.
They are commonly pen driven or touch sensitive. These PDAs usually come when they are already
loaded with the operating system. Examples include:

 Windows CE
This is Windows Compact Edition. It is specifically designed for PDAs. It has an environment
similar to that of the other windows operating system i.e. It has task bar, icons and menu bar.

 Palm Operating system

This was also specifically designed for Palmtop Computers.

 EPO
 Pocket PC 2002

(d) OTHERS OPERATING SYSTEMS

Other operating systems include those that are designed specifically for specific computers by the
manufacturers. Examples include:-

 Mac Operating System for Macintosh computers.

 Arcon RISC OS for Machines that use Arcon processors.
 VMS for DECs mini computers
 VME for the ICLs minicomputers.
 System-7 for the Apple Macintosh computers
 CP/M (Control programs for Micro computers) designed for microcomputers

* RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) this is a type of processor

* All windows operating systems share a common set of commands. For example, you open, save, print,
copy and paste etc in the same way throughout all windows applications.
OTHER WAYS OF CATEGORISING OPERATING SYSTEMS
There are several other ways of categorizing operating systems and these include:-

i. According to the number of users it can support simultaneously.

ii. According to the number of tasks it can perform simultaneously.
iii. According the user interface it provides.

a) ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF USERS

 Single-user operating systems

A single user or single tasking system allows one user to operate one program at a time. It can not
support more than one person and supports only one user program at a time. An example is MS-DOS.

 Multi-user operating system

A multi-user computer can be accessed by several users or applications simultaneously. They can be
installed on a computer that can be accessed by all users in a place. Examples include UNIX, Linux,
Novell, Windows NT, Windows 2003 server, etc.

b) ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF TASKS

 Single tasking operating system or single program operating system

This allows the processing of one application program in the main memory at a time. The user can only
run one interactive program at a time. Before one can use another he must first quit the current running
one. An example of this is Ms DOS.

 Multi- tasking operating systems

This allows the computer to more than one application program at the same time. The operating system
through processor scheduling allocates time and switches from one from one task to another so quickly
that it appears as if they are being executed simultaneously. Examples include almost all windows
operating systems including Windows NT/2000, UNIX, Novell, Linux,

c) ACCORDING TO THE USER INTERFACE

Operating systems can be categorized according to the type of user interface it provides to the user. The
term user interface refers to the interaction between the user and the computer. The user interfaces
include the following:
 Command line interface (CLI)
 Graphical user interface (GUI)
 Menu driven interface

Operating systems can be classified into three categories according to the user interface

 Command-line based operating systems

Command-driven Operating Systems lets the user type a command at a command prompt. A command
prompt looks like C :\>……. Commands are in form of special words or letters like Copy, print, cut and
abbreviations like DEL, REN, CHKDSK etc. The commands are executed after pressing the Enter key
or the Return carriage.
The command line interfaces are very difficult to use because the commands must be remembered
before one can use the computer. They also cannot process complex graphics. Examples of these are the
earlier versions of MS DOS, PC DOS, OS/2, and UNIX

 Menu Driven Interface

Menu driven interfaces provide the user with a list of options to choose from. The interface is suitable
for beginners who may have difficulties recalling commands. Some menus are sophisticated while
others are sophisticated depending on the operating system. Examples include DOS Editor, Windows
3.11

 Graphical User interface (GUI)

This is a pictorial representation of tools or information on the computer screen. GUI is the latest effort
to make the interface user friendlier.
GUI allows one to enter commands by pointing and clicking at pictures (icons) that appear on the
screen. It allows the use of a mouse to click at icons or graphics on the screen.
It provides a number of features which makes them very user-friendly. These features have been
abbreviated as WIMP features. WIMP stands for:

Windows
Windows are rectangular work areas provided on the screen. In each window a different program or file
can be run. Windows can be moved around the screen and their size and shape can be changed at will.

Icons
These are small pictures that represent commands, files, or windows. Clicking on these icons can
execute a command. This makes the computer easier to use even for those who can’t read.

Menus
A menu is a list of choices. GUI can allow one to execute a command by clicking at a choice from the
menu.

Pointing Device
This refers to a device like the mouse which enables one to select objects by moving the pointer around
the screen.

Desktop
This is the area on the display screen where icons are grouped. Icons are meant to represent real objects
on a real desk.

Pointer
This is a symbol that appears on the screen which is moved to select objects and commands. Normally, it
looks like a small angled arrow though it can be changed at will. Examples of Operating systems under
this category include:-
Windows (95, 98, 2000, XP, Vista, me, NT)
Susie Linux
Novell Netware
Apple Mac OS
Linux

COMMON TECHNOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH OPERATING SYSTEMS

(i) Multi-tasking.
This refers to having several programs running simultaneously on the computer. For example; you can
send a page to print and continue typing a document.

(ii) Multi-threading.
Is when each process runs one or more thread when this happens, it appears to the user as if the
application is performing several tasks at once. For example; Window 95, which performs a spell check
as you type. There is a thread responsible for accepting user input and another for checking the spellings.
A thread is the smallest unit of an execution.

(iii) Multi-Processing.
Tasks are shared among several processors and run simultaneously.

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT OPERATING SYSTEMS

DOS WINDOWS
 Requires little memory - More memory
 Requires less disk space - More disk space
 Not user friendly - User friendly
 No ability to multi-tasking - Multi-tasking ability
 Cannot be easily corrupted (destroyed) i.e. more stable - Easy to corrupt

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING AN OPERATING SYSTEM

Qn. What factors should be considered when choosing an operating system?

When choosing an operating for a computer the following should be put into consideration.
 The computers specification for example memory capacity, processor speed, hard disk capacity
etc.
 The type of computer in terms of size and make. This would tell you to buy either a PDA or
Desktop Operating system
 The application software intended for the computer. This because some applications cannot be
supported by particular operating systems
 User friendliness of the operating system
 The cost of the operating system
 Reliability and security provided by the operating system
 The number of processors and hardware it can support
 The number of users it can support
APPLICATION PROGRAMME / SOFTWARE
Application programs are programs/software developed to solve the user’s specific problems or tasks.
These are programs which are designed to help the user accomplish specific tasks.
Application software/program is developed for a particular purpose.

There are basically two types of application software which include:-

 Special purpose / Custom Designed programs
o General purpose applications/Off-the-shelf programs

1. SPECIAL PURPOSE/CUSTOM MADE OR CUSTOM DESIGNED OR IN-HOUSE.

These are programs which are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular user’s needs.
This is a program that is designed and written just to solve the particular problem for a particular group
of people.
These are not bought from shops or from the counter; the program may be developed by a software
house, a private individual or developed in-house by some one within the organization.

A software house is a company that specializes in writing software.

They are designed for a particular market or an identifiable group of users such as; hoteliers, farmers,
SACCOS, schools, banks etc.

They tend to be more expensive and sell fewer because of being occupation specific.

2. GENERAL PURPOSE/OFF-SHELF PROGRAMS.

These are pre-written programs purchased off-the-shelf by the user. They are very important for non-
specials in home or business. They are not written to solve any particular problem, and can be used to
be solved.
They are general in nature. They solve problems that are common in nature.

Examples of off-shelf / General Purpose programs

 Word Processors (Ms Word, WordPerfect, WordStar, Lotus Notes, Perfect Text Editor,
 Professional Writer, etc). Used in creation of documents like letters, reports, labels etc.
 Spreadsheets (Ms Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro. VisiCalc. ) used in creation and
maintenance of numerical data and carrying out calculations).
 Databases, (Ms Access, dBase III and IV, MySQL, FoxBase, Paradox ). They are used to
keep records and files
 Presentation software (Ms PowerPoint).
Used in creation of slides, slide show overheads etc
 Desktop publishing (Adobe PageMaker, Ms Publisher, Adobe InDesign) used in
designing publications like newspapers, creation of books, magazines etc.
 Computer Aided Design (CAD) e.g. AutoCAD. This is used in technical drawing
 Graphic Software (Adobe Photoshop, Corel Draw ).Designing and manipulating
graphics
 Communication software e.g. Browsers, internet explorer and e-mail software, Ms
Outlook, Ms exchange. Used in sending mails and searching for data on the www
Advantages of General Purpose/Off-shelf packages
- Relatively low priced since they are sold in large numbers
- They are easy to use and are suitable for people with little or no computer knowledge.
- They are usually provided with extensive documentation to help the user.
- They are readily available compared to special purpose programs.
- They can be customized to solve other problems e.g. designing vouchers, CVs from template
- Have less error
Disadvantages
- It is quite easy to forget the commands to use in the package, especially if it is not used
frequently.
- Sometimes, the package will allow only a clumsy solution to the task at hand.

1. WORD PROCESSORS

INTRODUCTION TO WORD PROCESSING AND WORD PROCESSORS

A word processor is application software that enables a person to create, save, edit, format and print text
documents.
Word processing therefore, is the act of using a word processor to create, save, edit, format and print text
documents.

A wide variety of word processors exist on market and they include:

 Microsoft Word  WordStar.
 Corel WordPerfect  Lotus WordPro
 Ms Works  Word pad
 Word Pro.  NotePad
 Lotus Notes

These word processors are used in:

 Writing letters  Typing and creating boos
 Writing reports  Writing memo
 Projects  Designing Curriculum vitae etc
Some modern word processor versions can now be used to edit graphics and images and other objects.

ADVANTAGES OF USING WORD PROCESSORS

 A document can be stored in the computer for future reference in computer files and these files
do not occupy physical space like those on paper
 Using word processors is easier and more efficient because some actions are automatic for
example, the word wrap which takes the cursor to the next line if the word can not fit in the
current line
 Word processors have special editing tools such as spelling and grammar checker and the
thesaurus which help the user to the grammar and spelling mistakes
 It is very easy to correct omissions and errors in the work without affecting the structure and
neatness of the work.
 All processors have superior formatting features
 Word processors have the cut, copy and paste commands which help the user to integrate texts
from other places.

2. SPREADSHEETS
These are application programs used for the manipulation of numeric data and carrying out calculations.

It is a ledger sheet that lets you enter, edit and manipulate numeric data
TYPES OF SPREADSHEETS

There are two types of spreadsheets

 Manual Spreadsheets
 Electronic Spreadsheets

1. MANUAL SPREADSHEETS

These are simply sheets of paper divided into rows and columns which can be used to enter values for
example amounts of money manually using a pen or pencil. They are common in book keeping and in
accounting offices.

2. ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS
Electronic spreadsheets are computer based. They are computer programs, which enables the user to
enter values in rows and columns just the same way it is done in manual spreadsheets.
Electronic spreadsheets allow one to manipulate values (numbers) mathematically using formulae.

Illustration of an electronic spreadsheet

  An electronic spreadsheet usually consists of a series of rows and columns.
 The rows and columns intersect to form cells.
 A cell is the basic unit of a worksheet or a spreadsheet because it’s where data is entered.
 The gridlines in the worksheet are imaginary unless the user wants to print them out.
 A cell is referenced or addressed by the column or row titles e.g. D2, this means that Row 2
intersects with Column D to form the cell D2

ADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRONIC OVER MANUAL SPREADSHEETS

1. They can carry out calculations automatically which simplifies the manual and mental work of
calculating which is tedious.
2. It can present data (numerical) on charts e.g. Pie-charts, bar graphs, line graphs etc, which makes
data more clear and becomes easy to visually, interpret.
3. Provides the user with facilities for handling databases in order to organize, process structured
information.
4. It carries out a variety of tasks like financial planning, budget, and cost projections, cost planning,
budgeting, producing invoices etc
5. They are speedy, efficient and flexible which makes them better tools for data/information
analysis.
6. They have the aspects of speed, accuracy and efficiency which enable the user to accomplish
tasks quickly
7. They offer a large virtual sheet for data entry and manipulation. Electronic spreadsheets are very
big with at least 255 columns and over 60000 rows whereas manual ones do not exceed 30
columns
8. Since they are computer based, electronic spreadsheets can be stored on the computer where they
can be retrieved anytime.
9. They enable the user to produce neat work because there is neither pencil, rubber, nor whitewash
which always made the work dirty.
10. They have better document formatting capabilities like colors, charts, and illustrations which can
make the work beautiful
11. They have in-built formulae called functions which enable the user to quickly manipulate
numerical data
12. An electronic spreadsheet automatically adjusts the result of the formula if the values in the
worksheet are changed. This is called the automatic recalculation feature. In manual spreadsheets,
this would entail rubbing before writing the correct one.

DISADVANTAGES OF SPREADSHEETS
1. It’s not easy to create documents like letters, reports, or books in this program.
2. It is usually difficult to print spreadsheet because the print area must be set before printing.
3. One error created in calculating formulae can distort all the results in the worksheet.
4. Some formulae may be difficult to formulate
5. They only work when there is electricity, which means that when there is no power all work stalls
6. Since they are computer based, they are liable to virus attacks which causes heavy data loss
7. One needs to be skilled to use them unlike manual ones which need one to only read and write
8. They are expensive to maintain because they may require servicing, paper and ink for printing

COMPONENTS OF A SPREADSHEET
A spreadsheet has three components.
1. Worksheet: A component where data is entered. In Excel, they are three worksheets by default
2. Database: This refers to related data entered into the worksheet.
3. Graphs: This is a pictorial representation of data on a worksheet. Graphs a.k.a Charts

APPLICATION AREAS OF SPREADSHEETS

Spreadsheets can be used (applied) in various ways including:

1. Statistical analysis
Spreadsheets can be used to perform complex and simple statistical analyses, which can even be
represented on charts. Simple statistical analyses include average, Median, minimum, maximum etc.

2. Accounting
Spreadsheets are very much ideal as a tool for recording daily transactions and keeping financial
records. They have inbuilt functions which make accounting tasks easier. They can be used to calculate
depreciation and appreciation (value of assets), calculate profits, prepare budgets etc.

3. Data management
Spreadsheets enable neat arrangement of data in rows and columns. This data can be easily sorted,
filtered and compared using spreadsheet functions. They enable the user to create, edit, save, retrieve
and print worksheet data.

4. Forecasting (performing the “what if” analysis)

This involves the changing of values of one argument in a formula to see the difference the change
would make on the result of the calculation. This helps businesses in budgeting, stock portfolio analysis,
cash flow etc.

EXAMPLES OF ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS

 Ms Excel,
 Lotus 1-2-3,
 VisiCalc,
 SuperCalc,
 Ms Frameworks,
 VP-Planner
 Quattro Pro.

Microsoft Excel is the most common spreadsheet application. Microsoft Excel has like other software
versions gone under various updates.

Starting Microsoft Excel

 Click start button.
 Point or click on Microsoft Excel or if not displayed, locate the Microsoft office group and then
click on Microsoft Excel.

A Microsoft Excel worksheet like other Microsoft application programs displays toolbars. By default,
the Menu bar, Standard toolbar and Formatting toolbar, are displayed in that order.
In case they are not displayed,
 Point/click view from the Menu bar,
 Point to toolbars
 Click/check on the toolbar desired.

Features of Microsoft Window in Excel

The Microsoft Excel is made of many features but the most useful and pronounced are:

 Title bar
It’s a toolbar which holds the title of the application and control buttons for minimizing, maximizing and
closing.

 The Menu bar

This toolbar displays a list of menu options like File, Open, View etc. these options help the user to
manipulate data whenever clicked

 The Status Bar

It is found at the bottom of the window. It usually indicates the worksheet mode i.e. active or not active.
An active worksheet or cell is the one in which data is being entered or selected cell.

 Worksheet Tabs
These are also called worksheet labels. These are usually indicated sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet 3.
These tabs can be changed by right clicking and then renaming them after clicking, rename from the
short cut. Double clicking also can help one rename them.
 Formula Bar
This is also referred to as the Edit toolbar. It indicates the contents of the active cell. It is called the edit
toolbar because the contents of the worksheet and the formula can be changed from it. It has an equal
sign or fx and a the name box which displays the current cell. The current cell refers to the cell in which
data or formula is being entered.

 Cell pointer
This marks the position of the current cell or the insertion point. It is a special cursor that is rectangular
and makes the current cell appear as if it is darker boundaries

 Vertical and Horizontal scroll bars

These are used to move the sheets up and down or left and right respectively.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH Ms EXCEL

 Range: - A group of adjacent cells. A range in a rectangular group of cells. E.g. A1:B8
 Cell: - This is the intersection of column and row. It is the basic unit of a worksheet
 Worksheet: - One sheet in a spreadsheet workbook. A worksheet is a grid of columns and rows.
It is a component in which data values are entered. The rows are numbered 1 to 65536, while
columns are lettered (A, B, C…….)
Ms Excel by default presents three worksheets in every workbook when opened but more sheets
can be added.
 Workbook: - This is a collection of worksheets grouped together.
 Cell Address: - This is a reference to a particular cell. It is the position of a cell in a worksheet. It
is given by the column letter and row number respectively e.g. D24. The cell reference is very
vital when formulating formulae.
 Range Address: - A range reference which has a format of top-left cell address or e.g.D13:F20.
 Formula: - A worksheet entry that calculates data. It can consist of numbers, text, operators, cell
addresses, range names etc.
 Active cell: - this is the cell in which the cursor is situated at a particular moment. It is the
selected cell where data is being entered.
 Row: Horizontal arrangement of cells.
 Column: Vertical arrangement of cells

For example: A1 is the first cell which means that A is a column and 1 is a row. Therefore column A
intersects with 1 to form cell A1.

TOOLS OF ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS

Spreadsheets are able to handle numerical data because of these and other special tools
 Data sorting and filtering feature. This arranges data in ascending or descending order while the
latter removes some values/items depending on a given criterion.
 Data validation feature. Ensures correct data is entered in the spreadsheet.
 Printing of the entire worksheet or portions of it.
 Ability to adjust column width and row, height, hide rows and columns and freeze.
  Data formatting e.g. both text and data can be formatted using certain formats (pre-defined
formats) e.g. integers, decimal, scientific, currency data etc. borders and shading.
 Built-in functions and formulae for adding (sum) multiplying, percentages, counting, e.g.
(Minimum, Maximum, Average) trigonometric functions, financial functions etc. for example
=Sum(Range) adds the contents, =SQRT (cell) Returns the square root of the Minimum,
Maximum value in a cell.
 Charting: this feature helps the user to present data in form of pie charts, bar graphs, histograms
etc. charts accord an impressive look and an easy interpreted.

TYPES OF DATA ENTERED IN MS EXCEL

 Labels
 Values
 Formulae
 Functions

Labels
This refers to any text or alphanumeric characters entered in a cell. Labels are usually used as row or
column headings. Headings are used to describe the contents of the row or column. Labels can not be
calculated and are always. Numbers can be used as labels but an apostrophe must be used before that
number for example, ‘2013. Other examples of labels include NAME, ITEM, etc.

Values
These are numbers which can be calculated mathematically. They may include numbers 0 – 9, currency,
date, special symbols like +,-, #, @ etc, which can be used for calculation.

Formulae
This is a worksheet entry that is used to calculate data. It is an expression which creates a relationship
between cells and returns a value in a chosen cell. A formula in excel usually begins with an equal sign.
For example, =B2+C2. Formulae are constructed using cell references.

Functions
These are inbuilt predefined formulae that the user can quickly use instead of having to create a new one
each time calculations are to be carried out. Most common calculations have their formulae predefined
like SUM
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS IN MS EXCEL/SPREADSHEETS

OPERATION OPERATOR OPERAND EXAMPLE

Multiplication * (Asterisk) B2,C4 =B2* C4
Division / (Forward Slash) B2,C4 =B2/C4
Sum/Addition + (Plus) B2,C4 =B2+C4
Subtraction - (Minus) B2,C4 =B2-C4
Percentage % (Percent) C5 =C5*60%
Exponent ^ (Exponent) C5 =C5^2
Parentheses ( ) (brackets) B2,C4,D5 =B2* (C4+D5)
NB: Values (arguments) in brackets are calculated first.

VALUE (NUMBER) FORMATS IN SPREADSHEETS

General: General format cells have no specific number format.
Date: Displays date in specified format
Number: Used for general display of numbers
Time: Displays time in specified format
Currency: Displays general monetary values like dollars, pounds, shillings
Percentage: Displays data as %
Accounting: Lines up the currency symbols and decimal points
Fraction: Displays all values as fractions
Text: Formats cells so that every entry is treated as text including values
Custom: the user specifies the values that fall outside the values in Excel e.g. index
numbers
Special: this includes special values like phone numbers, Account numbers, social security
etc

CELL AND RANGE REFERENCING

Cell reference refers to the position of the cell in a worksheet. In Ms Excel, the A1instead of the R1C1
cell referencing style is used.
There are 3 types of cell references.
 Relative cell reference
 Absolute Reference (fixed cell reference)
 Mixed cell reference

RELATIVE CELL REFERENCE

 Normally, cell references are relative.
 This means that the cells used in the formula keep changing depending on their position the
worksheet. For example, =A1*A2. This means “two cells-up-from-here” multiplied by one-cell-
up-from-here.
 This happens when copying formulae.

ABSOLUTE CELL REFERENCES

Here, the cell reference remains fixed. It does not change when the formula is copied.
 An absolute reference is shown by a dollar sign ($).
 The dollar sign fixes the column number or row number immediately after it e.g. $A$15.
 If a formula is constructed using A15 and you want the values in A15 to remain unchanged if
copied from one cell to another i.e. not to change i.e. be for example multiplied with other cells,
a sample formula would look like this, = $A$15*A16 if the answer is to be in A17, A15 is
absolute while A16 is relative.
 If the formula is copied to D17, it becomes $A$15*D16, if copied to G29 it becomes
=$A$15*G19.

MIXED CELL REFERENCES

 This cell reference is partly absolute and partly relative. The dollar sign fixes the column letter
or row number immediately after it only. For example, you can fix the column but let the row
change.
 For example, =$A1*A2 or $A1 is mixed. The column letter A is absolute but the row number is
relative; it can change. For example, =A$1*A2, column letter A is relative; it can change, while
row number is absolute, it can’t change (A$1 is mixed because) when this formula is copied to
D7 it becomes =D$1*D6.

WORKING WITH FORMULAE FUNCTIONS IN SPREADSHEETS

A formula is a worksheet entry that calculates data. A formula can contain numbers, text, operators, cell
addresses, range names, and other formulae.

A formula can be built using operators and separators like brackets. Formulae perform mathematical
operations ranging from very simple arithmetic problems to complex scientific, financial and
mathematical analysis.

How to build a Formula

- Select a cell where you want to enter the formula by clicking.
- Type an equal sign to begin the formula.
- Type the first operand e.g. A5.
- Type the first operator e.g. +
- Type in the next operand e.g. B5
- Press Enter to display the results.

TYPES OF FORMULA/FUNCTIONS
Three types in spreadsheet

1. Numeric (Mathematical) Formulae/Functions

These perform calculations in values.
They use operators like +,-, /,* and ^ for calculation. Most of the calculations in a worksheet are based
on these functions. For example, Summing, Product, Division etc

2. Text (Statistical) Formulae/Functions

A text formula is used to manipulate text data. The text is normally enclosed in Quotation marks (“ ”)
and combine strings of text. These can be used to combine text from different cells to one cell.

3. Logical Formulae/Functions
These are statements that evaluate conditions. They result into 1 if true, =,>, < and >< and also and OR
and NOT.
Examples of logical functions include;
 If: It returns a specified value if a condition is evaluated and found to be true and another value
if it is false.
 Count if: Counts the number of cells within a specified range that meet the given criteria. If the
cells A1:E1 contain eggs, beans, beans, eggs, eggs; the formula would look like;
 =countif(A1:E1,”eggs”) this will return 3 as the answer.
 Sumif: This adds values in cells specified by the condition or criteria. For example, if the cells
A1:E1 contain values 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 to sum all values greater than 4 the formula would look like
this. =sumif(A1:E1,”>4”). 12 will be returned as the answer.

4. Statistical Formulae/Functions
Statistical functions include
 Average: This displays the mean for a group of values. For example =Average(D1:D10)
 Count: Counts the number of cells that contain values within the range. For example
=Count(D1:D10)
 Max: Returns the largest value within the range. =Max(D1:D10)
 Min: Returns the smallest value in the range. =Min(D1:D10)
 Mode: Returns the most frequently occurring value in the range. =Mode(D1:D10)
 Rank: Returns the rank (position/weight) of a number in a list by comparing its size with others.
=Rank(D1,$D$1:$D$10,1) this means RANK(number to be ranked, range, order) order is
usually 1 or 2, 1 ranks in ascending order while 2 ranks in descending order.

QNS
2002. State two examples of spreadsheet programs.
2000. What else can be input in spreadsheets besides text and numbers---Formula, Alphabet numeric,
text and numbers.
2000. Name 3 different operations which you would expect in a spreadsheet cell (in books).
2000. Name 3 different types of number format you would expect in a spreadsheet cell.

QNS:
a (i) What is an application package?
(ii) What is a custom made package?

b (i) Distinguish between custom made and off-shelf application packages.

(ii) State 3 advantages of off-shelf packages.
(iii) State 2 disadvantages of off-shelf packages.

c (i) What is word processing?

(ii) List 3 word processing application packages.
COMPUTER VIRUSES, WORMS AND virus can be spread through E-mails;
BUGS information shared over the internet and locally
shared documents over LANs.
A computer virus is a computer program/code
that copies (can copy) itself and infects a
computer without the knowledge of the user. DISASTERS CAUSED BY VIRUS
 Damaging programs/software
A computer program/code specifically designed  Deleting files/data on storage
to damage or cause irregular behavior in other devices
programs on a computer. It is designed to infect  Formatting the hard disk.
and affect the computer’s performance  Boot failure
negatively.  Take up / fill up the computer
memory
A virus can only spread from one computer to  Causes system crashes.
another when its host is taken to the uninfected  Corruption of files
computer or if the computers are connected to  Slows down the speed of the
the same network. For example; a virus can be computer
spread if the author sent it over the internet or a
network or if it is carried on a removable TYPES OF VIRUSES
medium such as a floppy diskette, CD, flash There are many software codes regarded as
disk etc. computer viruses that can cause damage to
computer systems. They include:-
Viruses are sometimes confused with computer  Boot sector viruses
worms and Trojan horses. A worm can spread  File viruses
itself to other computers without needing to be  Hoax viruses
transferred as a part of a host, and a Trojan  Trojan horses
horse is a file that appears harmless until  Backdoors
executed.  Worms
 Jokes
With the advent (coming) of the internet  Test viruses
connection and usage of LANs, computer  Time Bombs
viruses have become the most terrifying  Multipartite viruses
problem in the usage of ICT. This is because a
Boot sector viruses
This destroys the booting information on the computer or storage devices. It affects the booting files and
causes failure in booting.

File viruses
These attach themselves to computer files. They usually delete files or cause erratic behaviors in the file
system.
Hoax viruses
They are usually lies; they don’t exist in real sense. They only exist in the imagination of the press and
public. They don’t exist despite the rumor of their distribution and creation. The rumour about their
creation and spread is usually spread through e-mails or the press.

Trojans / Trojan horse

This is a small program code hidden within legitimate software. The software continues to work
normally until such a time when they are activated to cause trouble. A Trojan horse does not have the
capacity to replicate (copy) itself like a worm or a virus. The program does irritating actions like
flickering of the screen and the cursor disappearing. Some of these are failed or incomplete computer
games.

Worms
This sticks in the computer memory and re-writes (replicate) itself in the memory until it can’t multiply
anymore. This causes the computer to stop working because the memory is full.

Backdoors
This may be a Trojan or a worm that allows hidden access to a computer system.

Droppers
These are programs that have been written to perform useful tasks like compressing files, previewing
video clips etc. but end up introducing viruses in the system in the process of performing their functions.

Failed virus
These are viruses that have failed to meet their goals. This is mainly due to poor programming by the
author/designer or is intercepted by a real virus. They are common on the internet when downloading
software.
Packagers
These hide the existence of a virus from virus guard by masking some codes around the actual software
programs. It is only when a virus has appeared that you realize the software had a virus.

Test virus
These are simply written to test some virus guard or anti-virus software. They are not harmful, just for
learning purposes only.

Time bombs
A program code that’s activated in conjunction with predetermined days/events. For example,
Valentines, Fools’ Day, Friday 13th etc. These use logical calculations to determine their trigger days. A
virus or a Trojan may have a virtual logic in it.

Jokes
A joke is a harmless program that does amusing things on the screen. E.g. Messages like-“ Your
computer is about to explode in five minutes, please run away………….” These messages appear and
disappear in few seconds.

The following viruses are classified according to the way they hide.

 Boot Sector Viruses

The boot sector is the first section on a floppy diskette. It contains vital information about a diskettes
logical set up. When a virus infects a diskette, it alters this information or relocates it elsewhere on the
diskette. This causes the computer to display messages like “Non systems” or “the diskette is not
formatted”.

 File Viruses
This appends itself or inserts itself into program files like those, which have extensions .exe, .com; such
that when these files are run, the virus attacks other executable files either directly of indirectly. It
affects the memory of the computer and whenever the host file is executed, it attacks other files because
it uses the infected memory space.

 Partition Sector Viruses

This is the first sector on a hard disk which contains information about the disk specifications like the
number of sectors and tracks in each partition, where DOS partition starts.
When a partition sector virus attacks a computer, it modifies the code located here, causing the computer
not to boot fully.

 Overwriting Viruses
These infect files by overwriting the entire or part of a file thereby causing the file not to execute or
work as it is supposed to do. These are normally DOS based.

 Macro Viruses
With the introduction of macro programming languages in some applications, macro viruses have
emerged. These can cause some toolbar icons to work differently. Macro viruses are common in
Microsoft word documents.

 Companion Viruses
A computer virus works by creating different file names with an extension .com similar to the executable
file with the .exe extension, such that it can be run first and pass control to the actual program file with
the .exe extension.
This is because when running programs under DOS, DOS will prefer to run a file with the .com
extension first rather than with .exe extension.

 Multipartite Viruses
These are viruses that use a combination of techniques to infect the different executable files, boot
sectors and or partition sectors.
They are normally difficult to trap.

SOURCES OF VIRUSES
Viruses spread in various ways but the most common ways are:-

Fake Games
Computers games are a common source of viruses because most games are irresistible. Virus designers
design fake games and attach virus onto them. Once a game is executed, a virus is run and activated.
These games keep infecting systems as they are installed. Such games have “irresistible” names like
HOTSEX.EXE, JACKPOT.COM, ROMANCE.EXE etc.

Contaminated systems
Contaminated computer systems can spread virus if used freely. For example, installation diskettes for a
particular application program can introduce viruses on to a system whenever that application is
installed. There by spreading the virus. It is also common for pirated software.

Freeware and shareware

These soft wares are usually given/downloaded free of charge. These are good grounds for distributing
viruses.
Freeware are software programs which are usually distributed on line free of charge while shareware
refers to those software programs, which can be shared freely amongst the users.

Legitimate Software Updates

Software may get a virus from software house during programming by unscrupulous virus authors or
during the distribution say through a network, where they get viruses from the wild viruses across the
internet.

Pirated software
The use of pirated software introduces the risk that the software may be contaminated by virus code or
amended to perform some other destructive function which may affect the system. Pirated software is
that which was copied illegally with an aim of making profit

WAYS OF SPREADING VIRUSES

Viruses are commonly spread or activated in 3 basic ways:
 Opening an infected file
 Running an infected program
 Starting up the computer with an infected floppy diskette
 Use of infected storage devices like floppy diskettes, hard disk etc.
 Through E-mails or distributed maliciously through the internet.
 Through downloads from the internet especially free ones
 Through freeware and shareware.

SYMPTOMS OF VIRUSES
 Unfamiliar graphics or quizzical messages appearing on screens.
 Programs taking longer than usual to load.
 Disk accesses seeming excessive for simple tasks
 Unusual error messages occurring more frequently
  Less memory available than usual
 Access lights turning on for non referred devices.
 Programs and files disappearing mysteriously.
 Computer indicating that the storage devices are full.
Any evidence of these or similar events should be an immediate cause for concern to isolate the PC at
once and investigate.

PRECAUTIONS TO GUARD AGAINST VIRUSES (control measures).

 Ensure that there are regulations and a policy on the usage of computers and their protection (e.g.
no foreign diskettes unless first scanned)
 Ensure that the e-mails are from a trusted source before opening them or e-mail attachments
 Avoid opening e-mails before scanning them for viruses
 Install anti-virus utility and update its virus definitions frequently for detecting and removing
viruses.
 Never start up a PC with a floppy diskette in the drive.
 Scan all the drives and files for possible virus infection before using them.
 Write protect the recovery disk before using it.
 Back up important files regularly.

ANTI-VIRUS PROGRAMME/UTILITY
An anti-virus utility is a program that prevents, detects and removes viruses from a computer’s memory
or storage devices. This utility is installed into the computer by the computer user or owner to perform
the very purpose identified above. The user is required to check or clean the computer regularly using
this anti-virus. Examples of common anti-virus programs include Kaspersky, AVG, Norton, and
MacAfee, Avila, Avast etc
BUGS
A computer bug is an error in a computer system (software or hardware), which causes undesirable
results or unwanted procedures.

A bug error can be both software and hardware problem or a programming oversight.

The millennium bug for example, was a hardware based error, which affected the computer clock.

Every computer contains two types of clocks i.e. the hardware clock, which is in-built also called the
RTC (Real Time Clock) and Virtual clock/system clock.
The RTC runs continuously whether the computer is on or off and the system clock is a 24hour timer,
which only exist when the computer is running. Therefore, it is the operating system that uses the bios
to read the RTC and track independently.

The millennium bug existed when programmers anticipated that computers may fail to recognize the
year 2000. The BIOS provided had a prefixed ‘19’ and it would therefore read the year ‘2000’ as 1900.
This is a code error (bug).

EFFECTS OF THE COMPUTER BUG (Disadvantages).

 May lead to the program crash of freeze leading to the disruption of service.
 Some bugs (errors) qualify as security bugs and therefore may enable a malicious user to
bypass access controls in order to obtain unauthorized privileges.
 In computer controlled machines, a bug may bring system failure and result of the computer
failing execute positive commands.

PREVENTION OF BUGS
Bugs are a consequence of the human factors in the programming tasks. They are caused by oversights
made by computer programmers during designing, coding and data entry.
The software industry has put much effort into finding methods for preventing bugs in programming
which include:-

1. PROGRAMMING STYLE
Innovations in programming style and defensive programming have been designed to make typing errors
(bugs) less likely or easier to spot.

2. PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES
Programs can be written to check the inconsistency of their own internal data while running. If an
inconsistency is encountered, the program can immediately halt so that the bug can be located and fixed.
The program can also inform the user to attempt to correct the inconsistency and continue running.
These programs that locate bugs are called debuggers

3. DEVELOPING METHODOLOGIES
Programming has been made more automatic than manual because of simplified programming
languages so that fewer bugs can be produced through human error. .
QNS:
1(a) Explain what’s meant by a computer virus?
(b) State two precautions which should be taken to prevent viruses from affecting computers.

2003:
1(a) What is a virus?
(b) Outline four common ways in which viruses are spread.
(c) State four ways used to protect your computer Vs viruses
(d) Name any 3 virus scanning software.
(e) State 3 symptoms of viruses.
(f) Mention 2 ways in which a computer can be infected by a virus.
COMPUTER COMMUNICATION, INTERNET, INTRANET AND ETHERNET
Introduction
With dynamics in information technology (IT), computers have shifted from being used for typing,
editing and printing documents to act as a medium for communication.

Communication can be defined as a process that allows organisms to exchange information through
several methods.

It can also be defined as a process of meaningful interaction among human beings so as to produce
understanding

Information technology on the other hand refers to all the types of equipment and programs used in
processing information (ICT). This encompasses devices like phones, fax machines, copiers, telecom
masts, software programs etc

Communication is also used in the context where little or no feedback is expected. This is known as
broadcasting. In broadcasting, either the feedback is delayed because the sender or the receiver uses a
different method, technology; timing or the feedback is not expected at all.
In computers, communication is basically the interaction or use of computer resources on a network to
meet your needs. For example, E-mails and using the internet resources to find information of your
interest

THE INTERNET
The internet is a Wide Area Network (WAN) that is capable of linking millions and potentially billions
of computers around the world.

It can also be defined as the global connection of computers whereby access to information world wide
is enhanced.

It is a world wide system of inter-connected computers. The internet is not a physical thing (wires,
cables and computers) but rather a set of standards that allow computers of any brand or model to
connect with any kind of wiring (connection). It is just a technology for getting all kinds of computers to
communicate with one another and exchange data.

These standards are called the Internet Protocols (IP) or Transmission Control Protocols (TCP)
commonly referred to as (TCP/IP) Protocols.

TCP/IP is the set of rules that govern computers to communicate on a network including the internet.
To use the internet, you use a tool called a “client”. Your client contacts a distant computer where a
program called ‘server’ is running. The server dishes out the data you want and sends it to your client,
which displays it on your screen.

An internet tool called the World Wide Web (or the web) is the best way to access the riches and
resources of internet.

TERMS

WWW - (World Wide Web).

This is a wide area information retrieval initiative aiming to give universal access to a large universe of
documents.

HTTP
Stands for hypertext transfer protocol. It’s a set of rules and regulations that is used to send a page or
pages containing hyper text from one PC to another.

Hyper means over or beyond and thus hypertext is that text that will lead users to other related
information on demand through hyper link.

Website
A website can also be defined as a collection of pages on the web owned by an individual or
organization. It’s the location of the web domain name in a computer somewhere on the internet.
A computer with a domain name is called a site. The computer may be located at the office owning that
particular website but may also be located somewhere else entirely.

The first page a website is known as a Home Page. Every web page has a unique address. This address
is what is known as the URL (Uniform Resource Locator).

The URL usually begins with http://www and tells the web browser that it is looking for a web page.

Most modern browsers have http:// stored so you can start at www.

Examples of URLs include:-

http://www.bbc.co.uk, http://www.makerere.ac.ug etc.

The text after the www shows the domain name or the organization’s name. For example, bbc, the type
of site e.g. co and com are commercial companies. ac is an academic community and country e.g. uk is
United Kingdom.

If there is no country name, this often means that the website is American.

Web page
It’s a document on a website. A website is composed of a web page or collection of related web pages.
It’s also a document on the World Wide Web that can include text, picture, sound and video.

Home Page
This is the first page that is displayed on a website. It acts like the title page of a book. The home page or
a welcome page identifies the website and contains links to other pages at the site.
If you have your own website (personal), it might consist just one page i.e. the home page, large
websites may have hundreds of pages.

Link
It’s a connection from one webpage to another using hypertext. These web pages are not physically
connected but just contain the address of the page that should be displayed. A link is also known as a
hyperlink.

A Browser
It also known as a web browser. It is software that allows you to view, navigate and interact with the
www. Examples of web browsers include:- Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Mozilla Firefox.

It can also be defined as an interactive program that permits a user to view information from the www.
The information contains selected items, which allow the user to view other information.

Basically (typically), a browser is used for the following services.

 Connecting to the source computer whose address is specified in the hyperlink.
 Requesting the new page from the source.
 Receiving the page.
 Closing the connection.
 Displaying it to the user after formatting it.

Address
Each computer on the internet has a unique address. This address is contained in the hyperlink text of a
document. The browser software uses this address to connect to the server over the network.

Client
This is a computer that is requesting for some information e.g. a web page from another computer.

Server
This is a computer that actually services the requests of other computers. It is also known as host. It is
usually a powerful computer with large memory and hard disk containing many relevant documents.

Bandwidth
The rate of speed of data through a channel and is expressed in bites per second. The difference
between the lowest and highest frequencies transmitted.

Connection
This is the actual process by which the browser software actually contacts the server computer over the
network.

Modem
A communications device that converts analog to digital signals and viceversa. A modem is very
important because the data signals sent through the cable are in form of analog while the computer
understands digital only.

Directory
A collection of files in a given storage media or drive

Browsing
To view data (in database), in object oriented programming languages, browsing means to view
formatted documents. With internet, browsing means searching for particular specific items.

Surfing
It means moving from place to place on the internet searching for topics on the internet.

Directory
It’s a search tool that provides lists of several categories of websites classified by topic such as business,
financial, sports, health, dating, pen pals etc. its purpose is to allow you access information in specific
categories by clicking on the hyper text link. Directories are useful for browsing-looking at web pages
in a general category and finding items of interest. Examples of directories include:- Yahoo, Hotmail,
etc.

Search Engines
These are tools that allow you to find specific documents through key word search and menu choices.
Keyword or phrases are entered in the space provided. It runs a program that searches its own database
an up-to-date list of web-sites and provides you with a lot of ‘hints’ i.e. sites that contain the keywords.
Common search engines include:-
http://www.google.com
 http://www.yahoo.com
http://www.altavista.com
http://www.excite.co.uk

Limitations of search Engines

 Ambiguity of the language.
 Some search titles alters the whole document
 They can not discriminate between valuable documents and dubious quality.

FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERNET

 It enables the receiving and sending of electronic mails around the world. These mails are
delivered instantly around the world.
 Downloading programs and other files from other the world
 Net banking (internet banking). This has replaced the conventional way banking. Now you can
bank at any time of the day and in any place where you have an account.
 Enables online education- internet enables students to study from their areas. This has facilitated
long distance earning. Students can now not only register and attend classes but also do
examinations online.
 On-line employment system with job seekers can register and obtain information on vacancies
with/from various companies e.g. data entry.
 E-Library (E-books) - Internet allows access to current and up-to-date reading texts, for
instructors, teachers and students.
 Journals and Research literature- Internet allows one to have access to libraries and databases. A
researcher therefore is able to review numerous journals and relevant up-to-date literature.
 Joint Research- Internet increases co-operation efforts in selected joint research project of
common interest especially on basic technology e.g. use of telematic technologies in the field of
telemedicine in the fight against major health scourges such as AIDS.
 News and information- Internet allows you to headlines and hi-depth stories on everything as
it/they happen. This is can be on politics, technology weather vagaries e.t.c. it’s a virtual treasure
of information. Any information on any topic under the sum by use of search engines.
 News groups- News groups or electronic discussion groups allow people to discuss and
exchange information on a vast away of topics.
 Finding people and organizations.
 Leisure and entertainment.
  Health- daily news about health care as well as a number of health resources.
 Shopping- Many online stores and sites that can be used to look for products and buy them using
credit card. No need to leave the house.
 Online chat- makes new friends and meets new people and stay in touch with old ones.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET

 Pornography- This is a serious issue concerning the internet especially when it comes to young
children. There are thousands of pornographic sites on the internet that can be easily found and
can be a determinant to letting children use the internet.

 Moral and Cultural effects- cartoons and networks which facilitate access to pornography and
other negative morals which has made fight against several problems of HIV/AIDS, bad sexual
behaviors, drugs more complicated.
 Spamming- Sending of unsolicited e-mails in bulk which serve no purpose and un necessarily
clog up the entire system.
 Personal Information- If you use the internet, your personal information such as; name, address
etc. can be accessed by other people. The credit card information can also be got if at all it’s
used to shop online. This is akin to giving a blank cheque.
 Ill Health- People who spend a lot of time of sitting in front of a computer. Radiation emitted by
computer’s screen is harmful to eyes. Sitting for along time is also harmful to the spine. People
who spend a lot of time seated because they need not to go home get weather (monotony).
 Addiction- Some people can’t just live without it. They have no real friends and when internet is
down, they get furious. They live sedentary life styles.
 Costs- The initial costs of buying network hardware and software in addition to employing
experts to do the work is very high.
 Virus- A virus is a program that disrupts the normal functioning of your computer system.
Computers connected to the internet are more vulnerable/prone to virus attacks and they can end
up into crashing the whole hard disk, causing undesirable effects.
 Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking- provides a rich recruitment for all illegal activities
because of ease in communication.

The internet or the www is indeed a wonderful and amazing addition in our lives. The internet can be
known as a kind of global meeting place where people from all parts of the world can come together.
It’s a service available on the computer through which everything under the sum is now at the finger tips
of anyone who access to the internet.

REQUIREMENTS FOR CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

Internet connection- A connection that enables a client computer to access internet, a global, public
network that provide access to information, appliances and services on computer throughout the world.
To gain access to internet connection, you need three things.

 A computer: Computer equipment is a sizeable investment and thus you should select a
computer carefully, understand your needs and choose carefully/accordingly. Check the warranty
and the after sales service.
 NIC-Network Interface Card.
 Modem- Acronym for modulator demodulator. An electronic device that attaches to a computer
and links that computer to the internet through a telephone link. Modems are available for any
computer and can be either internal or external.
 A physical connection such as telephone line.
 An internet service provider (ISP) to supply the internet.
 Internet software- e.g. protocol to make Pcs compatible, Operating system enable configurations.

FACTORS AFFECTING INTERNET CONNECTION SPEED

- The speed of the modem 56k (Maximum dial up rate) type, number of users online, distance
from the central office.
- The quality of the phone line used.
- The amount of traffic on the internet.
- The power of the computer (processor speed).
- The software used (Browser or Operating system).
- The ISP-they may have too many modems in not enough band width out
- Satellite – For those who use the satellite face different several problems, wind, rain, cloud
cover, solar flares, satellite dish, poorly configured bandwidth.
“Internet has some opponents but more and more people treat internet like telephone or radio. They use
four and work and I think at present living without internet would be quite difficult”.

USING THE ISP

These are companies with an internal gateway shared among many organizations and individuals. ISPs
can be local, regional or international in scope.

An ISP offers internet in 3 distinct ways/categories.

- Telephone line
- Protocol
- Service

Telephone Line
These include the various ways you connect to the ISP over the telephone system:-
- Dial up connection through telephone system
- Dedicated connection
- Plain old telephone system
- Integrated service
- A dedicated connection is a telephone line that is attached from your location to the provider and is
always connected. This kind of line is useful when you do not want delay of waiting for a connection or
you want greater data rates than a standard telephone line can carry. They can be very expensive.

- Pots: - In a plain old telephone service, or more formally analog telephone technology. It is a line
attached to your phone. To use it with your PC, you attach a modem and call the ISP.

- ISDN: -Is the new kid on the block. It is a totally digital technology and it offers the potential for
greater data rates than POTS.
INTRODUCTION TO PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

Presentation software refers (applications) to software applications/programmes that are used to enhance
the communication process with the use of visual aids like presentation slides.

Applications used to present information using simple texts, graphics, pictures, sounds, video etc.
Presentation software is very essential in effective communication because they assist the user to
explain ideas graphically and dramatically.

The audience can also interpret the communicator’s ideas easily (because of illustration).
Examples
- Harvard Graphics
- Lotus Freelance.
- Microsoft power point.
- Micro graphic presenter e.t.c.

USES OF PRESENTATION SOFTWARE

- Reduces boredom- interesting graphics.
- Help to present and illustrate an idea in quality and different way- photos, videos, animations
and diagrams e.g graphs.
- It can be linked to www and distributed.

DISADVANTAGES.
- Light control might not be possible in some rooms. Sometimes its too dark and at times too
much light.
- Technology may break down in the middle of the presentation.
- The teaching does not become adaptive and reactive.
- It depends on the skills and creativity of the presenter.
MICROSOFT POWER POINT.
A graphical application that is capable of adding illustrative graphics with text in the same document. It
can also include motion effects to enhance the presentation.
It also offers word processing, out lining, graphing and presentation of management tools.

NB:
 A presentation is the entire work done referring to a particular topic.
 A slide refers to the entire page (single) in a power point window. That’s why its sometimes
referred to as slide show or slide presentation. It’s the working area equivalent to a page in word
document. Slides are put together to form a file or presentation.
 An object in a slide is defined by handles that appear on its perimeter when selected. An object
in a slide may be a text object i.e. text characters or a graphic object i.e. graphics like clip Art,
pictures or images. An object in a slide can also be a sound object i.e. recorder sound or a movie
object i.e. it has a recorded video.

= When you click in an object, sizing handles will/are displayed on its perimeter. This is how objects are
selected or highlighted.

= To delete an object, you check in it and then press the delete key.

 Sizing handles: - Six boxes that enclose a selected object; these may be six or four depending on
the size of the object.
 Presenter: - A person who delivers a presentation a.k.a Speaker.
 Audience: - Individuals who have an interest in the presentation.
 Transition: - Move/switch from one slide to another.
 Animation: - Putting monitor and or sound to various objects in your slides.

STARTING MICRO SOFT POWER POINT.

- Click on the start button,
- Move to programs menu,
- Select Micro soft power point if its there or Microsoft office,
- Then Micro soft Power point.
Microsoft power point window looks like any Micro soft application window but with a few specialized
features.

= When Microsoft power point opens, what appears first is the title slide. Its usually designed (pre
designed) for the title of the presentantion.
= Click in the placeholder- An object on the slide that reserves the place for a text.

NB: Graphics are inserted in Graphics placeholder.

 The power point window provides two major views; Normal view and slide sorter view.

1. Normal View.
+ Used to work on all slides detail in a presentation.
+ Has 3 major sections i.e.
- The outlines pane
- The slides pane
- The notes pane.

o The outlines pane displays the entire contents of a particular presentation.

o The slides pane displays the current slide layout in detail with all the objects in that slide.
o The notes pane is used to add and display speaker notes of the current slide displayed in the
slide’s pane.

2. Slide Sorter View.

+ Gives a view of your slides one at ago.
+ All slides in a presentation can be viewed as icons in a single window.
This facilitates a lot when applying animated slide transitions, adding slide timings, re-arranging e.t.c

3. Slide View- This allows you to view your slides one at a time.

4. Slide Master- This is a template used for the slides in a presentation. It allows one/you/to
maintain consistency/uniformity/in formatting. This is because all changes made in the slide master will
occur in all the slides in the presentation.

ADDING A NEW SLIDE.

After you are through with the first slide another slide can be inserted.

Steps:
- Click on insert,
- Select new slide (New slide dialog box displayed).
- Select a lay out suitable for your data. E.g. One with charts, pictures, columns e.t.c.
- Click Ok.

CHANGING THE SLIDE LAYOUT.

- Click on the slide
- Click format and choose slide layout.
- Click on any slide and select a layout of your choice and click apply.

HIDING A SLIDE.
If you do not, a slide to appear during the slide show but yet you don’t want to delete it, you follow the
steps.
- Select slide show.
- Click on hide slide from the menu bar.
- Follow the same steps to have it shown in the show.

MAKING A PRESENTATION.
A presentation refers to the entire work done referring to a particular topic. A presentation may consist of
various slides that are animated to create a continuous film like document, hence known like a slide
show. Slide shown are very handly in conveying messages to an audience.
Presentation slide shows are similar to a movie or video clip in that various screen images are displayed
one after the other.

WAYS OF PRESENTING/ DELIVERING A PRESENTATION.

There are various ways in which a presentation can be delivered to the audience. These include:-
- On screen presentation.
- Web presentation
- Over head projector transparencies
- Paper print outs.
 - 35mm slides.
- Notes, hand outs and outlines

1. ON SCREEN PRESENTATION.
This is a presentation that is viewed on the computer screen. This can be done either in the kiosk
window (application window) preview mode or in the full screen mode.
The In-screen presentation can be delivered to the audience as,
(a). Self-Running presentation.
(b). Speaker presented presentation.

(a). A self –running presentation is one where by once started, it will display all slides continuously and
restart automatically when the presentation reaches the end.
c.f the Kampala roof-top shows (adverts).

(b). Speaker presented presentation is where the speaker controls the slides advances (transitions)
manually or automatically by use of slide timings.
- These presentations usually require demonstrations and explanations (clarifications).

2. WEB PRESENTATIONS.
These are presentations that are viewed using an internet browser software application. This is done by
saving a presentation as a web page file after designing.

3. OVER HEAD TRANSPARENCIES PRESENTATION.

This is where slides are printed on transparencies, which are focused on a screen by use of an overhead
projector. However, slide transitions and animations and other various effects are not possible with this
method. (Refer to the physics projector) Analog.

4. PAPER PRINTOUTS.
This is where no projectors are used for presenting to the audience. The slides are printed on paper in
either color or black and white. [Every row form of transition]. No effects and transitions can be seen
here.
5. NOTES, HANDOUTS AND OUTLINES PRESENTATION.
This is where each individual in the audience is presented with a copy of the entire presentation. This
copy is called a handout. Each page may contain several slides. The audience uses their copies to
follow what the presenter is narrating.
6. 35MM SLIDES PRESENTATION.
This is where each slide is transformed into a 35mm negative, which is inserted into a still camera and
the image focused on the screen.

PRESENTATION PLANNING.
It’s imperative that before designing a presentation, the presenter first makes a plan of how the
presentation must look like.
- The thinking must be done, thoroughly first.
- The outline of what one wishes to communicate to the audience including the sub-topics
must be done.
- The major ideas, for each slide need a through representation.
e.g. in a commercial company like Coca-cola, the presentation can be prepared in this format.

1. Background/History
-Year of start
-Area of coverage.
-The number of brands.

2. Performance status
-Past performance
-Current performance.
-Future performance/Projections/Targets
3. Threats
-Competition (new companies, private schools, imports etc)
-Tax (USE, Government tax).
-Strikes
-Greener pastures (Employee turnover).
4. Strategies.
-Pricing strategies [Fees]
-Customer care [transport, uniform]

ENHANCING PRESENTATIONS.
Presentations can be improved by adding visual attractions to a slide.
These visual attractions include:-
Slide transitions, speed, sound clips, animation colors (back ground and object).

 ANIMATING A SLIDE
- How texts or objects in slides appear or disappear on the screen.
- Animations attract the attention of the audience.
- Arouse interest in the audience.
- Animations can be applied to a single/an individual object.

ANIMATIONS ARE DONE FROM SLIDESHOW.

Method.
Select the object to animate.
Select slide show and click on present Animation.

More Options for Animations.

- Select ‘slide show’ and custom animation from the menu bar.
- Select the animation type in the effect tab.

Note:
Some objects need more animations than others because they deserve/command attention from the
audience.
+ Transition Speed- The speed shouldn’t be very fast not very slow. Because this may bring boredom
and lack of concentration.

+ Slide Contents- Too many contents on a slide may congest the slide. Be precise and concise. Avoid
making some contents more common especially images (boredom).

 SLIDE TRANSITION.
How an active slide in a presentation will appear and disappear. This refers to the entire slide including
the objects.

Method.
o Open the presentation to format.
o Click on the slide show menu.
o Select slide transition…..option
 o From the effect drops down menu, select a suitable effect e.g. cover down, left, dissolve e.t.c.
o Select suitable speed- Fast, medium, slow.
o Select the suitable mode pf advancing the slides from the ‘advance’ section.

Advance modes include:-

+ On mouse click, automatically after. On mouse click means that the next slide advances or
appears when a mouse button is pressed.
+ Automatically after, requires one to set the time after which the next slide will advance.
+ If both are checked/selected, what happens first in the one that takes place.

o Sound is added by selecting particular sound by choosing from the list. You can also choose loop
continuously till the next sound.
o Choose (finally) ‘Apply to All or Apply’ commands to have the effects take place.
Apply to All--- All the slides in the presentation.
Apply--- To only the selected slide.

SENIOR FOUR term one

DATABASES (DATABASE SOFTWARE)

A database is a collection of data organized in a way that allows access, retrieval and use of the data.
A database is a collection of related data about a particular subject or for a specific purpose.
A database is a collection of structured and related data items organized so as to provide a consistent
and controlled access to the items.
E.g. A collection of students’ names or a school register is a typical example of students database.
Databases range from simple lists to complex data.
E.g. a school register is a simple database while a national passport registry or voters’ register may be a
complex data (corporate database).
The size of a database depends on the purpose that data serves.
FEATURES OF A DATABASE DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE
A record is a row in a table that contains information about a given person, product or event (an
individual entry in a table) .
A field is a column in a table that contains specific piece of information with in a record. ( is a piece of
information in a record)
Common data types include;
The data type of a field specifies the type of data that the field can contain.
(a) Text type which may hold letters, numbers or special characters.
(b) Numeric type which may hold numbers only.
(c) Currency type which may hold dollars and cents amounts.
(d) Date type which may hold months, day and year information.
(e) Memo type which may contain text of any type or length.
(f) Boolean type which may hold value that is either true or false.
(g) Ole object (Object linking and embedding) objects, graphics and other binary data. Filed capacity is
up to a gigabyte or limited by available disk space.
LOOKUP WIZARD
When the value that you need exists in another table or from a list of static values, you use the lock up
wizard to help you establish a link to the table or to define the combo box that will display the list of
values on a form or report.
Validation This is the process of comparing the data entered with a set of predefined rules and values to
check if data is acceptable.
Common database papers include;
Telephone books
Dictionaries
Recipe books
Television guides .

Examples of database programs.

1. Microsoft Access (Ms- Access) is one of the many off-shelf applications used to manage
databases although its ideal for small desktop databases.

2. Oracle- preferred for larger corporate databases

3. FoxPro
4. Database IV
5. Lotus Approach
6. Microsoft Visual FoxPro
7. Borland database
 8. Corel Paradox
9. Claris File maker.

Database management system (DBMS), software facilitates the creation, organization and maintenance
of database. DBMS is an application program such as Microsoft Access that enables one to collect
information of interest on a computer and organize it in different ways. They facilitate the creation,
organization and mentainance of databases.
In DBMS one can:-
- Sort data
- Create reports
- Create forms
- Organize queries
- Make tables e.t.c

TYPES OF DATABASES
There are mainly two types of databases; Manual databases and Electronic databases.
However, Electronic databases are today commonly used.

 Electronic databases are further categorizes into two—Distributed database (These sit on
individual stand –alone computers) and centralized databases (these sit on a database server).

Advantages of Electronic Databases.

- Convenience
- Efficiency
- Accuracy
- Data security
- Data back up
- Confidentiality
- Data consistence
- Easy administration

Disadvantages of Electronic Databases

- Difficult to develop
- Expensive to manage.
- Require highly-trained expertise for maximum management.
- Data security may not be ensured in case of data sharing.
- Data can be pirated or corrupted by unscrupulous data managers.
 Manual databases are non-computerized. These are traditional ways of recording and keeping
data using simple devices e.g. a book with a list of items in stock, a diary e.t.c.
However, these methods/databases (manual) had /have problems/weaknesses.
- Poor update of records
- Time wasting (when searching for particular item).
- Unnecessary duplication of data
- Misleading reports due to poor entry and organization.
It’s these weaknesses that led to the use of DBMS
FUNCTIONS OF DBMS SOFTWARE (Refer to Databases ahead).
o Allow the user to add and delete records
o Update or modify the existing records.
o Organize data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation of records.
o Act as an interface between a database and other application programs.
o Ensure security for the data in the database by safeguarding at against unauthorized access and
corruption (damage)
o Keep statistics of data items in a database.

DATABASE COMPONENTS (FEATURES OF DBMS).

Most DBMS software contain four major features that a typical database must consist of:- Tables (files),
Queries, Reports, Forums.
1. TABLES.
Tables are the basic components of a database. This is because they (tables) hold the actual data in a
database. This data is used by other components- forms, reports, queries.
Tables are organized in rows and columns.
A row is referred (represents) to as a Record.
A column represents or is referred to as a Field.
e.g. SN First Name Middle Name Last Name Age
1 Tom Aine Jocker 15
2 Jane Aman Locker 20
3 Nick Naino Peter 18

In this table:-
Row numbers 1 represents Tom’s record while the third Column is a field for middle name.
In a single database file, there can be several tables. Each table should represent one subject e.g.
customer, order, item e.t.c.
NB: A database file can consist of several tables.
These different tables can be joined together to make them related.
That’s why database management programs like Microsoft Access are referred to as relational database
application.
2.FORMS
These (forms) enable one to enter and display (view) records from the database tables easily. They are
also used to add (enter), modify or view the data from (in) the data tables.
Forms look exactly like the local forms on paper e.g. a receipt, registration form e.t.c.
3. REPORTS
Reports enable one to preview and print data in a meaningful format.
Most database systems provide the user with a tool for generating reports from an underlying table or
query.
Examples of reports include lists, invoices, form letters, mailing labels e.t.c.
4. QUERIES
These are tools used to manipulate data in the data tables.
Queries are used to carryout several tasks on the data in database tables.
The tasks that can be carried out using a query include; merging data tables e.t.c
A query acts like a question posed to a database, which a database answers by giving results that are
relevant.
Example:-
You are the headmaster MHS-K and you wish to see/display all the students from Ruk, who are orphans.
You can use a query object to display only this information from various tables in a database.

The business/act of using queries is called querying. Querying used specific set of rules to get only the
relevant data. The query statements (queries) are written using specific language called Structured
Query Language (SQL). See computer studies Book 2, page
Therefore, queries are used to locate specific records with in a table or ask questions to your database. [It
resembles filtering in spread sheets].
Other features of databases include:-
5. MACROS.
6. PAGES
7. MODULES.
5. MACROS
A macro is an automated procedure of action in a computer. It can be called a mini program because it
had a short automated procedure which consists of simple commands.
Example: You can use a macro to instruct the computer to print a specific report (s) at a particular time.
6. MODULES
Like macros, modules also enable one to automatically carryout some processes. However, modules
require one to have a background in programming e.g. Microsoft Visual Basic.
Macros and modules are rarely used in simple databases.
7. PAGES.
These are special web pages that handle data in html environment. They control certain features in a
web page.
8 Sorting is to organize a set of records in a particular order.
WORKING WI TH DOCUMENTS.
C.f.11.6 Page 80. Introduction technology
When Microsoft word is started, a new document window labeled as document 1 is automatically
opened. At this point, one can begin typing in the text immediately. Text is entered at the current cursor
position called the insertation point.
* Cursor- vertical blinking bar indicating where the next character to be typed will appear.
Text is entered continuously up to the right margin, where words that do not fit on the current line are
automatically shifted to the beginning of the next line.
The whole process is done until when a carriage return (enter key) is pressed to mark the end of a
paragraph.
- Saving a document—Save As Vs Save
- Operating a new document.
- Opening/ retrieving a document.
- Character formation – font size, font style, font type.
- Alignment- state how each alignment type displays.

* “Computers have changes today’s way of life”, Discuss.

Discuss two sides.

Positive changes.
 - Increased communication facilities (e-mail, virtual education institutions).
- Increased speed in execution of operation of data (Type writers).
- Accuracy and reliability (writing, editing, manipulating of texts).
- Recreation (Entertainment and leisure industry).
- Employment opportunities have increased e.g. operators, analysts, technicians, engineers,
information system management.
- Large data storage and analysis and easy retrieval (increased file management).
- More information.
- Stronger and more reliable defense systems have been built (Defense and Security).
- Information industry (less production costs, less costs of products to consumers).
- Easy trading across continents (trading on a Pc).E-Commerce.

Negative.
- Loss of sight due to over use.
- Unemployment
- Moral degradation/decadence/decay due to the influx of ill immoral/material.
- Loss of information due to breakdown of systems.
- High rate of forgery.
- Expenses- maintenance and repair.

Explain briefly the advantages and disadvantages of using computers.

They have permeated every aspect of life and revolutionized it.
e.g.
Industry and Commerce
* Has been made more efficient, productive and reliable.
- Keeping track of orders and bills (transactions).
- Defining new products and services.
- Inventory management.

Process Control
In production environment.
- Chemical and mechanical processes control.

Communication.
- They play a big role in industry.
 - Telecommunication exchange depends on computers.
- Railways to co-ordinate the movement of wagons.
- Airline industry to control air traffic and surveillance of the air space.

Police and Applications.

- Fighting crime (computers are now greatly employed).
- Police are now able to keep databases of finger prints analyzed by computers.
- Help police in analysis and monitoring faces.

Government Institution.
- Are heavily used in many institutions.
- Store records.
- Improve efficiency.

Education and Research.

- As teaching aid.
- Library overseas.
- Virtual in website.

Negative.
- Moral degradation
- Sight effects.
- Consume a lot of power.
- Maintenance and repair are expensive.
- Virus through internet.
- High rate of forgery
- Loss of great information.
- Hackers who usually work in group to easily access and corrupt them.

DOS WINDOWS
- Not user friendly - User friendly.
- The user required to enter command - The commands are behind menus, icons etc.
- It can not be easily corrupted - Easily corrupted
- Less memory required - Requires more memory
- No multi-tasking ability - Multi-tasking.
Setting a Preferred View.
- Views are found under view in menu.
* Normal view, page layout view, toolbars.

Line Spacing.

* Changing case.
This feature helps one to change the characters of an already typed text without retyping it.

Types of cases.
Upper Case - Capital letters only.
Lower case - Small letters only.
Sentence case - Only the first letters in caps.
Title case - Every word in sentence begins with upper case.
Toggle case - All characters but the first letter of each word in lower case.

Method
o Select the text to change.
o Click on format.
o Select change case (the dialog box appears).
o Click on the desired case style.
o Click Ok for changes to take place.

Working With Columns.

Columns are usually used in case of limited space or to improve the quality of a document.

Method.
- Select the test to format.
- Click format menu.
- Select columns.
- Click on the desired column layout.
- Select ok.
NB:
You can select a line between the columns.
You can select the size of column (equal or unequal).

SORTING A TEXT.
Sorting usually works well with tables. Sorting refers to arrangement of a text depending on a particular
interior e.g. ascending, descending order.
- Select required paragraph.
- Click on table menu.
- Select sort
- Specify criteria on i.e. ascending or descending.
- Click ok.

Bullets and Numbering.

- select the paragraph to number.
- Click format menu.
- Select bullets and numbering.
- Click on the numbering or bulleted tab and select a style of your choice.
- Select ok for changes to take place.

Page Numbering.
- Click insert menu.
- Select Page numbers (A dialog box appears).
- Select the position where the numbers are supposed to be located i.e. Top of page (header),
bottom of page (footer), from the position drop down menu.
- Select the alignment of the page number i.e left, centre, right or inside or outside from the
alignment drop down list bor.
- Select ok.

Tables.
A table is made up of rows and columns.
Columns – top to bottom, Rows – left to right.
- Click on the table menu.
- Select insert and then table.
 - Enter the number of columns and the number of rows desired.
- Select ok.
- You can select whether to have fixed row and column size or have them automatically
adjusted according to test content.

Selecting Rows or Columns.

- Click in any cell of the required column or row.
- Click on the table menu.
- Select row or column.

Inserting Columns.
- Select a column that succeeds when you want another column.
- Click on the table menu.
- Click insert columns e.g inserting rows.

Deleting Columns.
- Select entire columns
- Click on the table menu.
- Select delete columns.

Deleting Rows.
- Merging cells (joining cells)
- High light the cells to be merged.
- Click on the table menu.
- Click on merge cells.

Printing Documents.
- Connect the printer and turn it on.
- Click on the file menu.
- Select print and the (print dialog box appear).
- Click ok.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

 - Can share data and information with other computers because of the communicating
capability.
- Tasks can be completed faster because computers work at amazing speed.
- Computers can process large amount of data and generate error-free results provided that the
data is entered correctly.
- Computers can store enormous amounts of data for future use.
- The high reliability of components inside modern computers enables computers to produce
consistent results.
- Efficiency and productivity can be raised.
- Running costs become lower in the long run/term.
- Tasks can be completed with little human intervention (i.e.) automatic.
- The management can observe new information and new trends quickly.
- Customer service can be increased due to more efficiency management and operation.

ROM and RAM

ROM:
- It’s used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or semi permanently.
- Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required to remain unchanged for long periods
of time e.g. booting instructions.
There are four types of ROM. This depends on the permanence of the instructions or data written there.

1. Mask Rom: Once data is written there, it can’t be changed.

2. Programmable ROM: (PROM) - This allows the user to alter it only once after the content is
written on it.
3. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) - This has a transparent quartz window through which
its contents can be erased by exposing it to ultra violent (UV) light and then reprogrammed for
another use.
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Rom (EEPROM). This can be erased and reprogrammed
using electricity. An example is the basic input and output system (BIOS).

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROM.
 - One can only read its contents but you can not write on it unless it’s a special type of ROM.
- It’s non-volatile i.e. its contents can not be lost when the computer is switched off.
- Stores permanent or semi-permanent instructions from manufacturers called FIRMWARE. It
can store semi-permanent instructions because some variations of ROM chips can be
programmed according to the user’s specifications.

RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)

This is the most common type of memory. It’s called RAM because its contents can be read directly
regardless of the sequence in which it was stored.
Its contents are held temporarily, its contents are lost once the computer is turned off. This is why we
should always save our work on a secondary storage before switching off.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAM
- Data can be read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it.
- RAM is temporary (volatile) storage because its contents disappear when the computer is
switched off.
- Its contents are user defined i.e. they can decide what can be contained in RAM.

TYPES OF RAM
There are two types:-
1. Static RAM (SRAM) and
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM).

- Static RAM is very fast compared to DRAM and holds its contents as long as there is power.
- DRAM however; can hold its contents for only a short period of time even when power is on.
- The contents of DRAM can be maintained by refreshing the memory chip several times per
second.
- SRAM is more expensive. Its used to make special types of memories.

SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES.

Apart from RAM and ROM there are several types of special purpose memories found inside the CPU
or in the input and output devices.
These memories are very vital because they increase the overall performance of data and instructions
moving in and out of the CPU.
These memories include buffers, registers and catch memory.

BUFFERS.
This is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an input or output device.
Because the CPU is very fast compared to the input or output devices; buffers provide temporary storage
so that the CPU is set free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be entered or
information to be output. For example, since a printer can not work at a speed of a CPU, the printer
buffers temporary holds the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to perform other functions.
Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.

REGISTERS
Unlike buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU.

Examples of registers are:-

 An accumulator: - This temporarily holds the results of the last step of ALU.
 Instruction Register: - This temporarily holds an instruction just before its interpreted into a form
that CPU can understand it.
 An address register: - This temporarily holds the next piece of data waiting to be processed.
 Storage Register: - This temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU
and the main memory.

CACHE MEMORY.
Most modern processors incorporate small high-speed type of SRAM called Catch Memory. The
purpose of cache memory is to allow the processor to access data and instructions even faster than it
would have taken to fetch it from the relatively slow DRAM.

MEMORY CAPACITIES.
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes.
A byte is equivalent to a single character. Characters can be a number from 0-9, letters A-Z or any
special symbol.
Example:-
A number 2545 has four bytes while the word my name has seven bytes, since the space between them
has 1 byte.
FACTORS AFFECTING COMMUNIATION SPEED ON THE INTERNET.
- Transmission (Frequency and band width).
- Line configuration (point to point and multi point).
- Serial and parallel transmission (serial data transmission and parallel data transmission).
- Direction of transmission flow (simplex, half duplex and full duplex).
- Transmission mode (Asynchronous versus synchronous).
- Packet switching (Getting more data on a network)
- Protocols (the rules of data transmission).
- Types of processor.

Band width is a term used to describe how much data you can send through a connection. It’s linked to
the number of cars that can pass through a highway at a given time.
If the highway is empty, the number of cars that will pass through increases.

Internet speed is measured in bps (bits per second or thousands of bits per second kilo bits per second -
kbps). Kbps or bps is a measure of bandwidth. The ISP usually supplies or sells particular amount of
bandwidth to connect you to the internet.
Higher bandwidths are conveniently expressed in mbps-mega bits per second (millions of bots per
second).

Bits- stand for binary digits. Bits are the smallest number of digital information consisting of 0 and 1.

INTERNET SERVICES AVAILABLE IN UGANDA.

1. DSL – Digital Subscriber line. Digital telephone line is capable of carrying both data and voices
at the same time. There is a landline can act as a route for internet connectivity as well.
2. ISDN- Integrated Services Digital Network is a digital telephone line that can be used for voice,
fax and data communication like a regular telephone line but it’s faster (5 times). It allows you to
talk on phone with one person while sending data to another.
3. VSAT- Very Small Apeiture Terminal. Terminal in this case refers to the small satellite dish that
is installed on your locality. This is a satellite communication system that can serve your home.
This is high speed connection irrespective of where you are.
4. Dial up- This is connecting to the internet using a telephone line. You connect through a modem
to the internet sp which in turn is connected to the internet with a high speed link. Most PCs
come with in-built dial modems. Dial up service is not always connected to the internet. You
need to use your ISP to dial each time you want to connect.
  The types of modems that can be used to connect under dial up are;
- Fixed line, the standard copper wire telephone line.
- A fixed cellular terminal/PC card. This enables you to connect to internet through GPRS
(General Packet Radio Service) enable whenever there is mobile phone net work coverage.
- Fixed wireless terminal (Tele-saver phone) - enables you to connect through CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access) available areas through a telecom company.
5. Wire less IP. Radio based system that allows trans without a connection as opposed to others
which require available connection such as copper wire.
6. Leased Line- Phone that requires available connection 24hours a day, seven – 7 high speed
connection tend to require a lease line.
7. Fibre- This technology use a glass to transmit data. A fibre optic cable. A bundle of glass thread,
each of which is capable of transmitting message in the form of light. Fibre optic has a much
greater capacity than metal cables which means they can carry more.
8. Wimax- Acronym for worldwide Interoperability for microwave access. Wimax refers to wireless
network that can cover a wider area.
Whatever the type of connection, one should be clear what best option of an ISP and bandwidth would
be.
- What’s internet going to be used for?
- What time of day will it be used.
- What is the intended number of users?
- How much are you willing to pay?

MICROSOFT WINDOWS.
Microsoft windows had been described as a GUI. This is an interface in which almost every thing is
represented graphically.

It’s an environment that enables one to:-

- Easily start up and work with applications.
- Run more than one application at a time.
- Transfer information between applications.
- Organize and manage files created in these applications easily.

PARTS OF A WINDOW.
Most windows have all or some of these features.
1. Control Menu Box. Located in the top right corner of a window. It consists of the control menu
which is activated by clicking on this box.

2. Title Bar. This stretches across the top of the window and contains the name of the application,
document and gp directory or file name. Usually the active window title bar is different in
intensity or color than the other windows.
on the right of the title bar, there are three tiny buttons namely:-

3. Minimize and Maximize Buttons and Close. Located top right corner of a window.
- Minimize:- reduces the window to the bar.
- Maximize:- increases the window to fill the entire desktop.
- When the window is maximized, the restore button replaces maximize button.

4. Scroll Bars.
These appear on the right and bottom of windows. These help to move the work area up and down if
it contains more items. It can not fit in the visible work area. Scrolling brings hidden items into
view.

5. Windows Borders.
These area the perimeters which define the wonders work area.

THE TOOL BARS (Buttons arranged in a row).

* Menu bar- provides a list of commands to manipulate a task.
* Standard tool bar.
* Formatting tool bar.
* Status bar.
* Work area- where a document is created.

FILES AND FOLDERS.

A folder is a place that is used to store files in an organized manner. It is a file cabinet where all files
are kept.

CREATING A FOLDER.
If the folder is to be placed on the desktop.
+ Right click on the desktop,
+ Point to new,
+ Select folder,
+ Give your new folder a name.
+ Press enter or click away.

NB:
If the folder is to be created on any storage device or any storage location, first open that device or
location and then follow the same procedure.

Renaming a Folder.
This is giving a folder a different name.

FILES AND FOLDERS

Windows manages data and information saved on the secondary storage devices by organizing it into
easily accessible units called files and folders.

File.
A file is a collection of related data or information stored in one location and given a unique name
that enables the operating system to identify it during storage and retrieval process.
Every file has details that indicate the following:-

1. A unique name: This enables the operating system to organize the files and identify the
file. The file name usually has got a file name extension.
The extension is usually consisting of a maximum of three characters e.g GUMA.DOC. The file
name and the extension are usually separated by a period. The file extension indicates the type of
information held by the file. Example;
- Doc – Document created in Microsoft word
- Xls - Excel
- Ppt – Powerpoint.
- Pub
- Data, files- Cp filed which store data for use by computer applications or system.
- Text files.
 - Exe – Executable file (one that can be accepted by windows) for long names of up to 255
characters including spaces while Microsoft documents handles a maximum of eleven
characters.
There are some symbols and characters that are never accepted in file names e.g. and, slash and
brackets.

2. Size. The file usually indicates the size of the document. It’s usually expressed in KB
(Kilobytes) and MB if it’s larger.

3. Date. The date that is usually shown is date of creation. So incase of anything, one can look up
a file using the date of creation. For example, if one forgets the file name then the date of
creation can help.
There are two types of files; system files and Application files.

SYSTEM FILES.
These contain very important information for the operation of the computers. E.g. all hardware
devices connected to the system must have a file in the computer before they can operate. This is
a system file. This file is first checked by the computer or system at the time of booting.

APPLICATION FILES.
These are also called program files because they hold program or application files. These have
extensions such as exe.

NAMING A FILE.
Microsoft windows accept a maximum of 255 characters including spaces. When naming a file,
make sure the name is meaningful and easy to recall. E.g. when doing Greg practical lessons, it
looks like this Greg lesson 1, Greg lesson 2 e.t.c.
NB: Avoid slashes and brackets in file names.
\/:*<>|.

Saving a document. (c.f) and Storage media.

FOLDERS
A folder or a directory is a named storage area where the user can store related files and enable
easy access.
 Folders make the filing system easy by creating a folder for related files e.g. A folder for BOT
exams, BOT marks, EOT exams, EOT results.

SUB FOLDERS.
These are folders found inside the main folder. They are divisions of the main folder. They are
also known as sub-directories. Folders and sub-folders usually appear in yellow color (icons)
while file icons are usually white with a fold at the top right hand corner.

CREATING A FOLDER.
Folders are created to store multiple related files. E.g Exams for all classes term 1, 2008 consist
of many files (different classes) which are related by being EOT 1 exams.

Folders can be created as follows.

Using my computer icon on the desktop.
- Open the icon by double clicking or right clicking and then clicking open.
- The my computer displays places where one would wish to create a folder e.g. 3 ½ floppy,
local disk (hard disk), my documents e.t.c. select the location where you would wish to create
a folder e.g. my documents.
- Right click in the window and point to new and click folder. A folder named new folder
appears.
- Type a new name for the folder and press enter.

OR
- Click file from the menu bar.
- Click new.
- Click folder
- A folder named new folder will appear- type a new name for your folder and press ENTER or
click on the icon once.

To create a sub folder, first open the main folder created and then follow the steps of creating a folder.
NB: Files are dragged to folders if they were created before the folders (dragged and dropped).

CREATING A FILE.
- Select the location in which you would like to create a new file e.g.3 ½ floppy, created folder,
hard disk.
 - Click file form the menu bar.
- Click new.
- Select text document.
- Type a new name for your file and press enter.

RENAMING A FILE AND FOLDERS.

- Open the file of folder to rename.
- Right click in it.
- Click rename.
- Type the new name and press enter or click once in it.
NB: The same applies to a folder.

SAVING CHANGES TO A FILE.

After typing the contents of a file in the work area,
Click file, click save.
Save is used if you are saving changes made to a file e.g. in editing. If the document/file is to be saved
as a new file, with a different name and probably on a different location or storage device, one used Save
As.

Save As requires one to:-

- Select where to save the file- This can be on a storage device, folder e.t.c.
- Dive your file a file name.
- Press enter or click on save.

DELETING FILES AND FOLDERS.

- Open the folder or file location e.g my documents.
- Right click in the folder or file
- Click delete from the short cut menu.
- Select yes when asked to delete.

NB: When you delete an item from the computer, it is temporary held in a folder called the Recycle bin.
The Recycle bin is located on the desktop by default.
Items in the Recycle bin can be restored (brought back) by,
- Open the Recycle bin folder on the desktop,
- Right click in the file or folder bring back.
 - Click Restore.
If the file is to be deleted from the computer completely, then it should be followed up to the Recycle
bin and delete it again (from there).

NB: The items (deleted) in the bin occupy space on the hard disk. So empty the bin if you are so sure
you will no longer need them.

COPYING AND MOVING FILES AND FOLDERS.

Cut or copy commands are used to move or create a duplicate of an item respectively. when you cut or
copy an item, its temporarily held in temporary storage location known as the clipboard.

To copy a file or folder.

- Click in the file or folder to copy.
- Click edit from the menu bar.
- Click copy.
- Click/select the drive or folder where you want the item copied.
- Click paste from the edit menu or short cut menu after right clicking.
NB: Files can be stored in folders by;
- Creating them in folders originally.
- Dragging and dropping them into folders if they are in the same location e.g. my documents.
- Copying or cutting and pasting them into folders.

SELECTING MULTIPLE (MANY) FILES AND FOLDERS.

Multiple files or folders can be selected at ago by clicking at each item while holding down the CTRL
(control) or Shift key.

If all the files or folders in a certain location or all in view are to be selected; hold down shift key and
press A on the keyboard or click edit from the menu bar and click select all from the menu.

SEARCHING FOR FILES AND FOLDERS.

To search for a specific file or folder or to search for a file or folder with the name you have forgotten.
- Click start
- Click find or search.
- Type the name of the file and the location in dialog box given.
- Click find now and search.
If you do not know the name of the file
- Click start
- Click find or research
- On the dialog box, in front of containing text, put there a word or phrase that was/is in the
file or folder you are looking for.

CUSTOMISING COMMON FEATURES.

 DESKTOP.
Windows can let the user change or customize the desktop appearance and display.
They desktop background appearance can be changed thus:-
- Right click on the desktop.
- Click properties from the shortcut menu.
- From the display properties dialog box, click background tab.
- Choose the background by clicking.
- Click ok.
NB: on the right.
o Tile- covers the entire screen with small images.
o Stretch- One large images covers screen.
o Center- The small image occupies the center of the desktop.

SCREEN SAVER.
The screen saver is used to prevent screen burn out.
The screen saver starts playing on the screen if the computer is left idle for a set period of time. To
set it,
- Right click on the desktop.
- Click properties
- Click on the screen saver tab.
- Select the screen saver style from a list.
- Select the schemes to apply like the time of the screen saver appearance.
- Click ok.
Screen saver is a utility that is supposedly prevents a monitor display screen from being etched by an
unchanging image.
A screen saver is a utility that causes the monitor’s screen to display a moving image or blank screen if
no keyboard or mouse activity occurs for a specified time period.

APPLICATIONS OF A SCREEN SAVER PROGRAM.

= They were originally developed to prevent a problem called ghosting, in which images could be
permanently etched on a monitor’s screen.
= Screen savers can also be used for reasons of security.
Prevents unwanted onlookers from accessing information or data from your computer.
= Business- advertisements on the screen.
= Entertainment – digital photos can be put on screen as moving pictures.
= Prevents burn out/in.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS.
1. FIRST GENERATION (1940-1958).
These computers were;
- Very large in physical size.
- Used thousands of electronic gadgets called vacuum tubes of thermionic valves.
- Consumed a lot of power and hence constantly broke down due to excessive heat generated.
- They could not store much information. They had limited primary memory, the maximum
memory was about 2000 bytes (2kb) with a speed of 10 kilo instructions per second.
The first generation computers marked the start of programs and programming languages. Many of the
first generation computers had to be programmed in machine language, which consisted of a series of
zeros and ones. Such computers included the ENIAC (Electric Numeric Integrator and Calculator) and
the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer).

SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS (1958-1964)

Computers in the second generation,
- Used transistors as their electronic gadgets or active elements, vacuum tubes are more bigger
than transistors.
- They produced less heat compared to the first generation computers and more reliable.
- Were smaller in size than the first generation computers.
- They were much faster in processing data.
- Permanent storage and computer cards diminished and use of magnetic tapes and disks were
introduced.
 - computer system could directly access permanently stored data using a disk.
- Input and output devices also were increased like better printers, terminal card readers and so
on.
- Marked the common use of high level languages. FORTRAN was developed in 1957 and
was being used for scientific purposes and COBOL developed in 1961 was being used for
business applications.
- Operating systems were replacing many functions previously performed by the human
operators.
- Computers were developed to translate high level languages and utility programs were
developed merge, sort and transfer data from one storage location to another. Examples-
IBM 1401, 7070, UNIVAC, ATLAS LEO mark III and Honey well.

THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS (1964- )

The third generation of computers started with the introduction of IBM 360 and ICL 19000 series in
about 1965.
They;
- Used Integrated circuits (IC’s) as the active elements. IC’s consisted of thousands of small
transistors and etched on a semi conductor called Silicon chip.
- They were speedy in processing data and storage capacity was improved.
- The memory speed could be expanded.
- Increased accuracy.
- Integration of hardware and software.
- Ability to perform several operations simultaneously (multi-tasking).
- Data communication advanced.
- Improved price and better performance.
- Introduction of mini computers.

THE FOURTH GENERATION (1970- )

From 1970, further improvement was done on the silicon chip design by compressing more tiny circuits
and transistors into even smaller space. The design produced was called Large Scale Integrated (LSI)
and very large scale integrated (VLSI) Circuits which paved a way for the development of micro
processor (the brain of the computer).

In the 4th generation, the Apple 1 computer was developed which had good appearance but lacked many
of the features that today’s computers have. It was developed by two high school students Steven Jobs
and Wozniak. They improved it to include many features and formed Apple II.
Apple I was improved to Apple II by Steven Jobs and Steven Wozniak who included several new
features and these included;
- Ability to connect to a color TV for graphics built in BASIC.
- A small speaker for sounds and game paddles.
- A built-in cassette pot was also included.

Soft ware programs were also significantly Improved, High Level Languages are used almost
exclusively to develop application programs and there have been a number of new high level languages.

THE FIFTH GENERATION

Today’s computers fall in this category,
- They have very high processing speed.
- Their size is becoming increasingly smaller.
- They have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that mimic
the intelligence often referred to as Artificial Intelligence.

THE FUTURE GENERATION.

While specific technological break through are nearly impossible to predict, the over all trend of
technology has grown at an increasing rate and this rate of explosion is expected to continue.

Although the distinction among the first three generations of computers are clear, defining the next
generation is difficult.
A lot of research is being done to come up with a machine that can work without human interaction.
WORD PROCESSORS
What are word processors?

A word processor is an application software that is used to create, save, edit, format and print documents
that contain text and graphics.

Word Processing is the process of using word processors to create, edit, save and print text documents.
It is a process of manipulating text to form documents and reports

Examples of word processors include:

 Microsoft Word  Perfect Writer
 Word Perfect*  Text Editor
 Lotus Notes  Professional Writer
 WordPro  Notepad
 WordStar  Word pad
 Lotus WordPro  Dos Editor*
 Corel WordPerfect

Word processors are mostly used for the following purposes or functions
 Writing/ typing letters
 writing reports
 Writing books
 Writing essays
 Making memos
 Designing Curriculum vitae
 Writing articles for books, magazines or newspapers etc

In most offices, word processors have replaced typewriters as the means of creating documents.
Compared to a typewriter and other writing tools, a word processor has a number of advantages and
these include:
 1. A document can be stored on the computer for future reference.

2. They reduce on storage costs because the files on the computer do not occupy space like the
paper files.

3. Word processors are easier and more efficient to use because some actions are automated. For
example the word wrap feature which takes the cursor to the beginning of the line once the
current line has been used up

4. They have special editing tools such as spelling and grammar checker and thesaurus that help the
user to easily correct grammar and spelling errors. Thesaurus helps the user to find words with
similar meaning.

5. Word processors have superior document formatting features. For example, underlining,
boldfacing, italicization, applying different colours etc. Formatting refers to the art of making the
document more attractive and appealing to the eye. Thus word processors can print work of
better quality.

6. It automatically corrects errors by the use of the spellchecker feature while typing

*state four uses of word processors-----------reports, letters, books, articles etc

BASIC WORD PROCESSING FEATURES

PARTS OF A WINDOW