CONTROL SYSTEMS (Core Subject) -17EE61

B.E., VI Semester, Electrical and Electronics Engineering [As per Choice

Based Credit System (CBCS) scheme]
Module 1
Introduction to control systems: Introduction, classification of control systems.
Mathematical models of physical systems: Modelling of mechanical system
elements, electrical systems, Analogous systems, Transfer function, Single input
single output systems, Procedure for deriving transfer functions, servomotors,
synchros, gear trains.
1.1 Introduction to control systems
1.1.1 What is a system?
A system is any process that produces an output signal in response to an input
signal.
Why do you want to study systems ?? Some examples are
• Build a good amplifier with noise reduction
• Diagnose cancer early
• Build an autonomous vehicle
• Design drones for agriculture
1.1.2 What is a control system?
• A control system is that in which any quantity of interest in a machine,
process, device or any other equipment is maintained or altered in accordance
with a desired manner. You control the output by varying the input, hence the
name….CONTROL SYSTEM.
1.1.3 Why do we build control systems?
Four main reasons why control systems are built are
 Remote control
 Compensate for disturbances
 Power amplification
 To change form of input (say from mechanical to electrical/chemical)
Some examples are
 Thermostat in an AC or refrigerator
 Traffic signal
 Washing machine
 TV remote
 Accelerator and brake in a vehicle
 Toaster
 Coffee maker
 Vending machine
 Saline dispenser
SO do we study all systems?
Hundreds and millions of them? Each unrelated to the other?? A big NO.
Even unrelated systems exhibit common properties!! If we understand these,
then we need to only study a class of system, rather than each of them
individually!!
1.1.4 : Oldest control system and history
It is as old as 400 B.C. It is a water clock – Where water trickles at a constant rate
to measure time.

Heron of Alexandria – around 10 B.C invented a number of control systems. To

name a few,
• The Aeolipile, a steam-powered device, similar to modern steam turbine
 • Heron’s Fountain an instrument that used air pressure to produce a jet of water
• The Dioptra, a surveying device
• A primitive, programmable robot (automaton)
• A fire engine
Other milestones in control systems are,
• 18th Century James Watt’s centrifugal governor for the speed control of a
steam engine.
• 1920s Minorsky worked on automatic controllers for steering ships.
• 1930s Nyquist developed a method for analyzing the stability of controlled
systems
• 1940s Frequency response methods made it possible to design linear closed-
loop control systems
• 1950s Root-locus method due to Evans was fully developed
• 1960s State space methods, optimal control, adaptive control and
• 1980s Learning controls are begun to investigated and developed
Lets now see some common definitions
1.1.5 Linear and non-linear systems
Linear systems obey
1. Superposition – If an input x1 produces an output y1, and an input x2 produces
y2, then an input (x1+x2) produces and output (y1+y2)
 2. Homogeneity: If an input x1 produces an output y1, then an input α x1
produces αy1.
Consider the following :
i) y(t) = 3*x(t) – is it linear ? - YES
ii) y(t) = 5*x(t)+6 - is it linear ? -No
iii) How about y(t) = 4*x2(t) ??? – No
So linear systems can be represented by a straight line with the y intercept zero.
Simple models are available to analyse these. Non-linear systems are more difficult
to analyse.
1.1.6 Time Variant and Time invariant systems
A system is time invariant if a time shift in the input results in an identical time shift
in the output signal. If x(t) produces y(t), then x(t-t0) produces y(t-t0).
1. Consider y(t) = x(-t). Is it time invariant?
 Shifted input : Let x(t-t0)=x1(t)
Response to shifted input y1(t)=x1(-t)=x(-t-t0)
 Shifted output = y(t-t0)=x(-t+t0).
Since the two are not equal it is not time invariant.
2. y(t)=e^x(t) - YES it is time invariant.
1.2. Classification of control systems
1.2.1 Continuous and discrete control systems
 In continuous control systems, the parameters are functions of time. In
discrete control systems, the parameters are sampled at discrete intervals of
time.
 Continuous systems are represented by differential equations and discrete
systems by difference equations.
 Discrete control is achievable using a computer or a microprocessor or a micro
controller.
In this course we will be dealing with only continuous systems.
1.2.2 : Manual and automatic
In manual control systems there is some intervention of human beings. Automatic
control is done without any human intervention.

Manual Automatic
1.2.3 Open loop and closed loop systems
In open loop systems the output is not feedback to alter the response. In closed loop
systems the output is modified.
1.2.3.1 Open loop systems
Converts input to the form used by the controller , which drives the plant. The output
is the controlled variable. The input signal is called the reference signal.

Example : washing machine where time is set. Traffic signals where the time of
green/red lights are fixed.
Features
 Control action independent of the output
 Simple, economical, easy to design and assemble
 System does not alter based on environment
 It cannot compensate for any disturbance
 Human intervention required to exercise control
 Performance depends on calibration and prone to instability
1.2.3.2 Closed loop system

Changes in output are feedback with the help of feedback elements which generates
an error signal, when compared to reference (input) signal.
Features
 Complex, difficult to design
 Costly but self correcting
 At times tendency to over correct. Design is important.
 Control action is dependent on output
1.3 : Main parameters of control system
Human driving a vehicle is one of the best examples of a control system. If we
consider this example we can understand the main components in a control system.
 Why- the objective : Control direction and speed of car
 Outputs: Actual direction and speed of car
 Control inputs: road signs, speed limits Disturbances: quality of
road, weather, environment
 Possible subsystems: Brakes, accelerator, steering

1.4 Standard terminology

 Plant/Process/System : The system or process you are trying to control.
 Objectives of control : What is your objective of control ?
What parameter should you control to meet the objective?
What are the constraints and limits of the control?
  Sensor
It is a device which detects or measures a physical property and records, indicates,
or otherwise responds to it. For example ,
• Temperature Sensor.
• Proximity Sensor.
• Accelerometer.
• IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
• Pressure Sensor.
• Ultrasonic Sensor.
 Actuator
• An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and
controlling a mechanism or system. It requires a control signal and energy .
Energy could be electric, magnetic, hydraulic. The control system acts on
the environment.
 Computing: can be computer, Programmable Logic controllers,
microcontrollers. Provide connection between sensors and actuators
 Disturbances/stimulus/perturbance
 They are unwanted signals. External to the system. For example while
driving – a dog crossing the road, a sudden gust of wind, a road dug up
would all be disturbances.
 Disturbance can be large or small…..
 They always exist. System must cope up with these disturbances.
1.5 Feedback Systems
Definitions
Command input : v(t) It is the input externally produced independent of the
feedback control system.
Reference input r(t) : It is proportional to command input.
Error detector : It sums or compares the signal b(t) from the feedback element
with the reference input r(t)
Actuating signal : e(t) It is the error signal, produced by the error detector .
Control Element G1 : Elements which develop the manipulated variable m(t)
from the actuating signal e(t)
Manipulated variable m(t) : It is the signal developed by the control element
and applied to the plant.
Plant /Controlled system : it is the system which is being controlled.
Controlled variable/output variable c(t) : It is the output signal which is desired
to be controlled and feedback.
Disturbance u(t) : It is undesired signal that tends to affect c(t)
Feedback element H : It receives the controlled output c(t) and after acting upon
it, produces the feedback signal b(t)
Primary feedback signal b(t) : It is produced by the feedback element and
compared with the reference r(t) . It may be positive or negative .
1.6 Modelling
A model of a system is a representation of the actual system. We work with
models when the system we are interested in studying is too complex, too remote,
or too difficult to deal with as a whole practically. We also work with models as
an initial design step, where the system response to different parameters is
analyzed before the actual system is built.
1.6.1 : Mathematical model
The system behavior is represented by a set of mathematical equations in these
models. Some of the popular models are
 Differential / Difference equation model
 Transfer function model
 State space model
 Differential equation model
If we consider continuous systems the differential equation model is used. Take
an example :

This is the way the differential equations are obtained.

 Transfer Function model
The Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as
the ratio of Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of input by
assuming all the initial conditions are zero.
 State space model
System is represented by state equations which are differential equations.
When we build models Spatial distribution of elements is neglected.
Variables associated with elements have are assumed to have a simple linear
law. We first make models with ideal elements. An ideal element has two
terminals and is associated with two variables.
 Through variable: which passes through the element. Ex current, water
flow
 Across variable: Which appears across the terminals. Ex voltage, pressure
1.6.2 Transfer function of open loop and closed loop systems
Open loop transfer function

Closed loop transfer function

G(s)=C(s)/E(s)
E(s) =R(s) – B(s)
H(s) = B(s)/C(s)
T(s) = C(s)/R(s)
C(s) =G(s)E(s) = G(s)[ R(s) – B(s)] = G(s)[R(s) – H(s)C(s)
From which C(s)[1+G(s)H(s)]=G(s)/R(s)
Finally C(s)/R(S) = G(s)/1+G(s)H(s)
1.7 Modelling of electrical systems
The three passive electrical components are Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor.
They are modelled as follows:
Resistor Inductor Capacitor

1.7.1 : Modelling of a series R-L-C circuit

The same equation can be written in a slightly different form as shown below,
in terms of the charge.
Both forms of representations are used under different contexts.
1.7.2 Modelling of parallel R-L-C circuits
Consider the circuit shown below

Here also the equations can be written in a different manner in terms of the
flux.
 1.8 : Modelling of Mechanical Translational systems
The through variable in these systems is Force F (N) = Kgm/s^2 and the across
variable is velocity difference. It has three major elements
 Mass : The mass is property of an element that stores the kinetic energy of
translational motion.

When a force is applied to the mass a reaction force is produced equal to M

x a (acceleration) and acts opposite to the acceleration.
 Spring: It provides a restoring force. When a force is applied to deform
the spring, a reactionary force is applied, which tries to bring it back to
original length. As long as deformation is small, the spring can be
considered linear. K is called spring constant. Unit is N/m.

 Damper : It is a dissipative element. Exists as friction. It exists whenever

mechanical surfaces are operated in sliding contact. It acts in a direction
opposite to that of velocity. May be introduced intentionally, using a
dashpot. It consists of a piston and oil filled cylinder with a narrow
annular passage between piston and cylinder. Any relative motion
between position and cylinder is resisted by oil with a frictional force
equal to Fv.

f is called the coefficient of friction (N/m/s).It is often represented by ‘ B’

also.

1.8.1 Mass-Spring-Damper System

The representation of the Mass-Spring system is as shown.

Free-body diagram

The displacement x is positive in the direction of F.

1.8.2: Analogous systems

Two systems are said to be analogous when their mathematical equations
are identical but the parameters are different. If we compare the
mechanical translational system and the electrical series R-L-C system, we
have derived the following equations:
 If we compare with the Parallel R-L-C circuit we get the following
equations

1.9 : Mechanical Rotational Systems

The three basic components are
 Inertia element : These are masses that rotate and are characterized by the
moment of inertia, J. They store kinetic energy because of rotation. The
value of J depends on the shape of the mass. When a body is rotating a
reactive torque is produced which is equal to the product of its moment of
inertia and angular acceleration.
 Torsional spring : It is a shaft which gets twisted when a torque is applied
to it. Ideal springs have no inertia. The reaction torque which opposes the
twist is given by
Ts = K θ
θ- Twist (rad)
K –Constant , torsional stiffness, (N-m/rad)
 Friction : Difficult to model. The reactive torque is modelled as
Tf= fω
f (or B) – Coefficient of friction
ω-Relative angular velocity – rad/sec
1.9.1 Electrical Analogous system

Analogous quantities are

T–e
J–L
f–R
k – 1/C
Ө–q

1.10 Examples
 1.9 Gear Trains
A gear train is a mechanical system formed by mounting gears on a frame
so the teeth of the gears engage. Gear teeth are designed to ensure the pitch
circles of engaging gears roll on each other without slipping, providing a
smooth transmission of rotation from one gear to the next.

• They are used in control systems to match motor to the load. Usually motors
operate at high speed and low torque. To drive a load which runs at low
speed with high torque, a gear train is typically used. They act as mechanical
matching devices, the way transformers act as matching electrical devices.
They are used to transmit motion, change direction or speed. The two gears
turn in opposite directions: one clockwise and the other counterclockwise.
• Two gears revolve at different speeds when number of teeth on each gear are
different.

1.9.1 Gear Ratio

You can calculate the gear ratio by using the number of teeth of the driver divided
by the number of teeth of the follower. We gear up when we increase velocity and
decrease torque. We gear down when we increase torque and reduce velocity
1.9.2 Nomenclature
• N1 - Number of teeth in Gear 1
r1 – Radius of Gear 1
θ1 – Angular displacement of the shaft
J1 – Moment of inertia of motor and Gear 1
B1 – Viscous friction coefficient of motor and Gear 1
T1 – Load Torque on Gear 1
Tm – Torque developed by motor
The torque developed by motor is balanced by the sum of load torque
requirement on Gear 1 and opposing torques due to J1and B1.
Hence, the torque balance equation for motor shaft is given by

The torque transmitted to Gear 2 is balanced by the sum of load torque and
opposing torques due to J2 and B2. Hence the torque balance equation for load
shaft is given by

1.9.3 Relationships in gear trains

 When N1>N2 , the gear train increases the speed and reduces the torque
 When N1=N2 , there is no change in speed and torque.
 When N1<N2 , the gear train decreases the speed and increases the torque