12/06/25

1. Different SQL Server Editions in a tabular form. Find out which features
each one has.
Enterprise is the premium edition with the most features and
capabilities, while Standard offers a more limited feature set at a lower
cost. Express is a free, entry-level edition with significant limitations on
resources and features.

2. Difference between Service and application

A service is a process that runs in the background, providing
functionality or support to other applications or the operating system,
often without direct user interaction. An application, on the other hand,
is a program designed for direct user interaction, offering a user
interface for specific task

The terms "client application" and "service application" refer to different

components in a client-server architecture, and they serve distinct roles.
Here’s a breakdown of their differences:

Client Application

1. Definition: A client application is software that runs on a user's device

(like a computer, smartphone, or tablet) and interacts with a service
application, typically over a network.
2. Purpose: Its primary purpose is to provide an interface for users to
interact with underlying services. This could involve sending requests to
a server, retrieving data, and presenting it to the user.
3. Examples:
- Web browsers (e.g., Chrome, Firefox)
- Mobile apps (e.g., Instagram, WhatsApp)
- Desktop applications (e.g., Microsoft Word, Adobe Photoshop)
4. Characteristics:
- User-facing: Designed for direct interaction with users.
- Dependent on services: Relies on service applications to perform
complex tasks or data processing.
- Can be lightweight or heavy, depending on functionality.

Services
1. Definition: A service application is a backend software component that
provides specific functionalities or data to client applications, usually
over a network.
2. Purpose: Its primary role is to process requests from client applications,
perform business logic, manage data, and return responses.
3. Examples:
- Web services (e.g., RESTful APIs, SOAP services)
- Cloud services (e.g., AWS Lambda, Google Cloud Functions)
- Database management systems (e.g., MySQL, MongoDB)
4. Characteristics:
- Backend-focused: Operates on the server side and is not directly
accessible by end-users.
- Handles data processing: Manages business logic, data storage, and
retrieval.
- Can be scalable and robust, designed to handle multiple requests
simultaneously.

Summary

 Client applications are user-facing and interact with users directly,

while service applications operate on the server side, providing data
and functionalities to client applications. Together, they work in tandem
to deliver a complete software solution.
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-client-application-
and-service-application

3. Overview of SQL Server Authentication Modes

Windows Authentication Mode:

SQL Server Authentication:

4. Overview - SQL Server's [server side] different services

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/ms_sql_server/ms_sql_server_ser... | Chat |
Microsoft Teams

Examples of server side and client-side components

5. Overview Security --> Login / Roles / Credentials

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql-server/how-to-create-login-user-and-
grant-permissions-in-sql-server/

https://satoricyber.com/sql-server-security/sql-server-roles/
6. Difference between "Named Instance" and Default Instance" of SQL Server

One instance can be the default instance. The default instance has the name
of the desktop or pc. If a connection request specifies only the name of the
computer, the connection is made to the default instance. A named instance
is one where you specify an instance name when installing the instance.
SQL Server server names - refer to the name of the computer hosting the SQL Server

SQL Server instance names - refer to a default or named instance of the SQL Server

Instance names allow one to distinguish between multiple instances of SQL servers installed on a
computer. It is often used to clearly distinguish SQL Server databases from different products -
keeping them separate and simplifying database maintenance activities for various software
products.

When using SSMS (SQL Server Management Studio) - the format will be show as follows
ComputerName\InstanceName (for named instances) or just ComputerName (for default instances)

if you are using the default SQL Server instances based on SQL Server version eg SQLEXPRESS
or MSSQLSERVER - the instance name will not appear in SSMS (only the server name). However
they can be seen running the Services App and looking for the SQL Server service. The instance
name will appear within the open and closed bracket.

https://www.se.com/au/en/faqs/FAQ000259041/

7. How many named instances can be installed on one single machine

There can be 49 named instances and 1 default instance installed on a pc

8. Overview of all 4 system databases and their usage

https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1420/sql-server-system-databases/
https://www.sqlservertutorial.net/sql-server-administration/sql-server-
system-databases/

1. master:

This database is the heart of the SQL Server instance. It stores all system-
level information, including:

Login accounts and their permissions.

Configuration settings for the server.

Information about other databases within the instance.

Endpoints and linked servers.

2. model:

This database acts as a template for creating new user databases. Any time
a new database is created, it's essentially a copy of the model database.
Therefore, any changes made to model will be reflected in newly created
databases.

3. msdb:

The msdb database is used by SQL Server Agent, a component of SQL Server
for scheduling tasks and automating operations. It stores information related
to:

Backup and restore history.

Alerts and jobs.

Service Broker information.

Replication.

4. tempdb:

This is a globally shared, temporary workspace used by all users and

connections to the SQL Server instance. It stores:

Temporary tables and stored procedures.

Worktables for sorting and other operations.

Row versions for snapshot isolation.

Internal objects used by the database engine.

9. Concepts about KEYS

1. Candidate Key
A Candidate Key is a set of one or more fields/columns that can identify a
record uniquely in a table. There can be multiple Candidate Keys in one
table. Each Candidate Key can work as a Primary Key.

2. Primary Key
A primary key is a set of one or more fields/columns of a table that
uniquely identifies a record in a database table. It cannot accept null, or
duplicate values.

3. Super Key
A super key is a set of one or more than one key that can be used to
identify a record uniquely in a table. Example: Primary key, Unique key,
and Alternate key are a subset of Super Keys.

4. Alternate key
An Alternate key is a key that can work as a primary key. It is a candidate
key that currently is not a primary key. It is also called a secondary key.

5. Composite/Compound Key
A composite Key is a combination of more than one field/column of a
table. It can be a Candidate key or a primary key.

6. Unique Key
Unique Key can be a column or set of columns that can be used to
uniquely identify the tuple from the database. One or more fields can be
declared as a unique Key. The unique Key column can also hold the NULL
value. The use of unique keys improves the performance of data retrieval.
It makes searching for records from the database much faster & efficient.

7. Foreign Key
A foreign key is an attribute that is a Primary key in its parent table but is
included as an attribute in another host table. The relation that is being
referenced is called the referenced relation and the corresponding
attribute is called the referenced attribute. The relation that refers to the
referenced relation is called a referencing relation and the corresponding
attribute is called a referencing attribute. The referenced attribute of the
referenced relation should be the primary key to it.

15/06/25
10. Table relationships [reference keys]

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql/sql-constraints/

Different Constraints that you can have in a SQL Server tables

https://www.sqlshack.com/commonly-used-sql-server-constraints-not-null-
unique-primary-key/

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql/sql-constraints/
11. Overview of ETL Tools [Extraction Transformation and loading] MS ETL
tool is SSIS SSRS SSAS [BI - Business Intelligence]

12. Mode for an application with which to connect to a SQL Server database
[pros and cons]

1. 🔒 Windows Authentication Mode

Windows Authentication uses the Windows credentials of the user or
service running the application to connect to SQL Server.

✅ Pros

 Integrated Security: No need to store or manage passwords in the

application.
 Centralized Account Management: Uses Active Directory (AD),
making it easier to manage users and policies.
 Stronger Security: Supports Kerberos, NTLM, and other secure
authentication protocols.
 No Password Transmission: Credentials are not sent over the
network.
 Supports Group Policies: Easily manage access by AD groups.
 Single Sign-On (SSO): Users logged into Windows can access SQL
Server without re-authenticating.
❌ Cons

 Platform Limitation: Works best in Windows environments; non-

Windows clients may face challenges.
 Complex Configuration: Requires AD infrastructure and proper setup
(e.g., SPNs for Kerberos).
 Limited for External Users: Difficult to use for users outside your
domain or organization.
 Application Pool or Service Account Needed: For web apps or
services, must configure service account permissions properly.

2. 🔐 SQL Server Authentication Mode

SQL Server Authentication uses a SQL Server-specific username and
password stored in SQL Server.

✅ Pros

 Cross-Platform: Works regardless of the client OS or environment.

 Easy for External/Legacy Apps: Useful when AD integration is not
possible.
 Simple to Configure: No dependency on Windows/AD setup.
 Supports Mixed Environments: Can be used alongside Windows
Authentication in Mixed Mode.

❌ Cons

 Password Management: You must securely store, rotate, and

manage passwords within your app.
 Security Risk: Passwords can be intercepted if not encrypted (use
TLS/SSL).
 No Single Sign-On: Users must supply credentials explicitly.
 More Vulnerable to Brute Force Attacks: Requires strong
password policies and monitoring.
 No Centralized User Management: User administration is separate
from Windows accounts.
13. overview of multi-threaded applications

What is a Multi-Threaded Application?

 A multi-threaded application is a program that can perform multiple

operations concurrently by running multiple threads within a single
process.
 Threads share the same memory but can execute independently,
improving performance especially on multi-core CPUs.

How is multi-threading supported in SQL Server

 SQL Server is designed to support multiple concurrent

connections and queries from many clients or threads.
 Each client thread typically creates its own database connection or
shares a connection pool.
 SQL Server internally manages query execution with its own thread
pool and scheduler.
Illustration of how Agent Service works

14. Table components

 17/06/25

1. 📋 Tables
 Definition: Permanent database objects that store data in rows and
columns.
 Scope: Database-wide and persistent until explicitly dropped.
 Use case: Store core data like employees, orders, products, etc.
 Characteristics:
o Supports indexes, constraints, triggers.
o Data persists after session ends.
o Can be large, support heavy transactions.
2. 🕒 Temporary Tables
a. Local Temporary Tables (#TableName)

 Definition: Temporary tables visible only to the current

session/connection.
 Scope: Session-level; automatically dropped when the session ends.
 Use case: Store intermediate results in complex queries or stored
procedures.
 Example: CREATE TABLE #TempOrders (...)

b. Global Temporary Tables (##TableName)

 Definition: Temporary tables visible to all sessions.

 Scope: Global; dropped when the last session referencing it closes.
 Use case: Share temporary data between multiple sessions.
 Example: CREATE TABLE ##GlobalTemp (...)

3. 🔖 Table Variables (@TableVariable)

 Definition: Variables that store table-like data within a batch,
procedure, or function.
 Scope: Batch or procedure only.
 Use case: Small sets of data, lightweight temporary storage.
 Characteristics:
o Declared with DECLARE @TableVar TABLE (...).
o Not affected by transaction rollbacks.
o Limited indexing options compared to temp tables.
o Statistics are not maintained, which may affect query
optimization.

4. Views
 Definition: Virtual tables representing the result of a stored query.
 Scope: Database-wide, persistent.
  Use case: Simplify complex queries, provide security by restricting
columns/rows, encapsulate business logic.
 Characteristics:
o No physical data storage (except indexed views).
o Always return fresh data from underlying tables.
o Can be used as tables in SELECT queries.

Tables (Permanent Tables)

🔹 Definition:

 Regular database tables created with CREATE

TABLE.
 Stored permanently in the database until
explicitly dropped.
 Data is persistent between sessions.

#Tables (Local Temporary Tables)

🔹 Definition:

 Temporary tables that exist only for the

current session (connection).
 Automatically dropped when the session ends.
##Tables (Global Temporary Tables)
🔹 Definition:

 Temporary tables that are visible to all

sessions.
 Dropped only when the last session
referencing them is closed.

20/06/25

OLTP architectures:
OLTP architectures (Online Transaction Processing) in SQL refer to the
design and setup of database systems that support transactional
applications—like order entry, financial systems, or customer relationship
management (CRM). These systems are optimized for fast, reliable, and
concurrent processing of a large number of short, atomic transactions.

Key Characteristics of OLTP Systems:

 High transaction volume (e.g., insert, update, delete)

 Real-time data processing
 Normalized schema (to reduce redundancy)
 **Quick query

Online transactional processing (OLTP) enables the real-time execution of

large numbers of database transactions by large numbers of people,
typically over the internet.

OLTP is what enables the rapid, accurate data processing behind ATMs and
online banking, cash registers and ecommerce, and scores of other services
we interact with each day.

A database transaction is a change, insertion, deletion, or query of data in a

database. OLTP systems (and the database transactions they enable) drive
many of the financial transactions we make every day, including online
banking and ATM transactions, e-commerce and in-store purchases, and
hotel and airline bookings, to name a very few. In each of these cases, the
database transaction also remains as a record of the corresponding financial
transaction. OLTP can also drive non-financial database exchanges, including
password changes and text messages.

In OLTP, the common, defining characteristic of any database transaction is

its atomicity (or indivisibility)—a transaction either succeeds as a whole or
fails (or is canceled). It cannot remain in a pending or intermediate state.

In general, OLTP systems do the following:

Process a large number of relatively simple transactions: Usually

insertions, updates, and deletions to data, as well as simple data queries
(for example, a balance check at an ATM).

Enable multi-user access to the same data, while ensuring data

integrity: OLTP systems rely on concurrency algorithms to ensure that no
two users can change the same data at the same time and that all
transactions are carried out in the proper order. This prevents people from
using online reservation systems from double-booking the same room and
protects holders of jointly held bank accounts from accidental overdrafts.

Emphasize very rapid processing, with response times measured

in milliseconds:The effectiveness of an OLTP system is measured by the
total number of transactions that can be carried out per second.

Provide indexed data sets: These are used for rapid searching,
retrieval, and querying.

Are available 24/7/365: Again, OLTP systems process huge numbers of

concurrent transactions, so any data loss or downtime can have significant
and costly repercussions. A complete data backup must be available for
any moment in time. OLTP systems require frequent regular backups and
constant incremental backups.
Summary :OLTP systems are designed to efficiently process
and store transactions, as well as query transactional data.
The goal of efficiently processing and storing individual
transactions by an OLTP system is partly accomplished by
data normalization — that is, breaking the data up into
smaller chunks that are less redundant
https://www.ibm.com/think/topics/oltp

OLAP architectures:
OLAP, or online analytical processing, is technology for performing high-
speed complex queries or multidimensional analysis on large volumes of
data in a data warehouse, data lake or other data repository. OLAP is used in
business intelligence (BI), decision support, and a variety of business
forecasting and reporting applications.

Most business data have multiple dimensions—multiple categories into which

the data are broken down for presentation, tracking, or analysis. For
example, sales figures might have several dimensions related to location
(region, country, state/province, store), time (year, month, week, day),
product (clothing, men/women/children, brand, type), and more.

But in a data warehouse or data lake, data sets are stored in tables, each of
which can organize data into just two of these dimensions at a time. OLAP
extracts data from multiple relational data sets and reorganizes it into a
multidimensional format that enables very fast processing and very
insightful analysis.

Summary : OLAP is a database technology that has been

optimized for querying and reporting, instead of processing
transactions https://www.ibm.com/think/topics/olap

Difference between OLAP and OLTP:

OLTP is often confused with online analytical processing, or OLAP. Both have
similar acronyms and are online data processing systems, but that's where
the similarity ends.

OLTP is optimized for executing online database transactions. OLTP systems

are designed for use by frontline workers (e.g., cashiers, bank tellers, part
desk clerks) or for customer self-service applications (e.g., online banking, e-
commerce, travel reservations).

OLAP, on the other hand, is optimized for conducting complex data analysis.
OLAP systems are designed for use by data scientists, business analysts, and
knowledge workers, and they support business intelligence (BI), data mining,
and other decision support applications.

Not surprisingly, there are several distinct technical differences OLTP and
OLAP systems:

OLTP systems use a relational database that can accommodate a large

number of concurrent users and frequent queries and updates, while
supporting very fast response times. OLAP systems use a multidimensional
database—a special kind of database created from multiple relational
databases that enables complex queries of involving multiple data facts
from current and historical data. (An OLAP database may be organized as a
data warehouse.)
OLTP queries are simple and typically involve just one or a few database
records. OLAP queries are complex queries involving large numbers of
records.

OLTP transaction and query response times are lightning-fast; OLAP

response times are orders of magnitude slower.

OLTP systems modify data frequently (this is the nature of transactional

processing); OLAP systems do not modify data at all.

OLTP workloads involve a balance of read and write; OLAP workloads are
read-intensive.
 OLTP databases require relatively little storage space; OLAP databases
work with enormous data sets and typically have significant storage space
requirements.

OLTP systems require frequent or concurrent backups; OLAP systems can

be backed up far less frequently.

It's worth noting that OLTP systems often serve as a source of information
for OLAP systems. And often, the goal of the analytics performed using
OLAP is to improve business strategy and optimize business processes,
which can provide a basis for making improvements to the OLTP system.
https://www.ibm.com/think/topics/oltp

NORMALIZATION AND ACID TRANSACTION:

Normalization and ACID transactions are fundamental concepts in
database management. Normalization is a process of organizing
data to reduce redundancy and improve data integrity by
structuring tables and relationships. ACID (Atomicity, Consistency,
Isolation, and Durability) is a set of properties that ensure reliable
and consistent database transactions. While normalization focuses
on data structure, ACID properties ensure the reliable execution of
database operations.

Normalization:
Purpose:
To reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity.
Process:
Involves organizing data into tables and defining relationships between
them according to normalization rules.
Benefits:
 Eliminates data redundancy, reduces storage space, and improves data
consistency and accuracy.
Normal Forms:
Includes First Normal Form (1NF), Second Normal Form (2NF), Third
Normal Form (3NF), and Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF), among
others.

ACID Transactions:
Purpose:
To ensure the reliability and consistency of database operations, even
in the face of errors or system failures.
Properties:
 Atomicity: Ensures that all operations within a transaction are treated
as a single unit. Either all operations succeed, or none do.
 Consistency: Ensures that a transaction brings the database from one
valid state to another, maintaining data integrity.
 Isolation: Ensures that concurrent transactions do not interfere with
each other, preserving data consistency during simultaneous
operations.
 Durability: Guarantees that once a transaction is committed, its
changes are permanently saved to the database, even in case of
system failures.
Benefits:
Protects data integrity, prevents data loss or corruption, and ensures
reliable data management.

Relationship:
Normalization is a design principle that helps create a well-
structured database, while ACID transactions ensure the reliability
and consistency of operations performed on that database. In
essence, normalization lays the foundation for data integrity, while
ACID properties ensure that operations on that data are reliable
and consistent.
ACID Properties in DBMS

In the world of DBMS, transactions are fundamental operations that

allow us to modify and retrieve data. However, to ensure the
integrity of a database, it is important that these transactions are
executed in a way that maintains consistency, correctness, and
reliability. This is where the ACID properties come into play.

ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability.

These four key properties define how a transaction should be
processed in a reliable and predictable manner, ensuring that the
database remains consistent, even in cases of failures or concurrent
accesses.

What Are Transactions in DBMS?

A transaction in DBMS refers to a sequence of operations
performed as a single unit of work. These operations may involve
reading or writing data to the database. To maintain data integrity,
DBMS ensures that each transaction adheres to the ACID properties.
Think of a transaction like an ATM withdrawal. When we withdraw
money from our account, the transaction involves several steps:
  Check your balance.
 Deducting the money from your account.
 Adding the money to the bank's record.

For the transaction to be successful, all steps must be completed. If

any part of this process fails (e.g., if there’s a system crash), the
entire transaction should fail, and no data should be altered. This
ensures the database remains in a consistent state.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/acid-properties-in-dbms/

11
/07/25

What are database indexes?

A database index is like an index in a book—it helps you quickly

locate the data you're looking for without scanning every row in the
table.
 Indexes are a powerful tool used in the background of a
database to speed up querying.
 Indexes contain all the necessary information needed to access
items quickly and efficiently.
 Indexes serve as lookup tables to efficiently store data for
quicker retrieval.
 Table keys are stored in indexes.
 Indexes for non-key values can be created with a CREATE INDEX
statement.
https://www.codecademy.com/article/sql-indexes

How do database indexes work in sql server?

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql/sql-indexes/
Different types of indexes in sql server ?
SQL Server provides several types of indexes, each designed for
specific use cases to optimize query performance. Here's a clear
breakdown:

🔢 1. Clustered Index
 Defines the physical order of rows in the table.
 Only one per table.
 The actual table data is stored in the leaf nodes of the index.

Use when: Queries often sort or filter by this column.

🔢 2. Non-Clustered Index
 A separate structure from the table data.
 Points to the actual rows via row locators.
 Multiple non-clustered indexes allowed per table.

Use when: You need to speed up searches on non-primary key

columns.

🔢 3. Unique Index
 Ensures no duplicate values in the indexed column(s).
 Can be clustered or non-clustered.

Use when: You want to enforce uniqueness without using a

constraint.

🔤 4. Full-Text Index
 Used for text searching (e.g., CONTAINS, FREETEXT).
 Works on large text columns like VARCHAR, TEXT, NVARCHAR.
🧱 5. Columnstore Index
 Stores data by column instead of by row.
 Ideal for data warehouses, OLAP workloads, and large scans.
 Compresses well and speeds up analytical queries.

Use when: Querying large datasets with aggregations or filtering.

📚 6. Filtered Index
 A non-clustered index with a WHERE clause.
 Indexes only a subset of rows.

Use when: Most queries target a specific range or condition.

🔁 7. XML Index
 Used to optimize querying XML data stored in an XML
column.

Use when: You frequently query XML content with XQuery.

🔒 8. Spatial Index
 Used for geospatial data (e.g., maps, locations).
 Optimizes spatial queries using geometry or geography types.

Use when: Querying location-based data (STIntersects,

STDistance).

Diff btw a lightly index database and a heavily

index database
A lightly indexed database has fewer indexes, focusing on
optimizing frequently used queries, while a heavily indexed
database has many indexes, potentially improving performance
across a broader range of queries but at the cost of increased
storage and write operation overhead.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

Lightly Indexed Database:

 Fewer indexes: Typically, only indexes on frequently used
columns or combinations of columns are created.
 Reduced storage overhead: Less storage space is used for
indexes.
 Faster write operations: Fewer indexes mean less overhead
when inserting, updating, or deleting data.
 Focus on specific queries: Optimized for a smaller set of
common queries.
 Example: Creating an index on a "user_id" column in a table
where most queries filter by user ID.

Heavily Indexed Database:

 More indexes: Indexes are created on many or all columns
and combinations of columns.
 Increased storage overhead: Significant storage space is
used for indexes.
 Slower write operations: More indexes require more
updates during write operations, potentially slowing them
down.
 Broader query performance: Optimized for a larger set of
queries, potentially improving performance across many
different types of searches.
 Example: Creating indexes on multiple columns of a table
used for complex filtering and sorting operations.
Clustered Index
A Clustered Index determines the physical order of the data in a
table. When a clustered index is created on a column, SQL Server
reorders the data in the table based on that index. Because the data
is physically stored in the order of the clustered index, a table can
only have one clustered index. Typically, a clustered index is
created on the primary key by default.

A clustered index is created only when both the following conditions

are satisfied:
 The data or file that we are moving into secondary memory
should be in sequential or sorted order.
 There should be a key value, meaning it cannot have repeated
values.

Non-Clustered Index
A Non-Clustered Index is an index that does not affect the physical
order of the data in the table. It is a separate structure from the
data table, where the index contains a copy of the indexed
columns and a pointer to the actual data. This allows for multiple
non-clustered indexes on a table, unlike the clustered index, which
only exist once.

The data is stored in one place, and the index is stored in another
place. Since the data and non-clustered index are stored
separately, we can have multiple non-clustered indexes in a
table.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql/difference-between-clustered-
and-non-clustered-index/

Difference btw stacked and heap memory // read upar se