CS1543 Python Programming

MUSLIM ASSOCIATION COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE

Panavoor,Thiruvananthapuram,Kerala
(Affiliated to the University of Kerala)

CS1543: PYTHON PROGRAMMING

S5 B.Sc Computer Science

Name : ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Candidate Code: ……………………………………………………………………………..

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 CS1543 Python Programming

CS1543: PYTHON PROGRAMMING:-SYLLABUS

Module I: Introduction to Python- Features of Python - Identifiers - Reserved Keywords - Variables

Comments in Python – Input , Output and Import Functions - Operators – Data Types and Operations –
int, float, complex, Strings, List, Tuple, Set,Dictionary - Mutable and Immutable Objects – Data Type
Conversion - Illustrative programs: selection sort,insertion sort, bubble sort

Module II: Decision Making -conditional (if), alternative (if-else), if..elif..else -nested if - Loops for,range()
while, break, continue, pass; Functions: return values, parameters, local and global scope, function
composition, recursion; Strings: string slices, immutability, string functions and methods, string module;
Lists as arrays. Illustrative programs: square root, gcd, exponentiation, sum of an array of numbers,
linear search, binary search, bubble sort, insertion sort, selection sort

Module III: Built-in Modules - Creating Modules - Import statement - Locating modules - Namespaces
and Scope - The dir() function - The reload function - Packages in PythonFiles and exception: text files,
reading and writing files Renaming and Deleting files Exception handling exceptions, Exception with
arguments, Raising an Exception - User defined Exceptions - Assertions in python

Module IV: GUI Programming- Introduction – Tkinter Widgets – Label – Message Widget – Entry Widget
– Text Widget – tk Message Box – Button Widget – Radio Button- Check Button – Listbox- Frames _
Toplevel Widgets – Menu Widget

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MODULE 1

Module I: Introduction to Python- Features of Python - Identifiers - Reserved Keywords - Variables

Comments in Python – Input , Output and Import Functions - Operators – Data Types and Operations –
int, float, complex, Strings, List, Tuple, Set,Dictionary - Mutable and Immutable Objects – Data Type
Conversion - Illustrative programs: selection sort,insertion sort, bubble sort

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Introduction to Python
 Python is a general-purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented, and high-level
programming language. It was created by Guido van Rossum during 1985- 1990.
 Python is easy to learn yet powerful and versatile scripting language, which makes it attractive
for Application Development.
 Python's syntax and dynamic typing with its interpreted nature make it an ideal language for
scripting and rapid application development.

Characteristics of Python
 It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.
 It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building large
applications.
 It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type checking.
 It supports automatic garbage collection.
 It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.

Advantages of Python
1. Python is Interpreted − Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do not need to
compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL and PHP.
2. Python is Interactive − You can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact with the interpreter
directly to write your programs.
3. Python is Object-Oriented − Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of
programming that encapsulates code within objects.
4. Python is a Beginner's Language − Python is a great language for the beginner-level
programmers and supports the development of a wide range of applications from simple text
processing to WWW browsers to games.

Features in Python
There are many features in Python, some of which are discussed below –

1.Easy to code:

Python is high level programming language.Python is very easy to learn language as compared to other
language like c, c#, java script, java etc.It is very easy to code in python language and anybody can learn
python basic in few hours or days.It is also developer-friendly language.

2. Free and Open Source:

Python language is freely available at official website.Since, it is open-source, this means that source
code is also available to the public.So you can download it as, use it as well as share it.

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3.Object-Oriented Language:

One of the key features of python is Object-Oriented programming.Python supports object oriented
language and concepts of classes, objects encapsulation etc.

4. GUI Programming Support:

Graphical Users interfaces can be made using a module such as PyQt5, PyQt4, wxPython or Tk in
python.PyQt5 is the most popular option for creating graphical apps with Python.

5. High-Level Language:

Python is a high-level language. When we write programs in python, we do not need to remember the
system architecture, nor do we need to manage the memory.

6.Extensible feature:

Python is a Extensible language. we can write our some python code into c or c++ language and also we
can compile that code in c/c++ language.

7. Python is Portable language:

Python language is also a portable language.for example, if we have python code for windows and if we
want to run this code on other platform such as Linux, Unix and Mac then we do not need to change it,
we can run this code on any platform.

8. Python is Integrated language:

Python is also an Integrated language because we can easily integrated python with other language like
c, c++ etc.

9. Interpreted Language:

Python is an Interpreted Language. because python code is executed line by line at a time. The source
code of python is converted into an immediate form called bytecode.

10. Large Standard Library

Python has a large standard library which provides rich set of module and functions so you do not have
to write your own code for every single thing.There are many libraries present in python for such as
regular expressions, unit-testing, web browsers etc.

11. Dynamically Typed Language:

Python is dynamically-typed language. That means the type (for example- int, double, long etc) for a
variable is decided at run time not in advance.because of this feature we don’t need to specify the type
of variable.

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Python Identifiers
An identifier is a name given to entities like class, functions, variables, etc. It helps to differentiate one
entity from another.

Example: a=10

Rules for writing identifiers

1. Identifiers can be a combination of letters in lowercase (a to z) or uppercase (A to Z) or digits (0

to 9) or an underscore _. Names like myClass, var_1 and print_this_to_screen, all are valid
example.
2. An identifier cannot start with a digit. 1variable is invalid, but variable1 is a valid name.
3. Keywords cannot be used as identifiers.
4. We cannot use special symbols like !, @, #, $, % etc. in our identifier.
5. An identifier can be of any length.

Keywords in Python
 A python keyword is a reserved word which you can’t use as a name of your variable, class,
function etc.
 These keywords have a special meaning and they are used for special purposes in Python
programming language.
 For example – Python keyword “while” is used for while loop thus you can’t name a variable
with the name “while” else it may cause compilation error.
 There are total 33 keywords in Python

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Python Comments
 Comments can be used to explain Python code.
 Comments can be used to make the code more readable.
 Comments can be used to prevent execution when testing code.
 Comments starts with a #, and Python will ignore them:

Example

#This is a comment
print("Hello, World!")

Multi Line Comments

Python does not really have a syntax for multi line comments.To add a multiline comment you could
insert a # for each line or make the comments inside three quotes.

#This is a comment
#written in
#more than just one line
print("Hello, World!")

Or, not quite as intended, you can use a multiline string.

Since Python will ignore string literals that are not assigned to a variable, you can add a multiline
string (triple quotes) in your code, and place your comment inside it:

"""
This is a comment
written in
more than just one line
"""
print("Hello, World!")

Python Output Function

 In python, if you want to show something on screen as an output, there we use the print()
function. Using the print() function you can show the output data on your standard screen.
 Normally print() function is used to show the output data of variables and strings.
Example:
print(“Welcome to Python”)
print(a)

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String Formatting:

 There is a special function called format() which is used with a string, that gives you more
flexibility over the print() function. format() function is used with a string and you can insert
variables in specific places of that particular string.
 We use {} curly brackets to hold the places of variables or string that pass in the format()
function.
 Example
s= "Kiran"
age=25
print("My name is {} and I am {} years old ". format(s,age))

Output: My name is Kiran and I am 25 years old

Python Input Function

 Here we use the input() function which allows the user to input the values in the programme.
 Whenever you input a value in the programme with the help of input() function the value is
treated as a string and what if you want to enter an integer or float for that you need to convert
it into corresponding data type
Syntax1:
variable = input()
Example:
a=input()
Syntax2: variable = input(“Prompt”)
Example:
a=input(“Enter the value”)

The prompt is a string which is used as a message that displays on the screen

Import in Python:

 Import is a keyword which is used to import the definitions of the module (modules are the
python files which contain the prewritten code or function) in the current file. Import keyword is
used along with another keyword from which is used to import the module
 Suppose you want a programme which accepts an integer and give the square root of the
integer. For this, you can make a program or you can use a predefined function sqrt() which is a
part of module math. So to use the sqrt() function you need to import it on your current file by
using the import keyword.

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Let’s understand it with an example

from math import sqrt

var = int(input("Enter a Number: "))
sqt = sqrt(var)
print(sqt)

Output:
Enter a Number:25
5

Operators in Python

 Operators are the constructs which can manipulate the value of operands.
 Consider the expression 4 + 5 = 9. Here, 4 and 5 are called operands and + is called operator.

Types of Operator
Python language supports the following types of operators.
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Comparison (Relational) Operators
3. Assignment Operators
4. Logical Operators
5. Membership Operators
6. Identity Operators

1.Arithmetic Operators
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then –

Operator Description Example

+ Addition Adds values on either side of the operator. a + b = 30

- Subtraction Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand. a – b = -10

* Multiplication Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b = 200

/ Division Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b/a=2

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% Modulus Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns b%a=0
remainder

** Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators a**b =10 to the power 20

// Floor Division - The division of operands where the result is 9//2 = 4 and 9.0//2.0 = 4.0,
the quotient in which the digits after the decimal point are -11//3 = -4, -11.0//3 = -4.0
removed. But if one of the operands is negative, the result is
floored, i.e., rounded away from zero (towards negative
infinity) −

2.Comparison Operators
These operators compare the values on either sides of them and decide the relation among them. They
are also called Relational operators.
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example

== If the values of two operands are equal, then the condition (a == b) is not true.
becomes true.

!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition becomes (a != b) is true.
true.

<> If values of two operands are not equal, then condition becomes (a <> b) is true. This is
true. similar to != operator.

> If the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (a > b) is not true.
operand, then condition becomes true.

< If the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, (a < b) is true.
then condition becomes true.

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>= If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of (a >= b) is not true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.

<= If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of (a <= b) is true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.

3.Assignment Operators
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then −

Operator Description Example

= Assigns values from right side operands to left side c = a + b assigns value of a + b
operand into c

+= Add AND It adds right operand to the left operand and assign
c += a is equivalent to c = c + a
the result to left operand

-= Subtract AND It subtracts right operand from the left operand and
c -= a is equivalent to c = c - a
assign the result to left operand

*= Multiply AND It multiplies right operand with the left operand and
c *= a is equivalent to c = c * a
assign the result to left operand

/= Divide AND It divides left operand with the right operand and
c /= a is equivalent to c = c / a
assign the result to left operand

%= Modulus AND It takes modulus using two operands and assign the c %= a is equivalent to c = c %
result to left operand a

**= Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on c **= a is equivalent to c = c **

AND operators and assign value to the left operand a

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//= Floor Division It performs floor division on operators and assign c //= a is equivalent to c = c //
value to the left operand a

4.Logical Operators
There are following logical operators supported by Python language. Assume variable a holds 10 and
variable b holds 20 then

Operator Description Example

and Logical AND If both the operands are true then condition becomes true. (a and b) is true.

or Logical OR If any of the two operands are non-zero then condition becomes true. (a or b) is true.

not Logical NOT Used to reverse the logical state of its operand. Not(a and b) is
false.

5.Membership Operators
Python’s membership operators test for membership in a sequence, such as strings, lists, or tuples.
There are two membership operators as explained below −

Operator Description Example

in Evaluates to true if it finds a variable in the specified x in y, here in results in a 1 if x is a

sequence and false otherwise. member of sequence y.

not in Evaluates to true if it does not finds a variable in the x not in y, here not in results in a 1 if x is
specified sequence and false otherwise. not a member of sequence y.

6.Identity Operators
Identity operators compare the memory locations of two objects. There are two Identity operators
explained below −

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Operator Description Example

is Evaluates to true if the variables on either side of the x is y, here is results in 1 if id(x)
operator point to the same object and false otherwise. equals id(y).

is not Evaluates to false if the variables on either side of the x is not y, here is not results in
operator point to the same object and true otherwise. 1 if id(x) is not equal to id(y).

Data Types
The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a person's age is stored as a
numeric value and his or her address is stored as alphanumeric characters. Python has various
standard data types that are used to define the operations possible on them and the storage
method for each of them.
Python has five standard data types −

 Numbers
 String
 List
 Tuple
 Dictionary

1.Numbers
Number data types store numeric values. Number objects are created when you assign a value
to them. For example −
var1 = 1
var2 = 10
Python supports four different numerical types −

 int (signed integers)

 long (long integers, they can also be represented in octal and hexadecimal)
 float (floating point real values)
 complex (complex numbers)

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2.Strings
Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters represented in the quotation
marks. Python allows for either pairs of single or double quotes. Subsets of strings can be
taken using the slice operator ([ ] and [:] ) with indexes starting at 0 in the beginning of the
string and working their way from -1 at the end.
The plus (+) sign is the string concatenation operator and the asterisk (*) is the repetition
operator. For example −

str = 'Hello World!'

print str # Prints complete string

print str[0] # Prints first character of the string
print str[2:5] # Prints characters starting from 3rd to 5th
print str[2:] # Prints string starting from 3rd character
print str * 2 # Prints string two times
print str + "TEST" # Prints concatenated string

3.Lists
Lists are the most versatile of Python's compound data types. A list contains items separated
by commas and enclosed within square brackets ([]). To some extent, lists are similar to arrays
in C. One difference between them is that all the items belonging to a list can be of different
data type.
The values stored in a list can be accessed using the slice operator ([ ] and [:]) with indexes
starting at 0 in the beginning of the list and working their way to end -1. The plus (+) sign is the
list concatenation operator, and the asterisk (*) is the repetition operator. For example −

list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ]

tinylist = [123, 'john']

print list # Prints complete list

print list[0] # Prints first element of the list
print list[1:3] # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print list[2:] # Prints elements starting from 3rd element
print tinylist * 2 # Prints list two times
print list + tinylist # Prints concatenated lists

4.Tuples
A tuple is another sequence data type that is similar to the list. A tuple consists of a number of
values separated by commas. Unlike lists, however, tuples are enclosed within parentheses.

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The main differences between lists and tuples are: Lists are enclosed in brackets ( [ ] ) and their
elements and size can be changed, while tuples are enclosed in parentheses ( ( ) ) and cannot
be updated. Tuples can be thought of as read-only lists. For example −
tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 )
tinytuple = (123, 'john')

print tuple # Prints complete list

print tuple[0] # Prints first element of the list
print tuple[1:3] # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print tuple[2:] # Prints elements starting from 3rd element
print tinytuple * 2 # Prints list two times
print tuple + tinytuple # Prints concatenated lists

5.Dictionary
Python's dictionaries are kind of hash table type. They work like associative arrays or hashes
found in Perl and consist of key-value pairs. A dictionary key can be almost any Python type,
but are usually numbers or strings. Values, on the other hand, can be any arbitrary Python
object.
Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({ }) and values can be assigned and accessed using
square braces ([]). For example −
dict = {}
dict['one'] = "This is one"
dict[2] = "This is two"

tinydict = {'name': 'john','code':6734, 'dept': 'sales'}

print dict['one'] # Prints value for 'one' key

print dict[2] # Prints value for 2 key
print tinydict # Prints complete dictionary
print tinydict.keys() # Prints all the keys
print tinydict.values() # Prints all the values

This produce the following result −

This is one
This is two
{'dept': 'sales', 'code': 6734, 'name': 'john'}
['dept', 'code', 'name']
['sales', 6734, 'john']

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Mutable vs Immutable Objects in Python

 Every variable in python holds an instance of an object. There are two types of objects in
python i.e. Mutable and Immutable objects.
 Whenever an object is instantiated, it is assigned a unique object id. The type of the
object is defined at the runtime and it can’t be changed afterwards. However, it’s state
can be changed if it is a mutable object.
 To summarise the difference, mutable objects can change their state or contents and
immutable objects can’t change their state or content.

 Immutable Objects : These are of in-built types like int, float, bool, string, unicode,
tuple. In simple words, an immutable object can’t be changed after it is created.

 Mutable Objects : These are of type list, dict, set . Custom classes are generally mutable.

Type Conversion in Python

Python defines type conversion functions to directly convert one data type to another which is
useful in day to day and competitive programming. The following are type conversion functions
in python.
1.int(a,base) : This function converts any data type to integer. ‘Base’ specifies the base in which
string is if data type is string.

2. float() : This function is used to convert any data type to a floating point number
Example

s = "10010"

# printing string converting to int base 2

c = int(s,2)
print ("After converting to integer base 2 : ")
print (c)

# printing string converting to float

e = float(s)
print ("After converting to float : ")
print (e)

Output:
After converting to integer base 2 : 18
After converting to float : 10010.0

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3. ord() : This function is used to convert a character to integer.

4. hex() : This function is to convert integer to hexadecimal string.
5. oct() : This function is to convert integer to octal string.

Example:

# initializing integer
s = '4'

c = ord(s)
print ("After converting character to integer : ")
print (c)

# printing integer converting to hexadecimal string

c = hex(56)
print ("After converting 56 to hexadecimal string : “)
print (c)

# printing integer converting to octal string

c = oct(56)
print ("After converting 56 to octal string : ")
print (c)

Output:
After converting character to integer : 52
After converting 56 to hexadecimal string : 0x38
After converting 56 to octal string : 0o70

6. tuple() : This function is used to convert to a tuple.

7. set() : This function returns the type after converting to set.
8. list() : This function is used to convert any data type to a list type.

Example:

# initializing string
s = 'geeks'

# printing string converting to tuple

c = tuple(s)
print ("After converting string to tuple : ")
print (c)

# printing string converting to set

c = set(s)
print ("After converting string to set : ")
print (c)

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# printing string converting to list

c = list(s)
print ("After converting string to list : ")
print (c)
Output:
After converting string to tuple : ('g', 'e', 'e', 'k', 's')
After converting string to set : {'k', 'e', 's', 'g'}
After converting string to list : ['g', 'e', 'e', 'k', 's']

9. dict() : This function is used to convert a tuple of order (key,value) into a dictionary.
10. str() : Used to convert integer into a string.
11. complex(real,imag) : : This function converts real numbers to complex(real,imag) number.
Example

# initializing integers
a =1
b =2

# initializing tuple
tup = (('a', 1) ,('f', 2), ('g', 3))

# printing integer converting to complex number

c = complex(1,2)
print ("After converting integer to complex number : ")
print (c)

# printing integer converting to string

c = str(a)
print ("After converting integer to string : ")
print (c)

# printing tuple converting to expression dictionary

c = dict(tup)
print ("After converting tuple to dictionary : ")
print (c)
Output:
After converting integer to complex number : (1+2j)
After converting integer to string : 1
After converting tuple to dictionary : {'a': 1, 'f': 2, 'g': 3}

12. chr(number) : : This function converts number to its corresponding ASCII character.
Example:

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# Convert ASCII value to characters

a = chr(76)
b = chr(77)

print(a)
print(b)
Output:
L
M

Selection sort in Python

In the selection sort algorithm, an array is sorted by recursively finding the minimum element
from the unsorted part and inserting it at the beginning. Two subarrays are formed during the
execution of Selection sort on a given array.

 The subarray, which is already sorted

 The subarray, which is unsorted.
During every iteration of selection sort, the minimum element from the unsorted subarray is
popped and inserted into the sorted subarray.

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A = ['t','u','t','o','r','i','a','l']

for i in range(len(A)):

min_= i

for j in range(i+1, len(A)):

if A[min_] > A[j]:

min_ = j

#swap

A[i], A[min_] = A[min_], A[i]

# main

for i in range(len(A)):

print(A[i])

Output
a
i
l
o
r
t
t
u

Insertion Sort in Python

 Iterate over the input elements by growing the sorted array at each iteration.
 Compare the current element with the largest value available in the sorted array.
 If the current element is greater, then it leaves the element in its place and moves on to
the next element else it finds its correct position in the sorted array and moves it to that
position in the array.
 This is achieved by shifting all the elements towards the right, which are larger than the
current element, in the sorted array to one position ahead.
Now let’s see the visual representation of the algorithm

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def insertionSort(arr):

for i in range(1, len(arr)):

key = arr[i]

# Move elements of arr[0..i-1], that are greater

than key,

# to one position ahead of their current position

j = i-1

while j >=0 and key < arr[j] :

arr[j+1] = arr[j]

j -= 1

arr[j+1] = key

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# main

arr = ['t','u','t','o','r','i','a','l']

insertionSort(arr)

print ("The sorted array is:")

for i in range(len(arr)):

print (arr[i])

Output
The sorted array is:
a
i
l
o
r
t
t
u

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Bubble Sort in Python

Step0: Starting from the first index, compare the first and the second elements.If the first
element is greater than the second element, they are swapped.
Now, compare the second and the third elements. Swap them if they are not in order.

The above process goes on until the last element.

Compare the adjacent elements

Step1:
The same process goes on for the remaining iterations. After each iteration, the largest element
among the unsorted elements is placed at the end.
In each iteration, the comparison takes place up to the last unsorted element.

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The array is sorted when all the unsorted elements are placed at their correct positions.

Compare the adjacent elements

Compare the adjacent Elements

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Compare the adjacent elements

def bubbleSort(array):

# run loops two times: one for walking throught the array
# and the other for comparison
for i in range(len(array)):
for j in range(0, len(array) - i - 1):

# To sort in descending order, change > to < in this line.

if array[j] > array[j + 1]:

# swap if greater is at the rear position

(array[j], array[j + 1]) = (array[j + 1], array[j])

data = [-2, 45, 0, 11, -9]

bubbleSort(data)
print('Sorted Array in Asc ending Order:')
print(data)

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MODULE 2

Module II: Decision Making -conditional (if), alternative (if-else), if..elif..else -nested if - Loops for,range()
while, break, continue, pass; Functions: return values, parameters, local and global scope, function
composition, recursion; Strings: string slices, immutability, string functions and methods, string module;
Lists as arrays. Illustrative programs: square root, gcd, exponentiation, sum of an array of numbers,
linear search, binary search, bubble sort, insertion sort, selection sort

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Decision Making in Python

Decisions in a program are used when the program has conditional choices to execute a code
block. It is the prediction of conditions that occur while executing a program to specify actions.
Multiple expressions get evaluated with an outcome of either TRUE or FALSE.
Python provides various types of conditional statements:
1. if Statement
2. if_else Statement
3. elif Statement

1.if Statements
It consists of a Boolean expression which results are either TRUE or FALSE, followed by one or more
statements.

Synatx:
if expression:
#execute your code
Example:
a = 15
if a > 10:
print("a is greater")
Output:
a is greater

2.if else Statements

It also contains a Boolean expression. The if the statement is followed by an optional else statement & if
the expression results in FALSE, then else statement gets executed. It is also called alternative execution
in which there are two possibilities of the condition determined in which any one of them will get
executed.

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Synatx:
if expression:
#execute your code
else:
#execute your code
Example:
a = 15
b = 20
if a > b:
print("a is greater")
else:
print("b is greater")
Output:
b is greater

3.elif Statements
 We can implement if statement and or if-else statement inside another if or if - else statement.
Here more than one if conditions are applied & there can be more than one if within elif.
 elif - is a keyword used in Python replacement of else if to place another condition in the
program. This is called chained conditional.

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Example:
if expression:
#execute your code
elif expression:
#execute your code
else:
#execute your code
Example:
a = 15
b = 15
if a > b:
print("a is greater")
elif a == b:
print("both are equal")
else:
print("b is greater")
Output:
both are equal

looping in Python
 In general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a function is
executed first, followed by the second, and so on. There may be a situation when you
need to execute a block of code several number of times.
 Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more
complicated execution paths.A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or
group of statements multiple times.
 Python programming language provides following types of loops to handle looping
requirements.

Sr.No. Loop Type & Description

1 while loop : Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is TRUE. It tests
the condition before executing the loop body.

2 for loop :-Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that
manages the loop variable.

3 nested loops

You can use one or more loop inside any another while, for or do..while loop.

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1.While Loop
 A while loop statement in Python programming language repeatedly executes a target
statement as long as a given condition is true.
 Here, statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements.
The condition may be any expression, and true is any non-zero value. The loop iterates
while the condition is true.
 When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately
following the loop.

Synatx:
while expression:
#execute your code
Example:
count =1
while count < 6 :
print (count)
count+=1
Output:
1
2
3
4
5

2.for loop
It has the ability to iterate over the items of any sequence, such as a list or a string.

Syntax

for iterating_var in sequence:

statements(s)

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If a sequence contains an expression list, it is evaluated first. Then, the first item in the
sequence is assigned to the iterating variable iterating_var. Next, the statements block is
executed. Each item in the list is assigned to iterating_var, and the statement(s) block is
executed until the entire sequence is exhausted.
Example :
for x in range (0,3) :
print (x)
Output:
0
1
2

3.Nested Loop

Python programming language allows to use one loop inside another loop. Following section
shows few examples to illustrate the concept.

Syntax of nested for loop

for iterating_var in sequence:
for iterating_var in sequence:
statements(s)
statements(s)
The syntax for a nested while loop
while expression:
while expression:
statement(s)
statement(s)

Example:
for g in range(1, 6):
for k in range(1, 3):
print ("%d * %d = %d" % ( g, k, g*k))
Output:
1*1=1
1*2=2
2*1=2
2*2=4
3*1=3
3*2=6
4*1=4
4*2=8
5*1=5
5 * 2 = 10

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Loop control Statements in Python

 These statements are used to change execution from its normal sequence.
 Python supports three types of loop control statements:

1.Break statement:-It is used to exit a while loop or a for a loop. It terminates the looping & transfers execution to
the statement next to the loop.

Sytanx:
break

Example:
i = 0
while i <= 10:
print (i)
i++
if i == 3:
break
Output:
0
1
2

2.Continue statement:- It causes the looping to skip the rest part of its body & start re-testing its condition.
The continue statement in Python returns the control to the beginning of the current loop. When
encountered, the loop starts next iteration without executing the remaining statements in the current
iteration.

Sytanx:
continue

Example:
i = 0
while i <= 10:
print (i)
i++
if i == 3:
continue
Output:
0
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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3.Pass statement:-
It is used in Python to when a statement is required syntactically, and the programmer does not want
to execute any code block or command.
It is used when a statement is required syntactically but you do not want any command or
code to execute.
The pass statement is a null operation; nothing happens when it executes. The pass statement
is also useful in places where your code will eventually go, but has not been written yet i.e. in
stubs.
Syntax:
pass

Example
for i in 'Python':
if i == 'h':
pass
print ('This is pass block')
print ('Current Letter :', i)

print ("Good bye!")

Output
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
Current Letter : P
Current Letter : y
Current Letter : t
This is pass block
Current Letter : h
Current Letter : o
Current Letter : n
Good bye!

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Python functions

A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single, related action.
Functions provide better modularity for your application and a high degree of code reusing.
You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple rules to define a
function in Python.
 Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function name and parentheses.
 Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses.
 The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented.
 The statement return [expression] exits a function
 . A return statement with no arguments is the same as return None.

Syntax
def functionname( parameters ):
“function body”
return [expression]
By default, parameters have a positional behavior and you need to inform them in the same order that
they were defined.

Example
The following function takes a string as input parameter and prints it on standard screen.

def printme( str ):

print str
return

Calling a Function
Defining a function only gives it a name, specifies the parameters that are to be included in the
function and structures the blocks of code.
Once the basic structure of a function is finalized, you can execute it by calling it from another function
or directly from the Python prompt. Following is the example to call printme() function −

def printme(a):
print a
return;

# Now you can call printme function

printme(21)
printme(‘x’)
printme(“hai”

Output: 21 x hai

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The return Statement

The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an expression to
the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return None.
All the above examples are not returning any value. You can return a value from a function as
follows −
# Function definition is here
def sum( a, b):
# Add both the parameters and return them."
total = a + b
print "Inside the function : ", total
return total;

# Now you can call sum function

total = sum( 10, 20 );
print "Outside the function : ", total

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Inside the function : 30
Outside the function : 30

Scope of Variables
All variables in a program may not be accessible at all locations in that program. This depends
on where you have declared a variable.
The scope of a variable determines the portion of the program where you can access a
particular variable. There are two basic scopes of variables in Python −

 Global variables
 Local variables

Global vs. Local variables

Variables that are defined inside a function body have a local scope, and those defined outside
have a global scope.
This means that local variables can be accessed only inside the function in which they are
declared, whereas global variables can be accessed throughout the program body by all
functions. When you call a function, the variables declared inside it are brought into scope.
Following is a simple example –

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total = 0; # This is global variable.

# Function definition is here
def sum( a, b ):
# Add both the parameters and return them."
total = a + b; # Here total is local variable.
print "Inside the function local total : ", total
return total;

# Now you can call sum function

sum( 10, 20 );
print "Outside the function global total : ", total

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Inside the function local total : 30
Outside the function global total : 0

Parameters in Python Functions

Paremeters are also known as arguments,they are values passed to the fuctions.You can call a function
by using the following types of formal arguments −

1. Required arguments
2. Keyword arguments
3. Default arguments
4. Variable-length arguments

1.Required arguments
Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional order. Here, the
number of arguments in the function call should match exactly with the function definition.
To call the function printme(), you definitely need to pass one argument, otherwise it gives a syntax
error as follows −

# Function definition is here

def printme( a ):
print(a)
return;

# Now you can call printme function

printme()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 11, in <module>
printme();
TypeError: printme() takes exactly 1 argument (0 given)

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2.Keyword arguments
Keyword arguments are related to the function calls. When you use keyword arguments in a
function call, the caller identifies the arguments by the parameter name.
This allows you to skip arguments or place them out of order because the Python interpreter is
able to use the keywords provided to match the values with parameters. You can also make
keyword calls to the printinfo() function in the following ways −

# Function definition is here

def printinfo( name, age ):
print "Name: ", name
print "Age: ", age
return;

# Now you can call printinfo function

printinfo( age=50, name="lal" )
Output:
Name: lal
Age: 50

2.Default arguments
A default argument is an argument that assumes a default value if a value is not provided in the
function call for that argument. The following example gives an idea on default arguments, it prints
default age if it is not passed −

# Function definition is here

def printinfo( name, age = 35 ):
"This prints a passed info into this function"
print "Name: ", name
print "Age ", age
return;

# Now you can call printinfo function

printinfo( age=50, name="lal" )
printinfo( name="lal" )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
Name: lal
Age 50
Name: lal
Age 35

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4.Variable-length arguments
You may need to process a function for more arguments than you specified while defining the
function. These arguments are called variable-length arguments and are not named in the
function definition, unlike required and default arguments.
Syntax for a function with non-keyword variable arguments is this −
def functionname([formal_args,] *var_args_tuple ):
example:
def printinfo(a,*var_argument)
An asterisk (*) is placed before the variable name that holds the values of all
nonkeyword variable arguments. This tuple remains empty if no additional arguments
are specified during the function call. Following is a simple example −
def printinfo( arg1, *vartuple ):
print "Output is: "
print arg1
for var in vartuple:
print var
return;

# Now you can call printinfo function

printinfo( 10 )
printinfo( 70, 60, 50 )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
Output is:
10
Output is:
70
60
50

Anonymous Functions
These functions are called anonymous because they are not declared in the standard manner
by using the def keyword. You can use the lambda keyword to create small anonymous
functions.
 Lambda forms can take any number of arguments but return just one value in the form
of an expression. They cannot contain commands or multiple expressions.
 An anonymous function cannot be a direct call to print because lambda requires an
expression
 Lambda functions have their own local namespace and cannot access variables other
than those in their parameter list and those in the global namespace.

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 Although it appears that lambda's are a one-line version of a function, they are not
equivalent to inline statements in C or C++, whose purpose is by passing function stack
allocation during invocation for performance reasons.

Syntax
The syntax of lambda functions contains only a single statement, which is as follows −
lambda [arg1 [,arg2,.....argn]]:expression
Following is the example to show how lambda form of function works −

# Function definition is here

sum = lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 + arg2;

# Now you can call sum as a function

print "Value of total : ", sum( 10, 20 )
print "Value of total : ", sum( 20, 20 )
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
Value of total : 30
Value of total : 40

Recursion in Python
 Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call itself.
 Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that a function calls
itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through data to reach a result.
 In this example, fact() is a function that we have defined to call itself ("recurse"). The
factorial of a number is the product of all the integers from 1 to that number.
 For example, the factorial of 6 is 1*2*3*4*5*6 = 720. Factorial is not defined for negative
numbers and the factorial of zero is one, 0! = 1.

def fact (x):

if x == 1:
return 1
else:
return (x * fact (x-1))

num = 3
print("The factorial of", num, "is", fact (num))

Output

The factorial of 3 is 6

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String in Python

 A string is a sequence of characters.

 A character is simply a symbol. For example, the English language has 26 characters.
 Strings are amongst the most popular types in Python. We can create them simply by enclosing
characters in quotes. Python treats single quotes the same as double quotes. Creating strings is
as simple as assigning a value to a variable.
 For example –
var1 = 'Hello World!'
var2 = "Python Programming"

Accessing Values in Strings

Python does not support a character type; these are treated as strings of length one, thus also
considered a substring.
To access substrings, use the square brackets for slicing along with the index or indices to obtain your
substring.
For example −

var1 = 'Hello World!'

var2 = "Python Programming"

print "var1[0]: ", var1[0]

print "var2[1:5]: ", var2[1:5]

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

var1[0]: H
var2[1:5]: ytho
Multiline Strings

You can assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes:

Example

You can use three double quotes:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

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String Slicing in Python

Python slicing is about obtaining a sub-string from the given string by slicing it respectively
from start to end.Python slicing can be done in two ways.
1. slice() Constructor
2. Extending Indexing

1.slice() Constructor :The slice() constructor creates a slice object representing the set of indices
specified by range(start, stop, step).

Syntax:
 slice(stop)
 slice(start, stop, step)

Parameters:
start: Starting index where the slicing of object starts.
stop: Ending index where the slicing of object stops.
step: It is an optional argument that determines the increment between each index for slicing.

Example:

String ='ASTRING'
s1 = slice(3)
s2 = slice(1, 5)
s3 = slice(-1, -7, -3)

print("String slicing")
print(String[s1])
print(String[s2])
print(String[s3])

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Output:
String slicing
AST
STRI
GR

2.Extending indexing

In Python, indexing syntax can be used as a substitute for the slice object. This is an easy and
convenient way to slice a string both syntax wise and execution wise.
Syntax
string[start:end:step]
start, end and step have the same mechanism as slice() constructor.

Example
String ='ASTRING'

# Using indexing sequence

print(String[:3])

print(String[1:5:2])

print(String[-1:-12:-2])

# Prints string in reverse

print("\nReverse String")

print(String[::-1])

Output:

AST
SR
GITA
Reverse String
GNIRTSA

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String Immutability

In python, the string data types are immutable. Which means a string value cannot be updated.
We can verify this by trying to update a part of the string which will led us to an error.
Example
t= "Tutorialspoint"
print type(t)
t[0] = "M"
When we run the above program, we get the following output –

t[0] = "M"
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment
String Functions in Python
Python provides lots of built-in methods which we can use on strings.Below are the list of string
methods available in Python 3.

Method Description Examples

Returns a copy of the string with its >>> mystring = "hello python"
capitalize() first character capitalized and the rest >>> print(mystring.capitalize())
lowercased. Hello python

Returns a casefolded copy of the string. >>> mystring = "hello PYTHON"

Casefold() Casefolded strings may be used for >>> print(mystring.casefold())
caseless matching. hello python

>>> mystring = "Hello"

Center(width, Returns the string centered in a string
>>> x = mystring.center(12,"-")
[fillchar]) of length width. >>> print(x)
---Hello----

Returns the number of non- >>> mystr = "Hello Python"

Count(sub, [start], overlapping occurrences of substring >>> print(mystr.count("o"))
[end]) (sub) in the range [start, end]. Optional 2
>>> print(mystr.count("th"))
arguments startand end are
1

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interpreted as in slice notation. >>> print(mystr.count("l"))

2
>>> print(mystr.count("h"))
1
>>> print(mystr.count("H"))
1
>>> print(mystr.count("hH"))
0

Returns True if the string ends with the >>> mystr = "Python"
endswith(suffix, >>>print(mystr.endswith("y"))
specified suffix, otherwise it returns
[start], [end]) False
False. >>>print(mystr.endswith("hon"))
True

Returns the lowest index in the string >>> mystring = "Python"

Find(sub, [start], >>>print(mystring.find("P"))
where substring sub is found within the
[end]) 0
slice s[start:end]. >>>print(mystring.find("on"))
4

>>> mystr = "HelloPython"

Searches the string for a specified >>> print(mystr.index("P"))
Index(sub, [start], 5
value and returns the position of
[end]) >>>print(mystr.index("hon"))
where it was found 8
>>> print(mystr.index("o"))
4

>>> mystr = "HelloPython"

>>> print(mystr.isalnum())
True
Returns True if all characters in the >>> a = "123"
isalnum
string are alphanumeric >>> print(a.isalnum())
True
>>> a= "$*%!!!"
>>> print(a.isalnum())
False

Returns True if all characters in the >>> mystr = "HelloPython"

Isalpha() >>> print(mystr.isalpha())
string are in the alphabet
True
>>> a = "123"

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>>> print(a.isalpha())
False
>>> a= "$*%!!!"
>>> print(a.isalpha())
False

>>> mystr = "HelloPython"

>>> print(mystr.isdecimal())
False
>>> a="1.23"
>>> print(a.isdecimal())
Returns True if all characters in the
Isdecimal() False
string are decimals >>> c = u"\u00B2"
>>> print(c.isdecimal())
False
>>> c="133"
>>> print(c.isdecimal())
True

>>> c="133"
>>> print(c.isdigit())
True
Returns True if all characters in the >>> c = u"\u00B2"
Isdigit()
string are digits >>> print(c.isdigit())
True
>>> a="1.23"
>>> print(a.isdigit())
False

>>> c="Python"
>>> print(c.islower())
False
Returns True if all characters in the
Islower() >>> c="_user_123"
string are lower case >>> print(c.islower())
True
>>> print(c.islower())
False

>>> c="133"
Returns True if all characters in the >>> print(c.isnumeric())
Isnumeric() True
string are numeric
>>> c="_user_123"
>>> print(c.isnumeric())
False

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>>> c="Python"
>>> print(c.isnumeric())
False

>>> c="133"
>>> print(c.isprintable())
True
Returns True if all characters in the >>> c="_user_123"
isprintable()
string are printable >>> print(c.isprintable())
True
>>> c="\t"
>>> print(c.isprintable())
False

>>> c="133"
>>> print(c.isspace())
False
>>> c="Hello Python"
>>> print(c.isspace())
Returns True if all characters in the False
isspace()
string are whitespaces 73
>>> c="Hello"
>>> print(c.isspace())
False
>>> c="\t"
>>> print(c.isspace())
True

>>> c="Python"
>>> print(c.isupper())
False
Returns True if all characters in the >>> c="PYHTON"
isupper()
string are upper case >>> print(c.isupper())
True
>>> c="\t"
>>> print(c.isupper())
False

>>> a ="-"
Joins the elements of an iterable to the >>> print(a.join("123"))
join(iterable) 1-2-3
end of the string
>>> a="Hello Python"
>>> a="**"
>>> print(a.join("Hello

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Python"))
H**e**l**l**o**
**P**y**t**h**o**n

>>> a = "Python"
lower() Converts a string into lower case
>>> print(a.lower())
Python

>>> mystr = "Hello Python.Hello Java. Hello

replace(old, new[,c Returns a string where a specified C++."
ount]) value is replaced with a specified value >>>print(mystr.replace("Hello","Bye"))
Bye Python. Bye Java. ByeC++.

Swaps cases, lower case becomes >>> mystr = "Hello PYthon"

swapcase()
upper case and vice versa >>> print(mystr.swapcase())
hELLO python

>>> mystr = "Hello PYthon"

>>> print(mystr.title())
Converts the first character of each
title() Hello Python
word to upper case >>> mystr = "HELLO JAVA"
>>> print(mystr.title())
Hello Java

>>> mystr = "hello Python"

upper() Converts a string into upper case
>>> print(mystr.upper())
HELLO PYTHON

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String Module
 The string module provides additional tools to manipulate strings.
 It’s a built-in module and we have to import it before using any of its constants and classes.
 Python String Module Classes-Python string module contains two classes –
1. Formatter
2. Template.

1.Formatter
It behaves exactly same as str.format() function. This class become useful if you want to subclass it and
define your own format string syntax

Example:

from string import Formatter

formatter = Formatter()
print(formatter.format('{website}', website='JournalDev'))
print(formatter.format('{} {website}', 'Welcome to', website='JournalDev'))

# format() behaves in similar manner

print('{} {website}'.format('Welcome to', website='JournalDev'))
Output:
Welcome to JournalDev
Welcome to JournalDev
2.Template
This class is used to create a string template for simpler string substitutions as described in PEP 292. It’s
useful in implementing internationalization (i18n) in an application where we don’t need complex
formatting rules.

Example:

from string import Template

t = Template('$name is the $title of $company')
s = t.substitute(name='Pankaj', title='Founder', company='JournalDev.')
print(s)
Output: Pankaj is the Founder of JournalDev.

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List as Arrays
 During programming, there will be instances when you will need to convert existing lists to
arrays in order to perform certain operations on them (arrays enable mathematical operations
to be performed on them in ways that lists do not).

 In Python programming, a list is created by placing all the items (elements) inside square
brackets [], separated by commas.

 It can have any number of items and they may be of different types (integer, float, string etc.).
 Lists can be converted to arrays using the built-in functions in the Python numpy library.

 numpy provides us with two functions to use when converting a list into an array:

1. numpy.array()
2. numpy.asarray()

1. Using numpy.array()

This function of the numpy library takes a list as an argument and returns an array that contains all the
elements of the list. See the example below:

Example:
import numpy as np
my_list = [2,4,6,8,10]
my_array = np.array(my_list)
# printing my_array
print my_array
# printing the type of my_array
print type(my_array)
Output:
[ 2 4 6 8 10]
<type 'numpy.ndarray'>

2. Using numpy.asarray()

This function calls the numpy.array() function inside itself. See the definition below

import numpy as np
my_list = [2,4,6,8,10]
my_array = np.asarray(my_list)
# printing my_array
print my_array
# printing the type of my_array
print type(my_array)

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Output:
[ 2 4 6 8 10]
<type 'numpy.ndarray'>

The main difference between np.array() and np.asarray() is that the copy flag is false in the case
of np.asarray(), and true (by default) in the case of np.array().

Illustrative Programs:
1.Python program to find square root of a number
Python number method sqrt() returns the square root of x for x > 0.
import math # This will import math module
a=100
b=7
c=81
print "Square root of a is : ", math.sqrt(a)
print " Square root of b is ", math.sqrt(b)
print " Square root of c is ", math.sqrt(c)

Output
Square root of a is 10
Square root of b is 2.645
Square root of c is 9
Python program to find gsd of two numbers

2.Python program to find gcd of two numbers

Greatest common divisor or gcd is a mathematical expression to find the highest number which can
divide both the numbers whose gcd has to be found with the resulting remainder as zero. It has many
mathematical applications. Python has a inbuilt gcd function in the math module which can be used for
this purpose.
gcd():-It accepts two integers as parameter and returns the integer which is the gcd value.
Syntax

Syntax: gcd(x,y)

Where x and y are positive integers.

Example of gcd()
In the below example we print the result of gcd of a pair of integers.

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import math

print ("GCD of 75 and 30 is ",math.gcd(75, 30))

print ("GCD of 0 and 12 is ",math.gcd(0, 12))

print ("GCD of 0 and 0 is ",math.gcd(0, 0))

print ("GCD of -24 and -18 is ",math.gcd(-24, -18))

Output
Running the above code gives us the following result −

GCD of 75 and 30 is 15
GCD of 0 and 12 is 12
GCD of 0 and 0 is 0
GCD of -24 and -18 is 6

3.Python program for exponentiation

a= 3
b= 4
print "Exponential Value is: ", pow(a, b)

output:
Exponential value is 81

4.Python program to find sum of elements in an array

arr = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];

sum = 0;
for i in range(0, len(arr)):
sum = sum + arr[i];
print("Sum of all the elements of an array: " + str(sum));

output

Sum of all the elements of an array: 15

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5.Python program to perform linear search

Algorithm
 Start from the leftmost element of given arr[] and one by one compare element x with each
element of arr[]
 If x matches with any of the element, return the index value.
 If x doesn’t match with any of elements in arr[] , return -1 or element not found.
Now let’s see the visual representation of the given approach −

def linearsearch(arr, x):

for i in range(len(arr)):

if arr[i] == x:

return i

return -1

arr = ['t','u','t','o','r','i','a','l']

x = 'a'

print("element found at index "+str(linearsearch(arr,x)))

Here we linearly scan the list with the help of for loop.
Output
element found at index 6

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6.Python program to perform binary search

Problem statement − We will be given a sorted list and we need to find an element with the help of a
binary search.
Algorithm
 Compare x with the middle element.
 If x matches with the middle element, we return the mid index.
 Else If x is greater than the mid element, then x can only lie in right half subarray after the mid
element. So we recur for the right half.
 Else (x is smaller) recur for the left half
Recursive Algorithm
Example
def binarySearchAppr (arr, start, end, x):
# check condition
if end >= start:
mid = start + (end- start)//2
# If element is present at the middle
if arr[mid] == x:
return mid
# If element is smaller than mid
elif arr[mid] > x:
return binarySearchAppr(arr, start, mid-1, x)
# Else the element greator than mid
else:
return binarySearchAppr(arr, mid+1, end, x)
else:
# Element is not found in the array
return -1
arr = sorted(['t','u','t','o','r','i','a','l'])
x ='r'
result = binarySearchAppr(arr, 0, len(arr)-1, x)
if result != -1:
print ("Element is present at index "+str(result))
else:
print ("Element is not present in array")

Output: Element is present at index 4

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MODULE 3

Module III: Built-in Modules - Creating Modules - Import statement - Locating modules - Namespaces
and Scope - The dir() function - The reload function - Packages in PythonFiles and exception: text files,
reading and writing files Renaming and Deleting files Exception handling exceptions, Exception with
arguments, Raising an Exception - User defined Exceptions - Assertions in python

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Built-in Modules in Python

 The Python interpreter has a number of built-in functions. They are loaded automatically as the
interpreter starts and are always available.
 For example, print() and input() for I/O, number conversion functions int(), float(), complex(),
data type conversions list(), tuple(), set(), etc.
 In addition to built-in functions, a large number of pre-defined functions are also available as a
part of libraries bundled with Python distributions. These functions are defined in modules. A
module is a file containing definitions of functions, classes, variables, constants or any other
Python objects. Contents of this file can be made available to any other program.

Creating Modules
A module allows you to logically organize your Python code. Grouping related code into a module
makes the code easier to understand and use. A module is a Python object with arbitrarily named
attributes that you can bind and reference.
Simply, a module is a file consisting of Python code. A module can define functions, classes and
variables. A module can also include runnable code.

Example: Here's an example of a simple module, support.py

def print_func( par ):
print "Hello : ", par
return

import Statement
 We can use any Python source file as a module by executing an import statement in some other
Python source file.
 The import has the following syntax −
import module_name
 When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports the module if the module is
present in the search path. A search path is a list of directories that the interpreter searches
before importing a module.
 For example, to import the module support.py, you need to put the following command at the
top of the script −

import support
support.print_func("Zara")
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
Hello : Zara
A module is loaded only once, regardless of the number of times it is imported. This prevents the
module execution from happening over and over again if multiple imports occur.

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from...import Statement
 Python's from statement lets you import specific attributes from a module into the
current namespace.
 The from...import has the following syntax −
from module_name import name1
For example, to import the function fibonacci from the module fib, use the following statement −
from fib import fibonacci
This statement does not import the entire module fib into the current namespace; it just introduces
the item fibonacci from the module fib into the global symbol table of the importing module.

from...import * Statement
 It is also possible to import all names from a module into the current namespace by using the
following import statement −
from modname import *
 This provides an easy way to import all the items from a module into the current namespace.

Locating Modules
When you import a module, the Python interpreter searches for the module in the following sequences
1. The current directory.
2. If the module isn't found, Python then searches each directory in the shell variable
PYTHONPATH.
3. If all else fails, Python checks the default path. On UNIX, this default path is normally
/usr/local/lib/python/.
The module search path is stored in the system module sys as the sys.path variable. The sys.path
variable contains the current directory, PYTHONPATH, and the installation-dependent default.

The PYTHONPATH Variable

The PYTHONPATH is an environment variable, consisting of a list of directories. The syntax of
PYTHONPATH is the same as that of the shell variable PATH.
Here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a Windows system −
set PYTHONPATH = c:\python20\lib;
And here is a typical PYTHONPATH from a UNIX system −
set PYTHONPATH = /usr/local/lib/python

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Namespaces and Scoping

 Variables are names (identifiers) that map to objects. A namespace is a dictionary of variable
names (keys) and their corresponding objects (values).
 A Python statement can access variables in a local namespace and in the global namespace
 Each function has its own local namespace. Class methods follow the same scoping rule as
ordinary functions.
 Python makes educated guesses on whether variables are local or global. It assumes that any
variable assigned a value in a function is local.
 Therefore, in order to assign a value to a global variable within a function, you must first use
the global statement.
 The statement global VarName tells Python that VarName is a global variable. Python stops
searching the local namespace for the variable.
 For example, we define a variable Money in the global namespace. Within the function Money,
we assign Money a value, therefore Python assumes Money as a local variable. However, we
accessed the value of the local variable Money before setting it, so an UnboundLocalError is the
result. Uncommenting the global statement fixes the problem.

Money = 2000
def AddMoney():
Money = Money + 1
Print(“Value of money in function”+ Money)
AddMoney()
Print(“value of money outside the function”+Money)

Output
Value of money in function 2001
Value of money outside the function 2000

The dir( ) Function

The dir() built-in function returns a sorted list of strings containing the names defined by a module.
The list contains the names of all the modules, variables and functions that are defined in a module.
Following is a simple example −

import math

content = dir(math)
print content

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

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['__doc__', '__file__', '__name__', 'acos', 'asin', 'atan',

'atan2', 'ceil', 'cos', 'cosh', 'degrees', 'e', 'exp',
'fabs', 'floor', 'fmod', 'frexp', 'hypot', 'ldexp', 'log',
'log10', 'modf', 'pi', 'pow', 'radians', 'sin', 'sinh',
'sqrt', 'tan', 'tanh']

The reload() Function

When the module is imported into a script, the code in the top-level portion of a module is executed
only once.
Therefore, if you want to reexecute the top-level code in a module, you can use the reload() function.
The reload() function imports a previously imported module again. The syntax of the reload() function
is this −
reload(module_name)
Here, module_name is the name of the module you want to reload and not the string containing the
module name. For example, to reload hello module, do the following −
reload(hello)
Packages in Python
 A package is basically a directory with Python files and a file with the name init.py. This means
that every directory inside of the Python path, which contains a file named init.py, will be
treated as a package by Python. It's possible to put several modules into a Package.
 A package is a hierarchical file directory structure that defines a single Python application
environment that consists of modules and subpackages and sub-subpackages, and so on.
 Packages are a way of structuring Python’s module namespace by using "dotted module
names". A.B stands for a submodule named B in a package named A. Two different packages
like P1 and P2 can both have modules with the same name, let's say A, for example. The
submodule A of the package P1 and the submodule A of the package P2 can be totally different.
A package is imported like a "normal" module.
Here we are creating two packages a.py and b.py with two functions bar() and foo() respectively.

The content of a.py:

def bar():
print("Hello, function 'bar' from module 'a' calling")

The content of b.py:

def foo():
print("Hello, function 'foo' from module 'b' calling")

Now we are importing a.py and b.py into our program from the python code simple_package and calling
functions bar() and foo() using package name
from simple_package import a, b
a.bar()
b.foo()

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Output:
Hello, function 'bar' from module 'a' calling
Hello, function 'foo' from module 'b' calling

Text Files in Python

 Text files are normal files that contain the English alphabets. We call the content present in the
files as text.
 Python supports file handling and allows users to handle files i.e., to read and write files, along
with many other file handling options, to operate on files.
File Accessing Modes
Whenever we are working with the files in Python, we have to mention the accessing mode of the file.
For example, if you want to open a file to write something in it, then it's a type of mode. Like the same
way, we have different accessing modes.
Read Only - r
In this mode, we can only read the contents of the file. If the file doesn't exist, then we will get an error.
Read and Write - r+
In this mode, we can read the contents of the file, and we can also write data to the file. If the file
doesn't exist, then we will get an error.
Write Only - w
In this mode, we can write content to the file. Data present in the file will be overridden. If the file
doesn't exist, then it will create a new file.
Append Only - a
In this mode, we can append data to the file at the end. If the file doesn't exist, then it will create a new
file.
Append and Write - a+
In this mode, we can append and write data to the file. If the file doesn't exist, then it will create a new
file.

Writing to a File
Let's see how to write data to a file.
 Open a file using the open() in w mode. If you have to read and write data using a file, then
open it in an r+ mode.
 Write the data to the file using write() or writelines() method
 Close the file.

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file = open('sample.txt', 'w')

rator as an argument
file.write("I am a Python programmer.\nI am happy.")
file.close()

Reading from a File

We have seen a method to write data to a file. Let's examine how to read the data which we have
written to the file.
 Open a file using the open() in r mode. If you have to read and write data using a file, then open
it in an r+ mode.
 Read data from the file using read() or readline() or readlines() methods. Store the data in a
variable.
 Display the data.
 Close the file.
We have the following code to achieve our goal.
Example
file = open('sample.txt', 'r')
is number of lines
data = file.read()
print(data)
file.close()
Output
If you run the above program, you will get the following results.

I am a Python programmer.
I am happy.

Renaming and Deleting Files in Python

Python os module provides methods that help you perform file-processing operations, such as renaming
and deleting files.
To use this module you need to import it first and then you can call any related functions.

The rename() Method

The rename() method takes two arguments, the current filename and the new filename.
Syntax
os.rename(current_file_name, new_file_name)

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Example
Following is the example to rename an existing file test1.txt −

import os

os.rename( "test1.txt", "test2.txt" )

The remove() Method

You can use the remove() method to delete files by supplying the name of the file to be deleted as the
argument.
Syntax
os.remove(file_name)

Example :Following is the example to delete an existing file test2.txt −

import os
os.remove("text2.txt")

Exception Handling in Python

 An exception is an event, which occurs during the execution of a program that disrupts the
normal flow of the program's instructions. In general, when a Python script encounters a
situation that it cannot cope with, it raises an exception. An exception is a Python object that
represents an error.

 When a Python script raises an exception, it must either handle the exception immediately
otherwise it terminates and quits.

 If you have some suspicious code that may raise an exception, you can defend your program by
placing the suspicious code in a try: block. After the try: block, include an except: statement,
followed by a block of code which handles the problem as elegantly as possible.

The keywords used to handle exception

 The try block lets you test a block of code for errors.
 The except block lets you handle the error.
 The else keyword to define a block of code to be executed if no errors were raised:
 The finally block lets you execute code, regardless of the result of the try- and except blocks

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List of Standard Exceptions −

Sr.No. Exception Name & Description

1
Exception : Base class for all exceptions

2
StopIteration :Raised when the next() method of an iterator does not point to any object.

3
SystemExit : Raised by the sys.exit() function.

4
StandardError :Base class for all built-in exceptions except StopIteration and SystemExit.

5
ArithmeticError:Base class for all errors that occur for numeric calculation.

6
OverflowError:Raised when a calculation exceeds maximum limit for a numeric type.

7
FloatingPointError Raised when a floating point calculation fails.

8
ZeroDivisionError Raised when division or modulo by zero takes place for all numeric types.

9
AssertionError Raised in case of failure of the Assert statement.

10
AttributeError Raised in case of failure of attribute reference or assignment.

11
EOFError Raised when there is no input from either the raw_input() or input() function and the end of file is
reached.

12
ImportError Raised when an import statement fails.

13
KeyboardInterrupt Raised when the user interrupts program execution, usually by pressing Ctrl+c.

14
LookupError .Base class for all lookup errors.

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15
IndexError Raised when an index is not found in a sequence.

16
KeyError Raised when the specified key is not found in the dictionary.

17
NameError Raised when an identifier is not found in the local or global namespace.

18
UnboundLocalError Raised when trying to access a local variable in a function or method but no value has
been assigned to it.

19
EnvironmentError Base class for all exceptions that occur outside the Python environment.

21
IOError
Raised for operating system-related errors.

22
SyntaxError Raised when there is an error in Python syntax.

23
IndentationError Raised when indentation is not specified properly.

24
SystemError Raised when the interpreter finds an internal problem, but when this error is encountered the
Python interpreter does not exit.

26
TypeError Raised when an operation or function is attempted that is invalid for the specified data type.

27
ValueError Raised when the built-in function for a data type has the valid type of arguments, but the
arguments have invalid values specified.

28
RuntimeError Raised when a generated error does not fall into any category.

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Syntax
Here is simple syntax of try....except...else blocks −
try:
You do your operations here;
......................
except ExceptionI:
If there is ExceptionI, then execute this block.
except ExceptionII:
If there is ExceptionII, then execute this block.
......................
else:
If there is no exception then execute this block.

Example

try:
a=int(input()
b=int(input())
div=a/b

except ArithmeticError:
print("Divistion with zero is not possible")
else:
print(div)

Output without exception:

10
2
5
Output With Exception
10
0
Division with zero is not possible

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Argument of an Exception
An exception can have an argument, which is a value that gives additional information about
the problem. The contents of the argument vary by exception. You capture an exception's
argument by supplying a variable in the except clause as follows −
try:
You do your operations here;
......................
except ExceptionType, Argument:
You can print value of Argument here...
If you write the code to handle a single exception, you can have a variable follow the name of the
exception in the except statement.

Example

Following is an example for a single exception −

def temp_convert(var):
try:
return int(var)
except ValueError, Argument:
print "The argument does not contain numbers\n", Argument

# Call above function here.

temp_convert("xyz");

This produces the following result −

The argument does not contain numbers
invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'xyz'

Raising an Exceptions
You can raise exceptions in several ways by using the raise statement. The general syntax for
the raise statement is as follows.

Syntax

raise [Exception [, args [, traceback]]]

Here, Exception is the type of exception (for example, NameError) and argument is a value for the
exception argument. The argument is optional; if not supplied, the exception argument is None.
The final argument, traceback, is also optional (and rarely used in practice), and if present, is the
traceback object used for the exception.

Example

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An exception can be a string, a class or an object. Most of the exceptions that the Python core raises
are classes, with an argument that is an instance of the class. Defining new exceptions is quite easy and
can be done as follows −

def functionName( level ):

if level < 1:
raise "Invalid level!", level
# The code below to this would not be executed
# if we raise the exception

User-Defined Exceptions
Python also allows you to create your own exceptions by deriving classes from the standard built-in
exceptions.
Here is an example related to RuntimeError. Here, a class is created that is subclassed
from RuntimeError. This is useful when you need to display more specific information when an
exception is caught.
In the try block, the user-defined exception is raised and caught in the except block. The variable e is
used to create an instance of the class Networkerror.

class Networkerror(RuntimeError):
def __init__(self, arg):
self.args = arg

So once you defined above class, you can raise the exception as follows −
try:
raise Networkerror("Bad hostname")
except Networkerror,e:
print e.args

Assertions in Python

An assertion is a sanity-check that you can turn on or turn off when you are done with your
testing of the program.
The easiest way to think of an assertion is to liken it to a raise-if statement (or to be more
accurate, a raise-if-not statement). An expression is tested, and if the result comes up false, an
exception is raised.
Assertions are carried out by the assert statement, the newest keyword to Python, introduced
in version 1.5.
Programmers often place assertions at the start of a function to check for valid input, and after
a function call to check for valid output.

The assert Statement

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When it encounters an assert statement, Python evaluates the accompanying expression,

which is hopefully true. If the expression is false, Python raises an AssertionError exception.
The syntax for assert is −
assert Expression[, Arguments]
If the assertion fails, Python uses ArgumentExpression as the argument for the AssertionError.
AssertionError exceptions can be caught and handled like any other exception using the try-
except statement, but if not handled, they will terminate the program and produce a
traceback.

Example

Here is a function that converts a temperature from degrees Kelvin to degrees Fahrenheit.
Since zero degrees Kelvin is as cold as it gets, the function bails out if it sees a negative
temperature −
def KelvinToFahrenheit(Temperature):
assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!"
return ((Temperature-273)*1.8)+32
print KelvinToFahrenheit(273)
print int(KelvinToFahrenheit(505.78))
print KelvinToFahrenheit(-5)
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −
32.0
451
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "test.py", line 9, in <module>
print KelvinToFahrenheit(-5)
File "test.py", line 4, in KelvinToFahrenheit
assert (Temperature >= 0),"Colder than absolute zero!"
AssertionError: Colder than absolute zero!

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MODULE 4
Module IV: GUI Programming- Introduction – Tkinter Widgets – Label – Message Widget – Entry Widget
– Text Widget – tk Message Box – Button Widget – Radio Button- Check Button – Listbox- Frames _
Toplevel Widgets – Menu Widget

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Python GUI

 Python offers multiple options for developing GUI (Graphical User Interface). Out of all
the GUI methods, tkinter is the most commonly used method. It is a standard Python
interface to the Tk GUI toolkit shipped with Python.
 Python with tkinter is the fastest and easiest way to create the GUI applications.
Creating a GUI using tkinter is an easy task.

To create a tkinter app:

1. Importing the module – tkinter

2. Create the main window (container)
3. Add any number of widgets to the main window
4. Apply the event Trigger on the widgets.

 Importing tkinter is same as importing any other module in the Python code
import tkinter

 There are two main methods used which the user needs to remember while creating the Python
application with GUI.

1. Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className=’Tk’, useTk=1):

 To create a main window, tkinter offers a method

‘Tk(screenName=None, baseName=None, className=’Tk’, useTk=1)’.
 To change the name of the window, you can change the className to the desired one.
The basic code used to create the main window of the application is:

m=tkinter.Tk() where m is the name of the main window object

2. mainloop():
There is a method known by the name mainloop() is used when your application is ready
to run. mainloop() is an infinite loop used to run the application, wait for an event to
occur and process the event as long as the window is not closed.

m.mainloop()

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Example
#!/usr/bin/python

import Tkinter
top = Tkinter.Tk()
# Code to add widgets will go here...
top.mainloop()
This would create a following window −

Geometry Management
All Tkinter widgets have access to specific geometry management methods, which have the
purpose of organizing widgets throughout the parent widget area. Tkinter exposes the
following geometry manager classes: pack, grid, and place.
 The pack() Method − This geometry manager organizes widgets in blocks before placing
them in the parent widget.
 The grid() Method − This geometry manager organizes widgets in a table-like structure
in the parent widget.
 The place() Method − This geometry manager organizes widgets by placing them in a
specific position in the parent widget.

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Tkinter Widgets
Tkinter provides various controls, such as buttons, labels and text boxes used in a GUI
application. These controls are commonly called widgets.

Tkinter is implemented as a Python wrapper for the Tcl Interpreter embedded within the
interpreter of Python. Tk provides the following widgets:

 button
 canvas
 combo-box
 frame
 level
 check-button
 entry
 level-frame
 menu
 list - box
 menu button
 message
 tk_optoinMenu
 progress-bar
 radio button
 scroll bar
 separator
 tree-view, and many more.

Tkinter Label
This widget implements a display box where you can place text or images. The text displayed
by this widget can be updated at any time you want.
It is also possible to underline part of the text (like to identify a keyboard shortcut) and span
the text across multiple lines

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget −

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w = Label ( master, option, ... )

Parameters
 master − This represents the parent window.
 options − Here is the list of most commonly used options for this widget. These options
can be used as key-value pairs separated by commas.Commanly used options are
height,width,font,bgcolor etc

Example
Try the following example yourself −
from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()
var = StringVar()
label = Label( root, textvariable=var)

var.set("Hey!? How are you doing?")

label.pack()
root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Python - Tkinter Message

This widget provides a multiline and noneditable object that displays texts, automatically
breaking lines and justifying their contents.
Its functionality is very similar to the one provided by the Label widget, except that it can also
automatically wrap the text, maintaining a given width or aspect ratio.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget −
w = Message ( master, option, ... )

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Example
Try the following example yourself −
from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()
var = StringVar()
label = Message( root, textvariable=var, relief=RAISED )

var.set("Hey!? How are you doing?")

label.pack()
root.mainloop()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Tkinter Entry
The Entry widget is used to accept single-line text strings from a user.
 If you want to display multiple lines of text that can be edited, then you should use
the Text widget.
 If you want to display one or more lines of text that cannot be modified by the user,
then you should use the Label widget.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget −
w = Entry( master, option, ... )

Example
Try the following example yourself −
from Tkinter import *

top = Tk()
L1 = Label(top, text="User Name")
L1.pack( side = LEFT)
E1 = Entry(top, bd =5)
E1.pack(side = RIGHT)

top.mainloop()

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Python - Tkinter Text

Text widgets provide advanced capabilities that allow you to edit a multiline text and format
the way it has to be displayed, such as changing its color and font.
You can also use elegant structures like tabs and marks to locate specific sections of the text,
and apply changes to those areas. Moreover, you can embed windows and images in the text
because this widget was designed to handle both plain and formatted text.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget −
w = Text ( master, option, ... )

Example
Try the following example yourself −
from Tkinter import *

def onclick():
pass
root = Tk()
text = Text(root)
text.insert(INSERT, "Hello.....")
text.insert(END, "Bye Bye.....")
text.pack()

text.tag_add("here", "1.0", "1.4")

text.tag_add("start", "1.8", "1.13")
text.tag_config("here", background="yellow", foreground="blue")
text.tag_config("start", background="black", foreground="green")
root.mainloop()

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Tkinter tkMessageBox
The tkMessageBox module is used to display message boxes in your applications. This module
provides a number of functions that you can use to display an appropriate message.
Some of these functions are showinfo, showwarning, showerror, askquestion, askokcancel,
askyesno, and askretryignore.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget −
tkMessageBox.FunctionName(title, message [, options])

Parameters
 FunctionName − This is the name of the appropriate message box function.
 title − This is the text to be displayed in the title bar of a message box.
 message − This is the text to be displayed as a message.
 options − options are alternative choices that you may use to tailor a standard message
box. You could use one of the following functions with dialogue box −

 showinfo()
 showwarning()
 showerror ()
 askquestion()
 askokcancel()
 askyesno ()
 askretrycancel ()

Example
Try the following example yourself −
import Tkinter
import tkMessageBox

top = Tkinter.Tk()
def hello():
tkMessageBox.showinfo("Say Hello", "Hello World")

B1 = Tkinter.Button(top, text = "Say Hello", command = hello)

B1.pack()

top.mainloop()

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Python - Tkinter Button

The Button widget is used to add buttons in a Python application. These buttons can display
text or images that convey the purpose of the buttons. You can attach a function or a method
to a button which is called automatically when you click the button.

Syntax : Here is the simple syntax to create this widget −

w = Button ( master, option=value, ... )

Example
import Tkinter
import tkMessageBox

top = Tkinter.Tk()

def helloCallBack():
tkMessageBox.showinfo( "Hello Python", "Hello World")

B = Tkinter.Button(top, text ="Hello", command = helloCallBack)

B.pack()
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

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Python - Tkinter Radiobutton

This widget implements a multiple-choice button, which is a way to offer many possible
selections to the user and lets user choose only one of them.
In order to implement this functionality, each group of radiobuttons must be associated to the
same variable and each one of the buttons must symbolize a single value. You can use the Tab
key to switch from one radionbutton to another.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget −
w = Radiobutton ( master, option, ... )

Example
from Tkinter import *

def sel():
selection = "You selected the option " + str(var.get())
label.config(text = selection)

root = Tk()
var = IntVar()
R1 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 1", variable=var, value=1,
command=sel)
R1.pack( anchor = W )

R2 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 2", variable=var, value=2,

command=sel)
R2.pack( anchor = W )

R3 = Radiobutton(root, text="Option 3", variable=var, value=3,

command=sel)
R3.pack( anchor = W)

label = Label(root)
label.pack()
root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

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Python - Tkinter Checkbutton

The Checkbutton widget is used to display a number of options to a user as toggle buttons.
The user can then select one or more options by clicking the button corresponding to each
option.
You can also display images in place of text.

Syntax
w = Checkbutton ( master, option, ... )

Example
from Tkinter import *
import tkMessageBox
import Tkinter

top = Tkinter.Tk()
CheckVar1 = IntVar()
CheckVar2 = IntVar()
C1 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Music", variable = CheckVar1, \
onvalue = 1, offvalue = 0, height=5, \
width = 20)
C2 = Checkbutton(top, text = "Video", variable = CheckVar2, \
onvalue = 1, offvalue = 0, height=5, \
width = 20)
C1.pack()
C2.pack()
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

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Tkinter Listbox
The Listbox widget is used to display a list of items from which a user can select a number of
items.

Syntax
w = Listbox ( master, option, ... )

Example
from Tkinter import *
import tkMessageBox
import Tkinter

top = Tk()

Lb1 = Listbox(top)
Lb1.insert(1, "Python")
Lb1.insert(2, "Perl")
Lb1.insert(3, "C")
Lb1.insert(4, "PHP")
Lb1.insert(5, "JSP")
Lb1.insert(6, "Ruby")

Lb1.pack()
top.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Tkinter Frame
The Frame widget is very important for the process of grouping and organizing other widgets
in a somehow friendly way. It works like a container, which is responsible for arranging the
position of other widgets.
It uses rectangular areas in the screen to organize the layout and to provide padding of these
widgets. A frame can also be used as a foundation class to implement complex widgets.

Syntax
w = Frame ( master, option, ... )

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Example
from Tkinter import *

root = Tk()
frame = Frame(root)
frame.pack()

bottomframe = Frame(root)
bottomframe.pack( side = BOTTOM )

redbutton = Button(frame, text="Red", fg="red")

redbutton.pack( side = LEFT)

greenbutton = Button(frame, text="Brown", fg="brown")

greenbutton.pack( side = LEFT )

bluebutton = Button(frame, text="Blue", fg="blue")

bluebutton.pack( side = LEFT )

blackbutton = Button(bottomframe, text="Black", fg="black")

blackbutton.pack( side = BOTTOM)

root.mainloop()
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Toplevel Widget:-Tkinter Menu

The goal of this widget is to allow us to create all kinds of menus that can be used by our
applications. The core functionality provides ways to create three menu types: pop-up,
toplevel and pull-down.
It is also possible to use other extended widgets to implement new types of menus, such as
the OptionMenu widget, which implements a special type that generates a pop-up list of items
within a selection.

Syntax
Here is the simple syntax to create this widget −
w = Menu ( master, option, ... )

Example
Try the following example yourself −

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from Tkinter import *

def donothing():
filewin = Toplevel(root)
button = Button(filewin, text="Do nothing button")
button.pack()

root = Tk()
menubar = Menu(root)
filemenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
filemenu.add_command(label="New", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Open", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Save", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Save as...", command=donothing)
filemenu.add_command(label="Close", command=donothing)

filemenu.add_separator()

filemenu.add_command(label="Exit", command=root.quit)
menubar.add_cascade(label="File", menu=filemenu)
editmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
editmenu.add_command(label="Undo", command=donothing)

editmenu.add_separator()

editmenu.add_command(label="Cut", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Copy", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Paste", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Delete", command=donothing)
editmenu.add_command(label="Select All", command=donothing)

menubar.add_cascade(label="Edit", menu=editmenu)
helpmenu = Menu(menubar, tearoff=0)
helpmenu.add_command(label="Help Index", command=donothing)
helpmenu.add_command(label="About...", command=donothing)
menubar.add_cascade(label="Help", menu=helpmenu)

root.config(menu=menubar)
root.mainloop()

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