Python Tutorial

Python tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of Python. Our Python tutorial is
designed for beginners and professionals.

Python is a simple, general purpose, high level, and object-oriented programming

language.

Python is an interpreted scripting language also. Guido Van Rossum is known as the
founder of Python programming.

Our Python tutorial includes all topics of Python Programming such as installation,
control statements, Strings, Lists, Tuples, Dictionary, Modules, Exceptions, Date and
Time, File I/O, Programs, etc. There are also given Python interview questions to help
you better understand Python Programming.

Python Introduction
Python is a general purpose, dynamic, high level, and interpreted programming
language. It supports Object Oriented programming approach to develop applications. It
is simple and easy to learn and provides lots of high-level data structures.

Python is easy to learn yet powerful and versatile scripting language, which makes it
attractive for Application Development.

Python's syntax and dynamic typing with its interpreted nature make it an ideal
language for scripting and rapid application development.

Python supports multiple programming pattern, including object-oriented, imperative,

and functional or procedural programming styles.

Python is not intended to work in a particular area, such as web programming. That is
why it is known as multipurpose programming language because it can be used with
web, enterprise, 3D CAD, etc.

We don't need to use data types to declare variable because it is dynamically typed so
we can write a=10 to assign an integer value in an integer variable.

Python makes the development and debugging fast because there is no compilation step
included in Python development, and edit-test-debug cycle is very fast.

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Python 2 vs. Python 3
In most of the programming languages, whenever a new version releases, it supports
the features and syntax of the existing version of the language, therefore, it is easier for
the projects to switch in the newer version. However, in the case of Python, the two
versions Python 2 and Python 3 are very much different from each other.

A list of differences between Python 2 and Python 3 are given below:

1. Python 2 uses print as a statement and used as print "something" to print some
string on the console. On the other hand, Python 3 uses print as a function and
used as print("something") to print something on the console.
2. Python 2 uses the function raw_input() to accept the user's input. It returns the
string representing the value, which is typed by the user. To convert it into the
integer, we need to use the int() function in Python. On the other hand, Python 3
uses input() function which automatically interpreted the type of input entered by
the user. However, we can cast this value to any type by using primitive functions
(int(), str(), etc.).
3. In Python 2, the implicit string type is ASCII, whereas, in Python 3, the implicit
string type is Unicode.
4. Python 3 doesn't contain the xrange() function of Python 2. The xrange() is the
variant of range() function which returns a xrange object that works similar to
Java iterator. The range() returns a list for example the function range(0,3)
contains 0, 1, 2.
5. There is also a small change made in Exception handling in Python 3. It defines a
keyword as which is necessary to be used. We will discuss it in Exception
handling section of Python programming tutorial.

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Python Features
Python provides lots of features that are listed below.

1) Easy to Learn and Use

Python is easy to learn and use. It is developer-friendly and high level programming
language.

2) Expressive Language

Python language is more expressive means that it is more understandable and readable.

3) Interpreted Language

Python is an interpreted language i.e. interpreter executes the code line by line at a
time. This makes debugging easy and thus suitable for beginners.

4) Cross-platform Language

Python can run equally on different platforms such as Windows, Linux, Unix and
Macintosh etc. So, we can say that Python is a portable language.

5) Free and Open Source

Python language is freely available at offical web address.The source-code is also

available. Therefore it is open source.

6) Object-Oriented Language

Python supports object oriented language and concepts of classes and objects come into
existence.

7) Extensible

It implies that other languages such as C/C++ can be used to compile the code and thus
it can be used further in our python code.

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8) Large Standard Library

Python has a large and broad library and prvides rich set of module and functions for
rapid application development.

9) GUI Programming Support

Graphical user interfaces can be developed using Python.

10) Integrated

It can be easily integrated with languages like C, C++, JAVA etc.

Python History and Versions

o Python laid its foundation in the late 1980s.
o The implementation of Python was started in the December 1989 by Guido Van
Rossum at CWI in Netherland.
o In February 1991, van Rossum published the code (labeled version 0.9.0) to
alt.sources.
o In 1994, Python 1.0 was released with new features like: lambda, map, filter, and
reduce.
o Python 2.0 added new features like: list comprehensions, garbage collection
system.
o On December 3, 2008, Python 3.0 (also called "Py3K") was released. It was
designed to rectify fundamental flaw of the language.
o ABC programming language is said to be the predecessor of Python language
which was capable of Exception Handling and interfacing with Amoeba Operating
System.
o Python is influenced by following programming languages:
o ABC language.
o Modula-3

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Python Version List
Python programming language is being updated regularly with new features and
supports. There are lots of updations in python versions, started from 1994 to current
release. A list of python versions with its released date is given below.

Python Version Released Date

Python 1.0 January 1994

Python 1.5 December 31, 1997

Python 1.6 September 5, 2000

Python 2.0 October 16, 2000

Python 2.1 April 17, 2001

Python 2.2 December 21, 2001

Python 2.3 July 29, 2003

Python 2.4 November 30, 2004

Python 2.5 September 19, 2006

Python 2.6 October 1, 2008

Python 2.7 July 3, 2010

Python 3.0 December 3, 2008

Python 3.1 June 27, 2009

Python 3.2 February 20, 2011

Python 3.3 September 29, 2012

Python 3.4 March 16, 2014

Python 3.5 September 13, 2015

Python 3.6 December 23, 2016

Python 3.7 June 27, 2018

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Python Applications
Python is known for its general purpose nature that makes it applicable in almost each
domain of software development. Python as a whole can be used in any sphere of
development.

Here, we are specifing applications areas where python can be applied.

1) Web Applications

We can use Python to develop web applications. It provides libraries to handle internet
protocols such as HTML and XML, JSON, Email processing, request, beautifulSoup,
Feedparser etc. It also provides Frameworks such as Django, Pyramid, Flask etc to
design and delelop web based applications. Some important developments are:
PythonWikiEngines, Pocoo, PythonBlogSoftware etc.

2) Desktop GUI Applications

Python provides Tk GUI library to develop user interface in python based application.
Some other useful toolkits wxWidgets, Kivy, pyqt that are useable on several platforms.
The Kivy is popular for writing multitouch applications.

3) Software Development

Python is helpful for software development process. It works as a support language and
can be used for build control and management, testing etc.

4) Scientific and Numeric

Python is popular and widely used in scientific and numeric computing. Some useful
library and package are SciPy, Pandas, IPython etc. SciPy is group of packages of
engineering, science and mathematics.

5) Business Applications

Python is used to build Bussiness applications like ERP and e-commerce systems. Tryton
is a high level application platform.

6) Console Based Application

We can use Python to develop console based applications. For example: IPython.

7) Audio or Video based Applications

Python is awesome to perform multiple tasks and can be used to develop multimedia
applications. Some of real applications are: TimPlayer, cplay etc.

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8) 3D CAD Applications

To create CAD application Fandango is a real application which provides full features of
CAD.

9) Enterprise Applications

Python can be used to create applications which can be used within an Enterprise or an
Organization. Some real time applications are: OpenErp, Tryton, Picalo etc.

10) Applications for Images

Using Python several application can be developed for image. Applications developed
are: VPython, Gogh, imgSeek etc.

There are several such applications which can be developed using Python

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How to Install Python (Environment Set-up)
In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss the installation of python on various
operating systems.

Installation on Windows
Visit the link https://www.python.org/downloads/ to download the latest release of
Python. In this process, we will install Python 3.6.7 on our Windows operating
system.

Double-click the executable file which is downloaded; the following window will open.
Select Customize installation and proceed.

The following window shows all the optional features. All the features need to be
installed and are checked by default; we need to click next to continue.

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The following window shows a list of advanced options. Check all the options which
you want to install and click next. Here, we must notice that the first check-box
(install for all users) must be checked.

Now, we are ready to install python-3.6.7. Let's install it.

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Now, try to run python on the command prompt. Type the command python in case
of python2 or python3 in case of python3. It will show an error as given in the below
image. It is because we haven't set the path.

To set the path of python, we need to the right click on "my computer" and go to
Properties → Advanced → Environment Variables.

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Add the new path variable in the user variable section.

Type PATH as the variable name and set the path to the installation directory of the
python shown in the below image.

Now, the path is set, we are ready to run python on our local system. Restart CMD,
and type python again. It will open the python interpreter shell where we can
execute the python statements.

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 Installation on Mac
To install python3 on MacOS, visit the link https://www.javatpoint.com/how-to-
install-python-on-mac and follow the instructions given in the tutorial.

Installation on CentOS
To install Python3 on CentOS, visit the link https://www.javatpoint.com/how-to-
install-python-on-centos and follow the instructions given in the tutorial.

Installation on Ubuntu
To install Python3 on Ubuntu, visit the link https://www.javatpoint.com/how-to-install-
python-in-ubuntu and follow the instructions given in the tutorial.

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Python Variables
Variable is a name which is used to refer memory location. Variable also known as
identifier and used to hold value.

In Python, we don't need to specify the type of variable because Python is a type infer
language and smart enough to get variable type.

Variable names can be a group of both letters and digits, but they have to begin with a
letter or an underscore.

It is recomended to use lowercase letters for variable name. Rahul and rahul both are
two different variables.

Identifier Naming
Variables are the example of identifiers. An Identifier is used to identify the literals used
in the program. The rules to name an identifier are given below.

o The first character of the variable must be an alphabet or underscore ( _ ).

o All the characters except the first character may be an alphabet of lower-case(a-
z), upper-case (A-Z), underscore or digit (0-9).
o Identifier name must not contain any white-space, or special character (!, @, #,
%, ^, &, *).
o Identifier name must not be similar to any keyword defined in the language.
o Identifier names are case sensitive for example my name, and MyName is not the
same.
o Examples of valid identifiers : a123, _n, n_9, etc.
o Examples of invalid identifiers: 1a, n%4, n 9, etc.

Declaring Variable and Assigning Values

Python does not bound us to declare variable before using in the application. It allows us
to create variable at required time.

We don't need to declare explicitly variable in Python. When we assign any value to the
variable that variable is declared automatically.

The equal (=) operator is used to assign value to a variable.

Eg:

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 Python Data Types
Variables can hold values of different data types. Python is a dynamically typed language
hence we need not define the type of the variable while declaring it. The interpreter
implicitly binds the value with its type.

Python enables us to check the type of the variable used in the program. Python
provides us the type() function which returns the type of the variable passed.

Consider the following example to define the values of different data types and checking
its type.

1. A=10
2. b="Hi Python"
3. c = 10.5
4. print(type(a));
5. print(type(b));
6. print(type(c));

Output:

<type 'int'>
<type 'str'>
<type 'float'>

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 Standard data types
A variable can hold different types of values. For example, a person's name must be
stored as a string whereas its id must be stored as an integer.

Python provides various standard data types that define the storage method on each of
them. The data types defined in Python are given below.

1. Numbers
2. String
3. List
4. Tuple
5. Dictionary

In this section of the tutorial, we will give a brief introduction of the above data types.
We will discuss each one of them in detail later in this tutorial.

Numbers
Number stores numeric values. Python creates Number objects when a number is
assigned to a variable. For example;

1. a = 3 , b = 5 #a and b are number objects

Python supports 4 types of numeric data.

1. int (signed integers like 10, 2, 29, etc.)

2. long (long integers used for a higher range of values like 908090800L, -
0x1929292L, etc.)
3. float (float is used to store floating point numbers like 1.9, 9.902, 15.2, etc.)
4. complex (complex numbers like 2.14j, 2.0 + 2.3j, etc.)

Python allows us to use a lower-case L to be used with long integers. However, we must
always use an upper-case L to avoid confusion.

A complex number contains an ordered pair, i.e., x + iy where x and y denote the real
and imaginary parts respectively).

String
The string can be defined as the sequence of characters represented in the quotation
marks. In python, we can use single, double, or triple quotes to define a string.

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 String handling in python is a straightforward task since there are various inbuilt
functions and operators provided.

In the case of string handling, the operator + is used to concatenate two strings as the
operation "hello"+" python" returns "hello python".

The operator * is known as repetition operator as the operation "Python " *2 returns
"Python Python ". The following example illustrates the string handling in python.

1. str1 = 'hello javatpoint' #string str1

2. str2 = ' how are you' #string str2
3. print (str1[0:2]) #printing first two character using slice operator
4. print (str1[4]) #printing 4th character of the string
5. print (str1*2) #printing the string twice
6. print (str1 + str2) #printing the concatenation of str1 and str2

Output:

he
o
hello javatpointhello javatpoint
hello javatpoint how are you

List
Lists are similar to arrays in C. However; the list can contain data of different types. The
items stored in the list are separated with a comma (,) and enclosed within square
brackets [].

We can use slice [:] operators to access the data of the list. The concatenation operator
(+) and repetition operator (*) works with the list in the same way as they were working
with the strings.

Consider the following example.

1. l = [1, "hi", "python", 2]

2. print (l[3:]);
3. print (l[0:2]);
4. print (l);
5. print (l + l);
6. print (l * 3);

Output:

[2]
[1, 'hi']
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'python', 2]

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 Tuple
A tuple is similar to the list in many ways. Like lists, tuples also contain the collection of
the items of different data types. The items of the tuple are separated with a comma (,)
and enclosed in parentheses ().

A tuple is a read-only data structure as we can't modify the size and value of the items
of a tuple.

Let's see a simple example of the tuple.

1. t = ("hi", "python", 2)
2. print (t[1:]);
3. print (t[0:1]);
4. print (t);
5. print (t + t);
6. print (t * 3);
7. print (type(t))
8. t[2] = "hi";

Output:

('python', 2)
('hi',)
('hi', 'python', 2)
('hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2)
('hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2, 'hi', 'python', 2)
<type 'tuple'>
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "main.py", line 8, in <module>
t[2] = "hi";
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

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 Dictionary
Dictionary is an ordered set of a key-value pair of items. It is like an associative array or
a hash table where each key stores a specific value. Key can hold any primitive data
type whereas value is an arbitrary Python object.

The items in the dictionary are separated with the comma and enclosed in the curly
braces {}.

Consider the following example.

1. d = {1:'Jimmy', 2:'Alex', 3:'john', 4:'mike'};

2. print("1st name is "+d[1]);
3. print("2nd name is "+ d[4]);
4. print (d);
5. print (d.keys());
6. print (d.values());

Output:

1st name is Jimmy

2nd name is mike
{1: 'Jimmy', 2: 'Alex', 3: 'john', 4: 'mike'}
[1, 2, 3, 4]
['Jimmy', 'Alex', 'john', 'mike']

Python Keywords
Python Keywords are special reserved words which convey a special meaning to the
compiler/interpreter. Each keyword have a special meaning and a specific operation.
These keywords can't be used as variable. Following is the List of Python Keywords.

True False None and as

asset def class continue break

else finally elif del except

global for if from import

raise try or return pass

nonlocal in not is lambda

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 Python Literals
Literals can be defined as a data that is given in a variable or constant.

Python support the following literals:

I. String literals:

String literals can be formed by enclosing a text in the quotes. We can use both single as
well as double quotes for a String.

Eg:

"Aman" , '12345'

Types of Strings:

There are two types of Strings supported in Python:

a).Single line String- Strings that are terminated within a single line are known as Single
line Strings.

Eg:

1. >>> text1='hello'

b).Multi line String- A piece of text that is spread along multiple lines is known as
Multiple line String.

There are two ways to create Multiline Strings:

1). Adding black slash at the end of each line.

Eg:

1. >>> text1='hello\
2. user'
3. >>> text1
4. 'hellouser'
5. >>>

2).Using triple quotation marks:-

Eg:

1. >>> str2='''''welcome
2. to
3. SSSIT'''
4. >>> print str2
5. welcome

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6. to
7. SSSIT
8. >>>

II.Numeric literals:

Numeric Literals are immutable. Numeric literals can belong to following four different
numerical types.

Int(signed Long(long float(floating Complex(complex)

integers) integers) point)

Numbers( can Integers of Real numbers In the form of a+bj

be both unlimited size with both where a forms the real
positive and followed by integer and part and b forms the
negative) with lowercase or fractional part imaginary part of
no fractional uppercase L eg: -26.2 complex number. eg:
part.eg: 100 eg: 87032845L 3.14j

III. Boolean literals:

A Boolean literal can have any of the two values: True or False.

IV. Special literals.

Python contains one special literal i.e., None.

None is used to specify to that field that is not created. It is also used for end of lists in
Python.

Eg:

1. >>> val1=10
2. >>> val2=None
3. >>> val1
4. 10
5. >>> val2
6. >>> print val2
7. None
8. >>>

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 V.Literal Collections.

Collections such as tuples, lists and Dictionary are used in Python.

List:

o List contain items of different data types. Lists are mutable i.e., modifiable.
o The values stored in List are separated by commas(,) and enclosed within a
square brackets([]). We can store different type of data in a List.
o Value stored in a List can be retrieved using the slice operator([] and [:]).
o The plus sign (+) is the list concatenation and asterisk(*) is the repetition
operator.

Eg:

1. >>> list=['aman',678,20.4,'saurav']
2. >>> list1=[456,'rahul']
3. >>> list
4. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav']
5. >>> list[1:3]
6. [678, 20.4]
7. >>> list+list1
8. ['aman', 678, 20.4, 'saurav', 456, 'rahul']
9. >>> list1*2
10. [456, 'rahul', 456, 'rahul']
11. >>>

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Python Operators
The operator can be defined as a symbol which is responsible for a particular operation
between two operands. Operators are the pillars of a program on which the logic is built
in a particular programming language. Python provides a variety of operators described
as follows.

o Arithmetic operators
o Comparison operators
o Assignment Operators
o Logical Operators
o Bitwise Operators
o Membership Operators
o Identity Operators

Arithmetic operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic operations between two operands. It
includes +(addition), - (subtraction), *(multiplication), /(divide), %(reminder), //(floor
division), and exponent (**).

Consider the following table for a detailed explanation of arithmetic operators.

Operator Description

+ (Addition) It is used to add two operands. For example, if a = 20, b = 10

=> a+b = 30

- (Subtraction) It is used to subtract the second operand from the first

operand. If the first operand is less than the second operand,
the value result negative. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a
? b = 10

/ (divide) It returns the quotient after dividing the first operand by the
second operand. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a/b = 2

* It is used to multiply one operand with the other. For example,

(Multiplication) if a = 20, b = 10 => a * b = 200

% (reminder) It returns the reminder after dividing the first operand by the
second operand. For example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a%b = 0

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 ** (Exponent) It is an exponent operator represented as it calculates the first
operand power to second operand.

// (Floor It gives the floor value of the quotient produced by dividing the
division) two operands.

Comparison operator
Comparison operators are used to comparing the value of the two operands and returns
boolean true or false accordingly. The comparison operators are described in the
following table.

Operator Description

== If the value of two operands is equal, then the condition becomes true.

!= If the value of two operands is not equal then the condition becomes
true.

<= If the first operand is less than or equal to the second operand, then the
condition becomes true.

>= If the first operand is greater than or equal to the second operand, then
the condition becomes true.

<> If the value of two operands is not equal, then the condition becomes
true.

> If the first operand is greater than the second operand, then the
condition becomes true.

< If the first operand is less than the second operand, then the condition
becomes true.

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Python assignment operators
The assignment operators are used to assign the value of the right expression to the left
operand. The assignment operators are described in the following table.

Operator Description

= It assigns the the value of the right expression to the left operand.

+= It increases the value of the left operand by the value of the right
operand and assign the modified value back to left operand. For
example, if a = 10, b = 20 => a+ = b will be equal to a = a+ b and
therefore, a = 30.

-= It decreases the value of the left operand by the value of the right
operand and assign the modified value back to left operand. For
example, if a = 20, b = 10 => a- = b will be equal to a = a- b and
therefore, a = 10.

*= It multiplies the value of the left operand by the value of the right
operand and assign the modified value back to left operand. For
example, if a = 10, b = 20 => a* = b will be equal to a = a* b and
therefore, a = 200.

%= It divides the value of the left operand by the value of the right operand
and assign the reminder back to left operand. For example, if a = 20, b
= 10 => a % = b will be equal to a = a % b and therefore, a = 0.

**= a**=b will be equal to a=a**b, for example, if a = 4, b =2, a**=b will
assign 4**2 = 16 to a.

//= A//=b will be equal to a = a// b, for example, if a = 4, b = 3, a//=b will

assign 4//3 = 1 to a.

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 Bitwise operator
The bitwise operators perform bit by bit operation on the values of the two operands.

For example,

1. if a = 7;
2. b = 6;
3. then, binary (a) = 0111
4. binary (b) = 0011
5.
6. hence, a & b = 0011
7. a | b = 0111
8. a ^ b = 0100
9. ~ a = 1000

Operator Description

& (binary If both the bits at the same place in two operands are 1, then 1 is
and) copied to the result. Otherwise, 0 is copied.

| (binary or) The resulting bit will be 0 if both the bits are zero otherwise the
resulting bit will be 1.

^ (binary The resulting bit will be 1 if both the bits are different otherwise the
xor) resulting bit will be 0.

~ (negation) It calculates the negation of each bit of the operand, i.e., if the bit is
0, the resulting bit will be 1 and vice versa.

<< (left The left operand value is moved left by the number of bits present in
shift) the right operand.

>> (right The left operand is moved right by the number of bits present in the
shift) right operand.

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Logical Operators
The logical operators are used primarily in the expression evaluation to make a decision.
Python supports the following logical operators.

Operator Description

and If both the expression are true, then the condition will be true. If a and b
are the two expressions, a → true, b → true => a and b → true.

or If one of the expressions is true, then the condition will be true. If a and
b are the two expressions, a → true, b → false => a or b → true.

not If an expression a is true then not (a) will be false and vice versa.

Membership Operators
Python membership operators are used to check the membership of value inside a data
structure. If the value is present in the data structure, then the resulting value is true
otherwise it returns false.

Operator Description

in It is evaluated to be true if the first operand is found in the second

operand (list, tuple, or dictionary).

not in It is evaluated to be true if the first operand is not found in the second
operand (list, tuple, or dictionary).

Identity Operators

Operator Description

is It is evaluated to be true if the reference present at both sides point to

the same object.

is not It is evaluated to be true if the reference present at both side do not

point to the same object.

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Operator Precedence
The precedence of the operators is important to find out since it enables us to know
which operator should be evaluated first. The precedence table of the operators in
python is given below.

Operator Description

** The exponent operator is given priority over all the others used
in the expression.

~+- The negation, unary plus and minus.

* / % // The multiplication, divide, modules, reminder, and floor division.

+- Binary plus and minus

>> << Left shift and right shift

& Binary and.

^| Binary xor and or

<= < > >= Comparison operators (less then, less then equal to, greater
then, greater then equal to).

<> == != Equality operators.

= %= /= //= -= Assignment operators

+=
*= **=

is is not Identity operators

in not in Membership operators

not or and Logical operators

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 Python Comments
Comments in Python can be used to explain any program code. It can also be used to
hide the code as well.

Comments are the most helpful stuff of any program. It enables us to understand the
way, a program works. In python, any statement written along with # symbol is known
as a comment. The interpreter does not interpret the comment.

Comment is not a part of the program, but it enhances the interactivity of the program
and makes the program readable.

Python supports two types of comments:

1) Single Line Comment:

In case user wants to specify a single line comment, then comment must start with ?#?

Eg:

1. # This is single line comment.

2. print "Hello Python"

Output:

Hello Python

2) Multi Line Comment:

Multi lined comment can be given inside triple quotes.

eg:

1. ''''' This
2. Is
3. Multipline comment'''

eg:

1. #single line comment

2. print "Hello Python"
3. '''''This is
4. multiline comment'''

Output:

Hello Python

PYTHON: 28
Python If-else statements
Decision making is the most important aspect of almost all the programming languages.
As the name implies, decision making allows us to run a particular block of code for a
particular decision. Here, the decisions are made on the validity of the particular
conditions. Condition checking is the backbone of decision making.

In python, decision making is performed by the following statements.

Statement Description

If Statement The if statement is used to test a specific condition. If the condition

is true, a block of code (if-block) will be executed.

If - else The if-else statement is similar to if statement except the fact that, it
Statement also provides the block of the code for the false case of the condition
to be checked. If the condition provided in the if statement is false,
then the else statement will be executed.

Nested if Nested if statements enable us to use if ? else statement inside an

Statement outer if statement.

Indentation in Python
For the ease of programming and to achieve simplicity, python doesn't allow the use of
parentheses for the block level code. In Python, indentation is used to declare a block. If
two statements are at the same indentation level, then they are the part of the same
block.

Generally, four spaces are given to indent the statements which are a typical amount of
indentation in python.

Indentation is the most used part of the python language since it declares the block of
code. All the statements of one block are intended at the same level indentation. We will
see how the actual indentation takes place in decision making and other stuff in python.

The if statement
The if statement is used to test a particular condition and if the condition is true, it
executes a block of code known as if-block. The condition of if statement can be any
valid logical expression which can be either evaluated to true or false.

PYTHON: 29
 The syntax of the if-statement is given below.

1. if expression:
2. statement

Example 1
1. num = int(input("enter the number?"))
2. if num%2 == 0:
3. print("Number is even")

Output:

enter the number?10

Number is even

Example 2 : Program to print the largest of the three numbers.

1. a = int(input("Enter a? "));
2. b = int(input("Enter b? "));
3. c = int(input("Enter c? "));
4. if a>b and a>c:
5. print("a is largest");
6. if b>a and b>c:
7. print("b is largest");
8. if c>a and c>b:
9. print("c is largest");

Output:

Enter a? 100
Enter b? 120
Enter c? 130
c is largest

PYTHON: 30
 The if-else statement
The if-else statement provides an else block combined with the if statement which is
executed in the false case of the condition.

If the condition is true, then the if-block is executed. Otherwise, the else-block is
executed.

The syntax of the if-else statement is given below.

1. if condition:
2. #block of statements
3. else:
4. #another block of statements (else-block)

Example 1 : Program to check whether a person is eligible to

vote or not.
1. age = int (input("Enter your age? "))
2. if age>=18:
3. print("You are eligible to vote !!");
4. else:
5. print("Sorry! you have to wait !!");

Output:

Enter your age? 90

You are eligible to vote !!

PYTHON: 31
 Example 2: Program to check whether a number is even or not.
1. num = int(input("enter the number?"))
2. if num%2 == 0:
3. print("Number is even...")
4. else:
5. print("Number is odd...")

Output:

enter the number?10

Number is even

The elif statement

The elif statement enables us to check multiple conditions and execute the specific block
of statements depending upon the true condition among them. We can have any number
of elif statements in our program depending upon our need. However, using elif is
optional.

The elif statement works like an if-else-if ladder statement in C. It must be succeeded by
an if statement.

The syntax of the elif statement is given below.

1. if expression 1:
2. # block of statements
3.
4. elif expression 2:
5. # block of statements
6.
7. elif expression 3:
8. # block of statements
9.
10. else:
11. # block of statements

PYTHON: 32
 Example 1
1. number = int(input("Enter the number?"))
2. if number==10:
3. print("number is equals to 10")
4. elif number==50:
5. print("number is equal to 50");
6. elif number==100:
7. print("number is equal to 100");
8. else:
9. print("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");

Output:

Enter the number?15

number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100

Example 2
1. marks = int(input("Enter the marks? "))
2. f marks > 85 and marks <= 100:
3. print("Congrats ! you scored grade A ...")
4. lif marks > 60 and marks <= 85:
5. print("You scored grade B + ...")
6. lif marks > 40 and marks <= 60:
7. print("You scored grade B ...")
8. lif (marks > 30 and marks <= 40):
9. print("You scored grade C ...")
10. lse:
11. print("Sorry you are fail ?")

PYTHON: 33
Python Loops
The flow of the programs written in any programming language is sequential by default.
Sometimes we may need to alter the flow of the program. The execution of a specific
code may need to be repeated several numbers of times.

For this purpose, The programming languages provide various types of loops which are
capable of repeating some specific code several numbers of times. Consider the following
diagram to understand the working of a loop statement.

Why we use loops in python?

The looping simplifies the complex problems into the easy ones. It enables us to alter
the flow of the program so that instead of writing the same code again and again, we
can repeat the same code for a finite number of times. For example, if we need to print
the first 10 natural numbers then, instead of using the print statement 10 times, we can
print inside a loop which runs up to 10 iterations.

Advantages of loops
There are the following advantages of loops in Python.

1. It provides code re-usability.

2. Using loops, we do not need to write the same code again and again.
3. Using loops, we can traverse over the elements of data structures (array or linked
lists).

There are the following loop statements in Python.

PYTHON: 34
Loop Description
Statement

for loop The for loop is used in the case where we need to execute some part
of the code until the given condition is satisfied. The for loop is also
called as a per-tested loop. It is better to use for loop if the number of
iteration is known in advance.

while loop The while loop is to be used in the scenario where we don't know the
number of iterations in advance. The block of statements is executed
in the while loop until the condition specified in the while loop is
satisfied. It is also called a pre-tested loop.

do-while The do-while loop continues until a given condition satisfies. It is also
loop called post tested loop. It is used when it is necessary to execute the
loop at least once (mostly menu driven programs).

PYTHON: 35
 Python for loop
The for loop in Python is used to iterate the statements or a part of the program
several times. It is frequently used to traverse the data structures like list, tuple, or
dictionary.

The syntax of for loop in python is given below.

1. for iterating_var in sequence:

2. statement(s)

Example
1. i=1
2. n=int(input("Enter the number up to which you want to print the natural nu
mbers?"))
3. for i in range(0,10):
4. print(i,end = ' ')

Output:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Python for loop example : printing the table of the given number
1. i=1;
2. num = int(input("Enter a number:"));
3. for i in range(1,11):
4. print("%d X %d = %d"%(num,i,num*i));

PYTHON: 36
 Output:

Enter a number:10
10 X 1 = 10
10 X 2 = 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
10 X 5 = 50
10 X 6 = 60
10 X 7 = 70
10 X 8 = 80
10 X 9 = 90
10 X 10 = 100

Nested for loop in python

Python allows us to nest any number of for loops inside a for loop. The inner loop is
executed n number of times for every iteration of the outer loop. The syntax of the
nested for loop in python is given below.

1. for iterating_var1 in sequence:

2. for iterating_var2 in sequence:
3. #block of statements
4. #Other statements

Example 1
1. n = int(input("Enter the number of rows you want to print?"))
2. i,j=0,0
3. for i in range(0,n):
4. print()
5. for j in range(0,i+1):
6. print("*",end="")

Output:

Enter the number of rows you want to print?5

*
**
***
****
*****

Using else statement with for loop

Unlike other languages like C, C++, or Java, python allows us to use the else statement
with the for loop which can be executed only when all the iterations are exhausted. Here,
we must notice that if the loop contains any of the break statement then the else
statement will not be executed.

PYTHON: 37
 Example 1
1. for i in range(0,5):
2. print(i)
3. else:print("for loop completely exhausted, since there is no break.");

In the above example, for loop is executed completely since there is no break statement
in the loop. The control comes out of the loop and hence the else block is executed.

Output:

0
1
2
3
4

for loop completely exhausted, since there is no break.

Example 2
1. for i in range(0,5):
2. print(i)
3. break;
4. else:print("forloop is exhausted");
5. print("The loop is broken due to break statement...came out of loop")

In the above example, the loop is broken due to break statement therefore the else
statement will not be executed. The statement present immediate next to else block will
be executed.

Output:

The loop is broken due to break statement...came out of loop

PYTHON: 38
 Python while loop
The while loop is also known as a pre-tested loop. In general, a while loop allows a part
of the code to be executed as long as the given condition is true.

It can be viewed as a repeating if statement. The while loop is mostly used in the case
where the number of iterations is not known in advance.

The syntax is given below.

1. while expression:
2. statements

Here, the statements can be a single statement or the group of statements. The
expression should be any valid python expression resulting into true or false. The true is
any non-zero value.

Example 1
1. i=1;
2. while i<=10:
3. print(i);
4. i=i+1;

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

PYTHON: 39
 Example 2
1. i=1
2. number=0
3. b=9
4. number = int(input("Enter the number?"))
5. while i<=10:
6. print("%d X %d = %d \n"%(number,i,number*i));
7. i = i+1;

Output:

Enter the number?10

10 X 1 = 10

10 X 2 = 20

10 X 3 = 30

10 X 4 = 40

10 X 5 = 50

10 X 6 = 60

10 X 7 = 70

10 X 8 = 80

10 X 9 = 90

10 X 10 = 100

Infinite while loop

If the condition given in the while loop never becomes false then the while loop will
never terminate and result into the infinite while loop.

Any non-zero value in the while loop indicates an always-true condition whereas 0
indicates the always-false condition. This type of approach is useful if we want our
program to run continuously in the loop without any disturbance.

Example 1
1. while (1):
2. print("Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop");

Output:

Hi! we are inside the infinite while loop(infinite times)

PYTHON: 40
 Example 2
1. var = 1
2. while var != 2:
3. i = int(input("Enter the number?"))
4. print ("Entered value is %d"%(i))

Output:

Enter the number?102

Entered value is 102
Enter the number?102
Entered value is 102
Enter the number?103
Entered value is 103
Enter the number?103
(infinite loop)

Using else with Python while loop

Python enables us to use the while loop with the while loop also. The else block is
executed when the condition given in the while statement becomes false. Like for loop, if
the while loop is broken using break statement, then the else block will not be executed
and the statement present after else block will be executed.

Consider the following example.

1. i=1;
2. while i<=5:
3. print(i)
4. i=i+1;
5. else:print("The while loop exhausted");

Output:

1
2
3
4
5
The while loop exhausted

PYTHON: 41
 Example 2
1. i=1;
2. while i<=5:
3. print(i)
4. i=i+1;
5. if(i==3):
6. break;
7. else:print("The while loop exhausted");

Output:

1
2

Python break statement

The break is a keyword in python which is used to bring the program control out of the
loop. The break statement breaks the loops one by one, i.e., in the case of nested loops,
it breaks the inner loop first and then proceeds to outer loops. In other words, we can
say that break is used to abort the current execution of the program and the control
goes to the next line after the loop.

The break is commonly used in the cases where we need to break the loop for a given
condition.

The syntax of the break is given below.

1. #loop statements
2. break;

Example 1
1. list =[1,2,3,4]
2. count = 1;
3. for i in list:
4. if i == 4:
5. print("item matched")
6. count = count + 1;
7. break
8. print("found at",count,"location");

Output:

item matched
found at 2 location

PYTHON: 42
 Example 2
1. str = "python"
2. for i in str:
3. if i == 'o':
4. break
5. print(i);

Output:

p
y
t
h

Example 3: break statement with while loop

1. i = 0;
2. while 1:
3. print(i," ",end=""),
4. i=i+1;
5. if i == 10:
6. break;
7. print("came out of while loop");

Output:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 came out of while loop

Example 3
1. n=2
2. while 1:
3. i=1;
4. while i<=10:
5. print("%d X %d = %d\n"%(n,i,n*i));
6. i = i+1;
7. choice = int(input("Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for no?"))
8. if choice == 0:
9. break;
10. n=n+1

PYTHON: 43
Output:

2 X 1 = 2

2 X 2 = 4

2 X 3 = 6

2 X 4 = 8

2 X 5 = 10

2 X 6 = 12

2 X 7 = 14

2 X 8 = 16

2 X 9 = 18

2 X 10 = 20

Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for no?1

3 X 1 = 3

3 X 2 = 6

3 X 3 = 9

3 X 4 = 12

3 X 5 = 15

3 X 6 = 18

3 X 7 = 21

3 X 8 = 24

3 X 9 = 27

3 X 10 = 30

Do you want to continue printing the table, press 0 for no?0

PYTHON: 44
 Python continue Statement
The continue statement in python is used to bring the program control to the beginning
of the loop. The continue statement skips the remaining lines of code inside the loop and
start with the next iteration. It is mainly used for a particular condition inside the loop so
that we can skip some specific code for a particular condition.

The syntax of Python continue statement is given below.

1. #loop statements
2. continue;
3. #the code to be skipped

Example 1
1. i = 0;
2. while i!=10:
3. print("%d"%i);
4. continue;
5. i=i+1;

Output:

infinite loop

Example 2
1. i=1; #initializing a local variable
2. #starting a loop from 1 to 10
3. for i in range(1,11):
4. if i==5:
5. continue;
6. print("%d"%i);

Output:

1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10

PYTHON: 45
 Pass Statement
The pass statement is a null operation since nothing happens when it is executed. It is
used in the cases where a statement is syntactically needed but we don't want to use
any executable statement at its place.

For example, it can be used while overriding a parent class method in the subclass but
don't want to give its specific implementation in the subclass.

Pass is also used where the code will be written somewhere but not yet written in the
program file.

The syntax of the pass statement is given below.

Example
1. list = [1,2,3,4,5]
2. flag = 0
3. for i in list:
4. print("Current element:",i,end=" ");
5. if i==3:
6. pass;
7. print("\nWe are inside pass block\n");
8. flag = 1;
9. if flag==1:
10. print("\nCame out of pass\n");
11. flag=0;

Output:

Current element: 1 Current element: 2 Current element: 3

We are inside pass block

Came out of pass

Current element: 4 Current element: 5

PYTHON: 46
 Python Pass
In Python, pass keyword is used to execute nothing; it means, when we don't want to
execute code, the pass can be used to execute empty. It is same as the name refers to.
It just makes the control to pass by without executing any code. If we want to bypass
any code pass statement can be used.

Python Pass Syntax

1. pass

Python Pass Example

1. for i in [1,2,3,4,5]:
2. if i==3:
3. pass
4. print "Pass when value is",i
5. print i,

Output:

1. >>>
2. 1 2 Pass when value is 3
3. 3 4 5
4. >>>

PYTHON: 47
 Python String
Till now, we have discussed numbers as the standard data types in python. In this section of
the tutorial, we will discuss the most popular data type in python i.e., string.

In python, strings can be created by enclosing the character or the sequence of characters in
the quotes. Python allows us to use single quotes, double quotes, or triple quotes to create the
string.

Consider the following example in python to create a string.

1. str = "Hi Python !"

Here, if we check the type of the variable str using a python script

1. print(type(str)), then it will print string (str).

In python, strings are treated as the sequence of strings which means that python doesn't
support the character data type instead a single character written as 'p' is treated as the string
of length 1.

Strings indexing and splitting

Like other languages, the indexing of the python strings starts from 0. For example, The
string "HELLO" is indexed as given in the below figure.

As shown in python, the slice operator [] is used to access the individual characters of the
string. However, we can use the : (colon) operator in python to access the substring. Consider
the following example.

Here, we must notice that the upper range given in the slice operator is always exclusive i.e.,
if str = 'python' is given, then str[1:3] will always include str[1] = 'p', str[2] = 'y', str[3] = 't'
and nothing else.

Reassigning strings
Updating the content of the strings is as easy as assigning it to a new string. The string object
doesn't support item assignment i.e., A string can only be replaced with a new string since its
content can not be partially replaced. Strings are immutable in python.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. str = "HELLO"
2. str[0] = "h"
3. print(str)

PYTHON: 48
 Output:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "12.py", line 2, in <module>
str[0] = "h";
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

However, in example 1, the string str can be completely assigned to a new content as
specified in the following example.

Example 2
1. str = "HELLO"
2. print(str)
3. str = "hello"
4. print(str)

Output:

HELLO
hello

String Operators

Operator Description

+ It is known as concatenation operator used to join the strings given

either side of the operator.

* It is known as repetition operator. It concatenates the multiple copies of

the same string.

[] It is known as slice operator. It is used to access the sub-strings of a

particular string.

[:] It is known as range slice operator. It is used to access the characters

from the specified range.

in It is known as membership operator. It returns if a particular sub-string

is present in the specified string.

not in It is also a membership operator and does the exact reverse of in. It
returns true if a particular substring is not present in the specified string.

r/R It is used to specify the raw string. Raw strings are used in the cases

PYTHON: 49
 where we need to print the actual meaning of escape characters such as
"C://python". To define any string as a raw string, the character r or R is
followed by the string.

% It is used to perform string formatting. It makes use of the format

specifiers used in C programming like %d or %f to map their values in
python. We will discuss how formatting is done in python.

Example
Consider the following example to understand the real use of Python operators.

1. str = "Hello"
2. str1 = " world"
3. print(str*3) # prints HelloHelloHello
4. print(str+str1)# prints Hello world
5. print(str[4]) # prints o
6. print(str[2:4]); # prints ll
7. print('w' in str) # prints false as w is not present in str
8. print('wo' not in str1) # prints false as wo is present in str1.
9. print(r'C://python37') # prints C://python37 as it is written
10. print("The string str : %s"%(str)) # prints The string str : Hello

Output:

HelloHelloHello
Hello world
o
ll
False
False
C://python37
The string str : Hello

Python Formatting operator

Python allows us to use the format specifiers used in C's printf statement. The format
specifiers in python are treated in the same way as they are treated in C. However, Python
provides an additional operator % which is used as an interface between the format specifiers
and their values. In other words, we can say that it binds the format specifiers to the values.

Consider the following example.

1. Integer = 10;
2. Float = 1.290
3. String = "Ayush"

PYTHON: 50
4. print("Hi I am Integer ... My value is %d\nHi I am float ... My value is %f
\nHi I am string ... My value is %s"%(Integer,Float,String));

Output:

Hi I am Integer ... My value is 10

Hi I am float ... My value is 1.290000
Hi I am string ... My value is Ayush

Built-in String functions

Python provides various in-built functions that are used for string handling. Many String fun

Method Description

capitalize() It capitalizes the first character of the String. This

function is deprecated in python3

casefold() It returns a version of s suitable for case-less

comparisons.

center(width ,fillchar) It returns a space padded string with the original

string centred with equal number of left and right
spaces.

count(string,begin,end) It counts the number of occurrences of a

substring in a String between begin and end
index.

decode(encoding = 'UTF8', errors = Decodes the string using codec registered for
'strict') encoding.

encode() Encode S using the codec registered for encoding.

Default encoding is 'utf-8'.

endswith(suffix It returns a Boolean value if the string terminates

,begin=0,end=len(string)) with given suffix between begin and end.

expandtabs(tabsize = 8) It defines tabs in string to multiple spaces. The

default space value is 8.

find(substring ,beginIndex, It returns the index value of the string where

endIndex) substring is found between begin index and end

PYTHON: 51
 index.

format(value) It returns a formatted version of S, using the

passed value.

index(subsring, beginIndex, It throws an exception if string is not found. It

endIndex) works same as find() method.

isalnum() It returns true if the characters in the string are

alphanumeric i.e., alphabets or numbers and
there is at least 1 character. Otherwise, it returns
false.

isalpha() It returns true if all the characters are alphabets

and there is at least one character, otherwise
False.

isdecimal() It returns true if all the characters of the string

are decimals.

isdigit() It returns true if all the characters are digits and

there is at least one character, otherwise False.

isidentifier() It returns true if the string is the valid identifier.

islower() It returns true if the characters of a string are in

lower case, otherwise false.

isnumeric() It returns true if the string contains only numeric

characters.

isprintable() It returns true if all the characters of s are

printable or s is empty, false otherwise.

isupper() It returns false if characters of a string are in

Upper case, otherwise False.

isspace() It returns true if the characters of a string are

white-space, otherwise false.

istitle() It returns true if the string is titled properly and

false otherwise. A title string is the one in which
the first character is upper-case whereas the

PYTHON: 52
 other characters are lower-case.

isupper() It returns true if all the characters of the string(if

exists) is true otherwise it returns false.

join(seq) It merges the strings representation of the given

sequence.

len(string) It returns the length of a string.

ljust(width[,fillchar]) It returns the space padded strings with the

original string left justified to the given width.

lower() It converts all the characters of a string to Lower

case.

lstrip() It removes all leading whitespaces of a string and

can also be used to remove particular character
from leading.

partition() It searches for the separator sep in S, and

returns the part before it, the separator itself,
and the part after it. If the separator is not found,
return S and two empty strings.

maketrans() It returns a translation table to be used in

translate function.

replace(old,new[,count]) It replaces the old sequence of characters with

the new sequence. The max characters are
replaced if max is given.

rfind(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It is similar to find but it traverses the string in

backward direction.

rindex(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It is same as index but it traverses the string in

backward direction.

rjust(width,[,fillchar]) Returns a space padded string having original

string right justified to the number of characters
specified.

rstrip() It removes all trailing whitespace of a string and

PYTHON: 53
 can also be used to remove particular character
from trailing.

rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit = -1) It is same as split() but it processes the string

from the backward direction. It returns the list of
words in the string. If Separator is not specified
then the string splits according to the white-
space.

split(str,num=string.count(str)) Splits the string according to the delimiter str.

The string splits according to the space if the
delimiter is not provided. It returns the list of
substring concatenated with the delimiter.

splitlines(num=string.count('\n')) It returns the list of strings at each line with

newline removed.

startswith(str,beg=0,end=len(str)) It returns a Boolean value if the string starts with

given str between begin and end.

strip([chars]) It is used to perform lstrip() and rstrip() on the

string.

swapcase() It inverts case of all characters in a string.

title() It is used to convert the string into the title-case

i.e., The string meEruT will be converted to
Meerut.

translate(table,deletechars = '') It translates the string according to the

translation table passed in the function .

upper() It converts all the characters of a string to Upper

Case.

zfill(width) Returns original string leftpadded with zeros to a

total of width characters; intended for numbers,
zfill() retains any sign given (less one zero).

rpartition()

PYTHON: 54
 Python List
List in python is implemented to store the sequence of various type of data. However,
python contains six data types that are capable to store the sequences but the most
common and reliable type is list.

A list can be defined as a collection of values or items of different types. The items in the
list are separated with the comma (,) and enclosed with the square brackets [].

A list can be defined as follows.

1. L1 = ["John", 102, "USA"]

2. L2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
3. L3 = [1, "Ryan"]

If we try to print the type of L1, L2, and L3 then it will come out to be a list.

Lets consider a proper example to define a list and printing its values.

1. emp = ["John", 102, "USA"]

2. Dep1 = ["CS",10];
3. Dep2 = ["IT",11];
4. HOD_CS = [10,"Mr. Holding"]
5. HOD_IT = [11, "Mr. Bewon"]
6. print("printing employee data...");
7. print("Name : %s, ID: %d, Country: %s"%(emp[0],emp[1],emp[2]))
8. print("printing departments...");
9. print("Department 1:\nName: %s, ID: %d\nDepartment 2:\nName: %s, ID: %s"%(Dep
1[0],Dep2[1],Dep2[0],Dep2[1]));
10. print("HOD Details ....");
11. print("CS HOD Name: %s, Id: %d"%(HOD_CS[1],HOD_CS[0]));
12. print("IT HOD Name: %s, Id: %d"%(HOD_IT[1],HOD_IT[0]));
13. print(type(emp),type(Dep1),type(Dep2),type(HOD_CS),type(HOD_IT));

Output:

printing employee data...

Name : John, ID: 102, Country: USA
printing departments...
Department 1:
Name: CS, ID: 11
Department 2:
Name: IT, ID: 11
HOD Details ....
CS HOD Name: Mr. Holding, Id: 10
IT HOD Name: Mr. Bewon, Id: 11
<class 'list'> <class 'list'> <class 'list'> <class 'list'> <class 'list'>

List indexing and splitting

PYTHON: 55
The indexing are processed in the same way as it happens with the strings. The
elements of the list can be accessed by using the slice operator [].

The index starts from 0 and goes to length - 1. The first element of the list is stored at
the 0th index, the second element of the list is stored at the 1st index, and so on.

Consider the following example.

Unlike other languages, python provides us the flexibility to use the negative indexing
also. The negative indices are counted from the right. The last element (right most) of
the list has the index -1, its adjacent left element is present at the index -2 and so on
until the left most element is encountered.

Updating List values

Lists are the most versatile data structures in python since they are immutable and their
values can be updated by using the slice and assignment operator.

Python also provide us the append() method which can be used to add values to the
string.

PYTHON: 56
 Consider the following example to update the values inside the list.

1. List = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
2. print(List)
3. List[2] = 10;
4. print(List)
5. List[1:3] = [89, 78]
6. print(List)

Output:

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
[1, 2, 10, 4, 5, 6]
[1, 89, 78, 4, 5, 6]

The list elements can also be deleted by using the del keyword. Python also provides us
the remove() method if we do not know which element is to be deleted from the list.

Consider the following example to delete the list elements.

1. List = [0,1,2,3,4]
2. print(List)
3. del List[0]
4. print(List)
5. del List[3]
6. print(List)

Output:

[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3]

Python List Operations

The concatenation (+) and repetition (*) operator work in the same way as they were
working with the strings.

Lets see how the list responds to various operators.

1. Consider a List l1 = [1, 2, 3, 4], and l2 = [5, 6, 7, 8]

2.

Operator Description Example

Repetition The repetition operator enables the list L1*2 = [1, 2, 3,

elements to be repeated multiple times. 4, 1, 2, 3, 4]

PYTHON: 57
 Concatenation It concatenates the list mentioned on l1+l2 = [1, 2, 3,
either side of the operator. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]

Membership It returns true if a particular item exists print(2 in l1)

in a particular list otherwise false. prints True.

Iteration The for loop is used to iterate over the for i in l1:
list elements. print(i)
Output
1
2
3
4

Length It is used to get the length of the list len(l1) = 4

Iterating a List
A list can be iterated by using a for - in loop. A simple list containing four strings can be
iterated as follows.

1. List = ["John", "David", "James", "Jonathan"]

2. for i in List: #i will iterate over the elements of the List and contains each element in ea
ch iteration.
3. print(i);

Output:

John
David
James
Jonathan

PYTHON: 58
 Adding elements to the list
Python provides append() function by using which we can add an element to the list.
However, the append() method can only add the value to the end of the list.

Consider the following example in which, we are taking the elements of the list from the
user and printing the list on the console.

1. l =[];
2. n = int(input("Enter the number of elements in the list")); #Number of elements will be
entered by the user
3. for i in range(0,n): # for loop to take the input
4. l.append(input("Enter the item?")); # The input is taken from the user and added to t
he list as the item
5. print("printing the list items....");
6. for i in l: # traversal loop to print the list items
7. print(i, end = " ");

Output:

Enter the number of elements in the list 5

Enter the item?1
Enter the item?2
Enter the item?3
Enter the item?4
Enter the item?5
printing the list items....
1 2 3 4 5

Removing elements from the list

1. List = [0,1,2,3,4]
2. print("printing original list: ");
3. for i in List:
4. print(i,end=" ")
5. List.remove(0)
6. print("\nprinting the list after the removal of first element...")
7. for i in List:
8. print(i,end=" ")

Output:

printing original list:

0 1 2 3 4
printing the list after the removal of first element...
1 2 3 4

PYTHON: 59
Python List Built-in functions
Python provides the following built-in functions which can be used with the lists.

SN Function Description

1 cmp(list1, list2) It compares the elements of both the lists.

2 len(list) It is used to calculate the length of the list.

3 max(list) It returns the maximum element of the list.

4 min(list) It returns the minimum element of the list.

5 list(seq) It converts any sequence to the list.

Python List built-in methods

SN Function Description

1 list.append(obj) The element represented by the object obj is added to

the list.

2 list.clear() It removes all the elements from the list.

3 List.copy() It returns a shallow copy of the list.

4 list.count(obj) It returns the number of occurrences of the specified

object in the list.

5 list.extend(seq) The sequence represented by the object seq is

extended to the list.

6 list.index(obj) It returns the lowest index in the list that object

appears.

7 list.insert(index, The object is inserted into the list at the specified

obj) index.

8 list.pop(obj=list[- It removes and returns the last object of the list.

1])

PYTHON: 60
 9 list.remove(obj) It removes the specified object from the list.

10 list.reverse() It reverses the list.

11 list.sort([func]) It sorts the list by using the specified compare function

if given.

Python Tuple
Python Tuple is used to store the sequence of immutable python objects. Tuple is similar
to lists since the value of the items stored in the list can be changed whereas the tuple is
immutable and the value of the items stored in the tuple can not be changed.

A tuple can be written as the collection of comma-separated values enclosed with the
small brackets. A tuple can be defined as follows.

1. T1 = (101, "Ayush", 22)

2. T2 = ("Apple", "Banana", "Orange")

Example
1. tuple1 = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)
2. print(tuple1)
3. count = 0
4. for i in tuple1:
5. print("tuple1[%d] = %d"%(count, i));

Output:

(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)

tuple1[0] = 10
tuple1[0] = 20
tuple1[0] = 30
tuple1[0] = 40
tuple1[0] = 50
tuple1[0] = 60

Example 2
1. tuple1 = tuple(input("Enter the tuple elements ..."))
2. print(tuple1)
3. count = 0
4. for i in tuple1:
5. print("tuple1[%d] = %s"%(count, i));

PYTHON: 61
 Output:

Enter the tuple elements ...12345

('1', '2', '3', '4', '5')
tuple1[0] = 1
tuple1[0] = 2
tuple1[0] = 3
tuple1[0] = 4
tuple1[0] = 5

However, if we try to reassign the items of a tuple, we would get an error as the tuple
object doesn't support the item assignment.

An empty tuple can be written as follows.

1. T3 = ()

The tuple having a single value must include a comma as given below.

1. T4 = (90,)

A tuple is indexed in the same way as the lists. The items in the tuple can be accessed
by using their specific index value.

We will see all these aspects of tuple in this section of the tutorial.

Tuple indexing and splitting

The indexing and slicing in tuple are similar to lists. The indexing in the tuple starts from
0 and goes to length(tuple) - 1.

The items in the tuple can be accessed by using the slice operator. Python also allows us
to use the colon operator to access multiple items in the tuple.

Consider the following image to understand the indexing and slicing in detail.

PYTHON: 62
 Unlike lists, the tuple items can not be deleted by using the del keyword as tuples are
immutable. To delete an entire tuple, we can use the del keyword with the tuple name.

Consider the following example.

1. tuple1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
2. print(tuple1)
3. del tuple1[0]
4. print(tuple1)
5. del tuple1
6. print(tuple1)

Output:

(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "tuple.py", line 4, in <module>
print(tuple1)
NameError: name 'tuple1' is not defined

Like lists, the tuple elements can be accessed in both the directions. The right most
element (last) of the tuple can be accessed by using the index -1. The elements from left
to right are traversed using the negative indexing.

Consider the following example.

1. tuple1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
2. print(tuple1[-1])
3. print(tuple1[-4])

Output:

5
2

Basic Tuple operations

The operators like concatenation (+), repetition (*), Membership (in) works in the same
way as they work with the list. Consider the following table for more detail.

Let's say Tuple t = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and Tuple t1 = (6, 7, 8, 9) are declared.

Operator Description Example

Repetition The repetition operator enables the T1*2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

tuple elements to be repeated multiple 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
times.

PYTHON: 63
 Concatenation It concatenates the tuple mentioned on T1+T2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
either side of the operator. 6, 7, 8, 9)

Membership It returns true if a particular item print (2 in T1) prints

exists in the tuple otherwise false. True.

Iteration The for loop is used to iterate over the for i in T1:
tuple elements. print(i)
Output
1
2
3
4
5

Length It is used to get the length of the tuple. len(T1) = 5

Python Tuple inbuilt functions

SN Function Description

1 cmp(tuple1, It compares two tuples and returns true if tuple1 is greater

tuple2) than tuple2 otherwise false.

2 len(tuple) It calculates the length of the tuple.

3 max(tuple) It returns the maximum element of the tuple.

4 min(tuple) It returns the minimum element of the tuple.

5 tuple(seq) It converts the specified sequence to the tuple.

Where use tuple

Using tuple instead of list is used in the following scenario.

1. Using tuple instead of list gives us a clear idea that tuple data is constant and must
not be changed.

2. Tuple can simulate dictionary without keys. Consider the following nested structure
which can be used as a dictionary.

1. [(101, "John", 22), (102, "Mike", 28), (103, "Dustin", 30)]

PYTHON: 64
 3. Tuple can be used as the key inside dictionary due to its immutable nature.

List VS Tuple

SN List Tuple

1 The literal syntax of list is shown The literal syntax of the tuple is shown
by the []. by the ().

2 The List is mutable. The tuple is immutable.

3 The List has the variable length. The tuple has the fixed length.

4 The list provides more The tuple provides less functionality

functionality than tuple. than the list.

5 The list Is used in the scenario in The tuple is used in the cases where we
which we need to store the simple need to store the read-only collections
collections with no constraints i.e., the value of the items can not be
where the value of the items can changed. It can be used as the key
be changed. inside the dictionary.

Nesting List and tuple

We can store list inside tuple or tuple inside the list up to any number of level.

Lets see an example of how can we store the tuple inside the list.

1. Employees = [(101, "Ayush", 22), (102, "john", 29), (103, "james", 45), (104, "Ben", 34
)]
2. print("----Printing list----");
3. for i in Employees:
4. print(i)
5. Employees[0] = (110, "David",22)
6. print();
7. print("----Printing list after modification----");
8. for i in Employees:
9. print(i)

PYTHON: 65
 Output:

----Printing list----
(101, 'Ayush', 22)
(102, 'john', 29)
(103, 'james', 45)
(104, 'Ben', 34)

----Printing list after modification----

(110, 'David', 22)

(102, 'john', 29)
(103, 'james', 45)
(104, 'Ben', 34)

Python Set
The set in python can be defined as the unordered collection of various items enclosed
within the curly braces. The elements of the set can not be duplicate. The elements of
the python set must be immutable.

Unlike other collections in python, there is no index attached to the elements of the set,
i.e., we cannot directly access any element of the set by the index. However, we can
print them all together or we can get the list of elements by looping through the set.

Creating a set
The set can be created by enclosing the comma separated items with the curly braces.
Python also provides the set method which can be used to create the set by the passed
sequence.

Example 1: using curly braces

1. Days = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday", "Sunday
"}
2. print(Days)
3. print(type(Days))
4. print("looping through the set elements ... ")
5. for i in Days:
6. print(i)

Output:

{'Friday', 'Tuesday', 'Monday', 'Saturday', 'Thursday', 'Sunday',

'Wednesday'}
<class 'set'>
looping through the set elements ...
Friday
Tuesday
Monday
Saturday

PYTHON: 66
 Thursday
Sunday
Wednesday

Example 2: using set() method

1. Days = set(["Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday", "Sun
day"])
2. print(Days)
3. print(type(Days))
4. print("looping through the set elements ... ")
5. for i in Days:
6. print(i)

Output:

{'Friday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Saturday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday',

'Sunday'}
<class 'set'>
looping through the set elements ...
Friday
Wednesday
Thursday
Saturday
Monday
Tuesday
Sunday

Python Set operations

In the previous example, we have discussed about how the set is created in python.
However, we can perform various mathematical operations on python sets like union,
intersection, difference, etc.

Adding items to the set

Python provides the add() method which can be used to add some particular item to the
set. Consider the following example.

Example:
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nAdding other months to the set...");
5. Months.add("July");
6. Months.add("August");
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)

PYTHON: 67
9. print("\nlooping through the set elements ... ")
10. for i in Months:
11. print(i)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'February', 'May', 'April', 'March', 'June', 'January'}

Adding other months to the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'February', 'July', 'May', 'April', 'March', 'August', 'June', 'January'}

looping through the set elements ...

February
July
May
April
March
August
June
January

To add more than one item in the set, Python provides the update() method.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nupdating the original set ... ")
5. Months.update(["July","August","September","October"]);
6. print("\nprinting the modified set ... ")
7. print(Months);

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'January', 'February', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'March'}

updating the original set ...

printing the modified set ...

{'January', 'February', 'April', 'August', 'October', 'May', 'June',
'July', 'September', 'March'}

Removing items from the set

Python provides discard() method which can be used to remove the items from the set.

PYTHON: 68
 Consider the following example.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
5. Months.discard("January");
6. Months.discard("May");
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)
9. print("\nlooping through the set elements ... ")
10. for i in Months:
11. print(i)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'February', 'January', 'March', 'April', 'June', 'May'}

Removing some months from the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'February', 'March', 'April', 'June'}

looping through the set elements ...

February
March
April
June

Python also provide the remove() method to remove the items from the set. Consider
the following example to remove the items using remove() method.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
5. Months.remove("January");
6. Months.remove("May");
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'February', 'June', 'April', 'May', 'January', 'March'}

PYTHON: 69
 Removing some months from the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'February', 'June', 'April', 'March'}

We can also use the pop() method to remove the item. However, this method will always
remove the last item.

Consider the following example to remove the last item from the set.

1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])

2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving some months from the set...");
5. Months.pop();
6. Months.pop();
7. print("\nPrinting the modified set...");
8. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'June', 'January', 'May', 'April', 'February', 'March'}

Removing some months from the set...

Printing the modified set...

{'May', 'April', 'February', 'March'}

Python provides the clear() method to remove all the items from the set.

Consider the following example.

1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])

2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving all the items from the set...");
5. Months.clear()
6. print("\nPrinting the modified set...")
7. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'January', 'May', 'June', 'April', 'March', 'February'}

Removing all the items from the set...

Printing the modified set...

set()

PYTHON: 70
 Difference between discard() and remove()
Despite the fact that discard() and remove() method both perform the same task, There
is one main difference between discard() and remove().

If the key to be deleted from the set using discard() doesn't exist in the set, the python
will not give the error. The program maintains its control flow.

On the other hand, if the item to be deleted from the set using remove() doesn't exist in
the set, the python will give the error.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. Months = set(["January","February", "March", "April", "May", "June"])
2. print("\nprinting the original set ... ")
3. print(Months)
4. print("\nRemoving items through discard() method...");
5. Months.discard("Feb"); #will not give an error although the key feb is not available in th
e set
6. print("\nprinting the modified set...")
7. print(Months)
8. print("\nRemoving items through remove() method...");
9. Months.remove("Jan") #will give an error as the key jan is not available in the set.
10. print("\nPrinting the modified set...")
11. print(Months)

Output:

printing the original set ...

{'March', 'January', 'April', 'June', 'February', 'May'}

Removing items through discard() method...

printing the modified set...

{'March', 'January', 'April', 'June', 'February', 'May'}

Removing items through remove() method...

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "set.py", line 9, in
Months.remove("Jan")
KeyError: 'Jan'

PYTHON: 71
 Union of two Sets
The union of two sets are calculated by using the or (|) operator. The union of the two
sets contains the all the items that are present in both the sets.

Consider the following example to calculate the union of two sets.

Example 1 : using union | operator

1. Days1 = {"Monday","Tuesday","Wednesday","Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Friday","Saturday","Sunday"}
3. print(Days1|Days2) #printing the union of the sets

Output:

{'Friday', 'Sunday', 'Saturday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Monday',

'Thursday'}

Python also provides the union() method which can also be used to calculate the union
of two sets. Consider the following example.

Example 2: using union() method

1. Days1 = {"Monday","Tuesday","Wednesday","Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Friday","Saturday","Sunday"}
3. print(Days1.union(Days2)) #printing the union of the sets

Output:

{'Friday', 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Thursday', 'Wednesday', 'Sunday',

'Saturday'}

Intersection of two sets

The & (intersection) operator is used to calculate the intersection of the two sets in
python. The intersection of the two sets are given as the set of the elements that
common in both sets.

Consider the following example.

Example 1: using & operator

1. set1 = {"Ayush","John", "David", "Martin"}
2. set2 = {"Steve","Milan","David", "Martin"}
3. print(set1&set2) #prints the intersection of the two sets

Output:

{'Martin', 'David'}

PYTHON: 72
 Example 2: using intersection() method
1. set1 = {"Ayush","John", "David", "Martin"}
2. set2 = {"Steave","Milan","David", "Martin"}
3. print(set1.intersection(set2)) #prints the intersection of the two sets

Output:

{'Martin', 'David'}

The intersection_update() method

The intersection_update() method removes the items from the original set that are not
present in both the sets (all the sets if more than one are specified).

The Intersection_update() method is different from intersection() method since it

modifies the original set by removing the unwanted items, on the other hand,
intersection() method returns a new set.

Consider the following example.

1. a = {"ayush", "bob", "castle"}

2. b = {"castle", "dude", "emyway"}
3. c = {"fuson", "gaurav", "castle"}
4.
5. a.intersection_update(b, c)
6.
7. print(a)

Output:

{'castle'}

Difference of two sets

The difference of two sets can be calculated by using the subtraction (-) operator. The
resulting set will be obtained by removing all the elements from set 1 that are present in
set 2.

Consider the following example.

Example 1 : using subtraction ( - ) operator

1. Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Sunday"}
3. print(Days1-Days2) #{"Wednesday", "Thursday" will be printed}

PYTHON: 73
 Output:

{'Thursday', 'Wednesday'}

Example 2 : using difference() method

1. Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}
2. Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Sunday"}
3. print(Days1.difference(Days2)) # prints the difference of the two sets Days1 and Days2

Output:

{'Thursday', 'Wednesday'}

Set comparisons
Python allows us to use the comparison operators i.e., <, >, <=, >= , == with the sets
by using which we can check whether a set is subset, superset, or equivalent to other
set. The boolean true or false is returned depending upon the items present inside the
sets.

Consider the following example.

1. Days1 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday"}

2. Days2 = {"Monday", "Tuesday"}
3. Days3 = {"Monday", "Tuesday", "Friday"}
4.
5. #Days1 is the superset of Days2 hence it will print true.
6. print (Days1>Days2)
7.
8. #prints false since Days1 is not the subset of Days2
9. print (Days1<Days2)
10.
11. #prints false since Days2 and Days3 are not equivalent
12. print (Days2 == Days3)

Output:

True
False
False

PYTHON: 74
 FrozenSets
The frozen sets are the immutable form of the normal sets, i.e., the items of the frozen
set can not be changed and therefore it can be used as a key in dictionary.

The elements of the frozen set can not be changed after the creation. We cannot change
or append the content of the frozen sets by using the methods like add() or remove().

The frozenset() method is used to create the frozenset object. The iterable sequence is
passed into this method which is converted into the frozen set as a return type of the
method. Consider the following example to create the frozen set.

1. Frozenset = frozenset([1,2,3,4,5])
2. print(type(Frozenset))
3. print("\nprinting the content of frozen set...")
4. for i in Frozenset:
5. print(i);
6. Frozenset.add(6) #gives an error since we cannot change the content of Frozenset after
creation

Output:

<class 'frozenset'>

printing the content of frozen set...

1
2
3
4
5
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "set.py", line 6, in <module>
Frozenset.add(6) #gives an error since we can change the content of
Frozenset after creation
AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has no attribute 'add'

Frozenset for the dictionary

If we pass the dictionary as the sequence inside the frozenset() method, it will take only
the keys from the dictionary and returns a frozenset that contains the key of the
dictionary as its elements.

Consider the following example.

1. Dictionary = {"Name":"John", "Country":"USA", "ID":101}

2. print(type(Dictionary))
3. Frozenset = frozenset(Dictionary); #Frozenset will contain the keys of the dictionary
4. print(type(Frozenset))
5. for i in Frozenset:
6. print(i)

PYTHON: 75
Output:

<class 'dict'>
<class 'frozenset'>
Name
Country
ID

Python Built-in set methods

Python contains the following methods to be used with the sets.

SN Method Description

1 add(item) It adds an item to the set. It has no effect

if the item is already present in the set.

2 clear() It deletes all the items from the set.

3 copy() It returns a shallow copy of the set.

4 difference_update(....) It modifies this set by removing all the

items that are also present in the specified
sets.

5 discard(item) It removes the specified item from the set.

6 intersection() It returns a new set that contains only the

common elements of both the sets. (all the
sets if more than two are specified).

7 intersection_update(....) It removes the items from the original set

that are not present in both the sets (all
the sets if more than one are specified).

8 Isdisjoint(....) Return True if two sets have a null

intersection.

9 Issubset(....) Report whether another set contains this

set.

10 Issuperset(....) Report whether this set contains another

set.

PYTHON: 76
11 pop() Remove and return an arbitrary set
element that is the last element of the set.
Raises KeyError if the set is empty.

12 remove(item) Remove an element from a set; it must be

a member. If the element is not a
member, raise a KeyError.

13 symmetric_difference(....) Remove an element from a set; it must be

a member. If the element is not a
member, raise a KeyError.

14 symmetric_difference_update(....) Update a set with the symmetric difference

of itself and another.

15 union(....) Return the union of sets as a new set.

(i.e. all elements that are in either set.)

16 update() Update a set with the union of itself and

others.

PYTHON: 77
 Python Dictionary
Dictionary is used to implement the key-value pair in python. The dictionary is the data
type in python which can simulate the real-life data arrangement where some specific
value exists for some particular key.

In other words, we can say that a dictionary is the collection of key-value pairs where
the value can be any python object whereas the keys are the immutable python object,
i.e., Numbers, string or tuple.

Dictionary simulates Java hash-map in python.

Creating the dictionary

The dictionary can be created by using multiple key-value pairs enclosed with the small
brackets () and separated by the colon (:). The collections of the key-value pairs are
enclosed within the curly braces {}.

The syntax to define the dictionary is given below.

1. Dict = {"Name": "Ayush","Age": 22}

In the above dictionary Dict, The keys Name, and Age are the string that is an
immutable object.

Let's see an example to create a dictionary and printing its content.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)

Output

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Age': 29, 'salary': 25000, 'Name': 'John', 'Company': 'GOOGLE'}

Accessing the dictionary values

We have discussed how the data can be accessed in the list and tuple by using the
indexing.

However, the values can be accessed in the dictionary by using the keys as keys are
unique in the dictionary.

The dictionary values can be accessed in the following way.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. print(type(Employee))

PYTHON: 78
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print("Name : %s" %Employee["Name"])
5. print("Age : %d" %Employee["Age"])
6. print("Salary : %d" %Employee["salary"])
7. print("Company : %s" %Employee["Company"])

Output:

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
Name : John
Age : 29
Salary : 25000
Company : GOOGLE

Python provides us with an alternative to use the get() method to access the dictionary
values. It would give the same result as given by the indexing.

Updating dictionary values

The dictionary is a mutable data type, and its values can be updated by using the
specific keys.

Let's see an example to update the dictionary values.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)
5. print("Enter the details of the new employee....");
6. Employee["Name"] = input("Name: ");
7. Employee["Age"] = int(input("Age: "));
8. Employee["salary"] = int(input("Salary: "));
9. Employee["Company"] = input("Company:");
10. print("printing the new data");
11. print(Employee)

Output:

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Name': 'John', 'salary': 25000, 'Company': 'GOOGLE', 'Age': 29}
Enter the details of the new employee....
Name: David
Age: 19
Salary: 8900
Company:JTP
printing the new data
{'Name': 'David', 'salary': 8900, 'Company': 'JTP', 'Age': 19}

PYTHON: 79
 Deleting elements using del keyword
The items of the dictionary can be deleted by using the del keyword as given below.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)
5. print("Deleting some of the employee data")
6. del Employee["Name"]
7. del Employee["Company"]
8. print("printing the modified information ")
9. print(Employee)
10. print("Deleting the dictionary: Employee");
11. del Employee
12. print("Lets try to print it again ");
13. print(Employee)

Output:

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Age': 29, 'Company': 'GOOGLE', 'Name': 'John', 'salary': 25000}
Deleting some of the employee data
printing the modified information
{'Age': 29, 'salary': 25000}
Deleting the dictionary: Employee
Lets try to print it again
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "list.py", line 13, in <module>
print(Employee)
NameError: name 'Employee' is not defined

Iterating Dictionary
A dictionary can be iterated using the for loop as given below.

Example 1
# for loop to print all the keys of a dictionary

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. for x in Employee:
3. print(x);

PYTHON: 80
 Output:

Name
Company
salary
Age

Example 2
#for loop to print all the values of the dictionary

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. for x in Employee:
3. print(Employee[x]);

Output:

29
GOOGLE
John
25000

Example 3
#for loop to print the values of the dictionary by using values() method.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. for x in Employee.values():
3. print(x);

Output:

GOOGLE
25000
John
29

Example 4
#for loop to print the items of the dictionary by using items() method.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE"}

2. for x in Employee.items():
3. print(x);

Output:

('Name', 'John')
('Age', 29)
('salary', 25000)
('Company', 'GOOGLE')

PYTHON: 81
 Properties of Dictionary keys
1. In the dictionary, we can not store multiple values for the same keys. If we pass more
than one values for a single key, then the value which is last assigned is considered as
the value of the key.

Consider the following example.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "Salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE","Name"

:"Johnn"}
2. for x,y in Employee.items():
3. print(x,y)

Output:

Salary 25000
Company GOOGLE
Name Johnn
Age 29

2. In python, the key cannot be any mutable object. We can use numbers, strings, or
tuple as the key but we can not use any mutable object like the list as the key in the
dictionary.

Consider the following example.

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE",[100,20

1,301]:"Department ID"}
2. for x,y in Employee.items():
3. print(x,y)

Output:

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "list.py", line 1, in
Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29,
"salary":25000,"Company":"GOOGLE",[100,201,301]:"Department ID"}
TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

Built-in Dictionary functions

The built-in python dictionary methods along with the description are given below.

SN Function Description

1 cmp(dict1, It compares the items of both the dictionary and returns

dict2) true if the first dictionary values are greater than the
second dictionary, otherwise it returns false.

PYTHON: 82
 2 len(dict) It is used to calculate the length of the dictionary.

3 str(dict) It converts the dictionary into the printable string

representation.

4 type(variable) It is used to print the type of the passed variable.

Built-in Dictionary methods

The built-in python dictionary methods along with the description are given below.

SN Method Description

1 dic.clear() It is used to delete all the items of the

dictionary.

2 dict.copy() It returns a shallow copy of the

dictionary.

3 dict.fromkeys(iterable, value = Create a new dictionary from the iterable

None, /) with the values equal to value.

4 dict.get(key, default = "None") It is used to get the value specified for

the passed key.

5 dict.has_key(key) It returns true if the dictionary contains

the specified key.

6 dict.items() It returns all the key-value pairs as a

tuple.

7 dict.keys() It returns all the keys of the dictionary.

8 dict.setdefault(key,default= It is used to set the key to the default

"None") value if the key is not specified in the
dictionary

9 dict.update(dict2) It updates the dictionary by adding the

key-value pair of dict2 to this dictionary.

10 dict.values() It returns all the values of the dictionary.

PYTHON: 83
 11 len()

12 popItem()

13 pop()

14 count()

15 index()

Python Functions
Functions are the most important aspect of an application. A function can be defined as
the organized block of reusable code which can be called whenever required.

Python allows us to divide a large program into the basic building blocks known as
function. The function contains the set of programming statements enclosed by {}. A
function can be called multiple times to provide reusability and modularity to the python
program.

In other words, we can say that the collection of functions creates a program. The
function is also known as procedure or subroutine in other programming languages.

Python provide us various inbuilt functions like range() or print(). Although, the user can
create its functions which can be called user-defined functions.

Advantage of functions in python

There are the following advantages of C functions.

o By using functions, we can avoid rewriting same logic/code again and again in a
program.
o We can call python functions any number of times in a program and from any
place in a program.
o We can track a large python program easily when it is divided into multiple
functions.
o Reusability is the main achievement of python functions.
o However, Function calling is always overhead in a python program.

PYTHON: 84
 Creating a function
In python, we can use def keyword to define the function. The syntax to define a
function in python is given below.

1. def my_function():
2. function-suite
3. return <expression>

The function block is started with the colon (:) and all the same level block statements
remain at the same indentation.

A function can accept any number of parameters that must be the same in the definition
and function calling.

Function calling
In python, a function must be defined before the function calling otherwise the python
interpreter gives an error. Once the function is defined, we can call it from another
function or the python prompt. To call the function, use the function name followed by
the parentheses.

A simple function that prints the message "Hello Word" is given below.

1. def hello_world():
2. print("hello world")
3.
4. hello_world()

Output:

hello world

Parameters in function
The information into the functions can be passed as the parameters. The parameters are
specified in the parentheses. We can give any number of parameters, but we have to
separate them with a comma.

Consider the following example which contains a function that accepts a string as the
parameter and prints it.

PYTHON: 85
 Example 1
1. #defining the function
2. def func (name):
3. print("Hi ",name);
4.
5. #calling the function
6. func("Ayush")

Example 2
1. #python function to calculate the sum of two variables
2. #defining the function
3. def sum (a,b):
4. return a+b;
5.
6. #taking values from the user
7. a = int(input("Enter a: "))
8. b = int(input("Enter b: "))
9.
10. #printing the sum of a and b
11. print("Sum = ",sum(a,b))

Output:

Enter a: 10
Enter b: 20
Sum = 30

Call by reference in Python

In python, all the functions are called by reference, i.e., all the changes made to the
reference inside the function revert back to the original value referred by the reference.

However, there is an exception in the case of mutable objects since the changes made to
the mutable objects like string do not revert to the original string rather, a new string
object is made, and therefore the two different objects are printed.

Example 1 Passing Immutable Object (List)

1. #defining the function
2. def change_list(list1):
3. list1.append(20);
4. list1.append(30);
5. print("list inside function = ",list1)
6.

PYTHON: 86
7. #defining the list
8. list1 = [10,30,40,50]
9.
10. #calling the function
11. change_list(list1);
12. print("list outside function = ",list1);

Output:

list inside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

list outside function = [10, 30, 40, 50, 20, 30]

Example 2 Passing Mutable Object (String)

1. #defining the function
2. def change_string (str):
3. str = str +" Hows you";
4. print("printing the string inside function :",str);
5.
6. string1 = "Hi I am there"
7.
8. #calling the function
9. change_string(string1)
10.
11. print("printing the string outside function :",string1)

Output:

printing the string inside function : Hi I am there Hows you

printing the string outside function : Hi I am there

Types of arguments
There may be several types of arguments which can be passed at the time of function
calling.

1. Required arguments
2. Keyword arguments
3. Default arguments
4. Variable-length arguments

PYTHON: 87
 Required Arguments
Till now, we have learned about function calling in python. However, we can provide the
arguments at the time of function calling. As far as the required arguments are
concerned, these are the arguments which are required to be passed at the time of
function calling with the exact match of their positions in the function call and function
definition. If either of the arguments is not provided in the function call, or the position
of the arguments is changed, then the python interpreter will show the error.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #the argument name is the required argument to the function func
2. def func(name):
3. message = "Hi "+name;
4. return message;
5. name = input("Enter the name?")
6. print(func(name))

Output:

Enter the name?John

Hi John

Example 2
1. #the function simple_interest accepts three arguments and returns the simple interest a
ccordingly
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. p = float(input("Enter the principle amount? "))
5. r = float(input("Enter the rate of interest? "))
6. t = float(input("Enter the time in years? "))
7. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(p,r,t))

Output:

Enter the principle amount? 10000

Enter the rate of interest? 5
Enter the time in years? 2
Simple Interest: 1000.0

PYTHON: 88
 Example 3
1. #the function calculate returns the sum of two arguments a and b
2. def calculate(a,b):
3. return a+b
4. calculate(10) # this causes an error as we are missing a required arguments b.

Output:

TypeError: calculate() missing 1 required positional argument: 'b'

Keyword arguments
Python allows us to call the function with the keyword arguments. This kind of function
call will enable us to pass the arguments in the random order.

The name of the arguments is treated as the keywords and matched in the function
calling and definition. If the same match is found, the values of the arguments are
copied in the function definition.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #function func is called with the name and message as the keyword arguments
2. def func(name,message):
3. print("printing
the message with",name,"and ",message)
4. func(name = "John",message="hello") #name and message is copied with the values
John and hello respectively

Output:

printing the message with John and hello

Example 2 providing the values in different order at the calling

1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments the order of
arguments doesn't matter in this case
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(t=10,r=10,p=1900))

Output:

Simple Interest: 1900.0

If we provide the different name of arguments at the time of function call, an error will
be thrown.

PYTHON: 89
 Consider the following example.

Example 3
1. #The function simple_interest(p, t, r) is called with the keyword arguments.
2. def simple_interest(p,t,r):
3. return (p*t*r)/100
4.
5. print("Simple Interest: ",simple_interest(time=10,rate=10,principle=1900)) # does
n't find the exact match of the name of the arguments (keywords)

Output:

TypeError: simple_interest() got an unexpected keyword argument 'time'

The python allows us to provide the mix of the required arguments and keyword
arguments at the time of function call. However, the required argument must not be
given after the keyword argument, i.e., once the keyword argument is encountered in
the function call, the following arguments must also be the keyword arguments.

Consider the following example.

Example 4
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing
the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello",name2="David") #the first argument is not the keywor
d argument

Output:

printing the message with John , hello ,and David

The following example will cause an error due to an in-proper mix of keyword and
required arguments being passed in the function call.

Example 5
1. def func(name1,message,name2):
2. print("printing
the message with",name1,",",message,",and",name2)
3. func("John",message="hello","David")

Output:

SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument

PYTHON: 90
 Default Arguments
Python allows us to initialize the arguments at the function definition. If the value of any
of the argument is not provided at the time of function call, then that argument can be
initialized with the value given in the definition even if the argument is not specified at
the function call.

Example 1
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My
name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the
default value of age is considered in the function

Output:

My name is john and age is 22

Example 2
1. def printme(name,age=22):
2. print("My
name is",name,"and age is",age)
3. printme(name = "john") #the variable age is not passed into the function however the
default value of age is considered in the function
4. printme(age = 10,name="David") #the value of age is overwritten here, 10 will be prin
ted as age

Output:

My name is john and age is 22

My name is David and age is 10

Variable length Arguments

In the large projects, sometimes we may not know the number of arguments to be
passed in advance. In such cases, Python provides us the flexibility to provide the
comma separated values which are internally treated as tuples at the function call.

However, at the function definition, we have to define the variable with * (star) as
*<variable - name >.

Consider the following example.

PYTHON: 91
 Example
1. def printme(*names):
2. print("type of passed argument is ",type(names))
3. print("printing the passed arguments...")
4. for name in names:
5. print(name)
6. printme("john","David","smith","nick")

Output:

type of passed argument is <class 'tuple'>

printing the passed arguments...
john
David
smith
nick

Scope of variables
The scopes of the variables depend upon the location where the variable is being
declared. The variable declared in one part of the program may not be accessible to the
other parts.

In python, the variables are defined with the two types of scopes.

1. Global variables
2. Local variables

The variable defined outside any function is known to have a global scope whereas the
variable defined inside a function is known to have a local scope.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. def print_message():
2. message = "hello !! I am going to print a message." # the variable message i
s local to the function itself
3. print(message)
4. print_message()
5. print(message) # this will cause an error since a local variable cannot be accessible her
e.

Output:

hello !! I am going to print a message.

PYTHON: 92
 File "/root/PycharmProjects/PythonTest/Test1.py", line 5, in
print(message)
NameError: name 'message' is not defined

Example 2
1. def calculate(*args):
2. sum=0
3. for arg in args:
4. sum = sum +arg
5. print("The sum is",sum)
6. sum=0
7. calculate(10,20,30) #60 will be printed as the sum
8. print("Value of sum outside the function:",sum) # 0 will be printed

Output:

The sum is 60
Value of sum outside the function: 0

Python Built-in Functions

The Python built-in functions are defined as the functions whose functionality is pre-
defined in Python. The python interpreter has several functions that are always present
for use. These functions are known as Built-in Functions. There are several built-in
functions in Python which are listed below:

Python abs() Function

The python abs() function is used to return the absolute value of a number. It takes
only one argument, a number whose absolute value is to be returned. The argument can
be an integer and floating-point number. If the argument is a complex number, then,
abs() returns its magnitude.

Python abs() Function Example

1. # integer number
2. integer = -20
3. print('Absolute value of -40 is:', abs(integer))
4.
5. # floating number
6. floating = -20.83
7. print('Absolute value of -40.83 is:', abs(floating))

Output:

PYTHON: 93
 Absolute value of -20 is: 20
Absolute value of -20.83 is: 20.83

Python all() Function

The python all() function accepts an iterable object (such as list, dictionary, etc.). It
returns true if all items in passed iterable are true. Otherwise, it returns False. If the
iterable object is empty, the all() function returns True.

Python all() Function Example

1. # all values true

2. k = [1, 3, 4, 6]
3. print(all(k))
4.
5. # all values false
6. k = [0, False]
7. print(all(k))
8.
9. # one false value
10. k = [1, 3, 7, 0]
11. print(all(k))
12.
13. # one true value
14. k = [0, False, 5]
15. print(all(k))
16.
17. # empty iterable
18. k = []
19. print(all(k))

Output:

True
False
False
False
True

PYTHON: 94
 Python bin() Function
The python bin() function is used to return the binary representation of a specified
integer. A result always starts with the prefix 0b.

Python bin() Function Example

1. x = 10
2. y = bin(x)
3. print (y)

Output:

0b1010

Python bool()
The python bool() converts a value to boolean(True or False) using the standard truth
testing procedure.

Python bool() Example

1. test1 = []
2. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
3. test1 = [0]
4. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
5. test1 = 0.0
6. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
7. test1 = None
8. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
9. test1 = True
10. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
11. test1 = 'Easy string'
12. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))

Output:

[] is False
[0] is True
0.0 is False
None is False
True is True
Easy string is True

PYTHON: 95
 Python bytes()
The python bytes() in Python is used for returning a bytes object. It is an immutable
version of the bytearray() function.

It can create empty bytes object of the specified size.

Python bytes() Example

1. string = "Hello World."

2. array = bytes(string, 'utf-8')
3. print(array)

Output:

b ' Hello World.'

Python callable() Function

A python callable() function in Python is something that can be called. This built-in
function checks and returns true if the object passed appears to be callable, otherwise
false.

Python callable() Function Example

1. x = 8
2. print(callable(x))

Output:

False

Python compile() Function

The python compile() function takes source code as input and returns a code object
which can later be executed by exec() function.

Python compile() Function Example

1. # compile string source to code

2. code_str = 'x=5\ny=10\nprint("sum =",x+y)'
3. code = compile(code_str, 'sum.py', 'exec')
4. print(type(code))
5. exec(code)
6. exec(x)

Output:

PYTHON: 96
 <class 'code'>
sum = 15

Python exec() Function

The python exec() function is used for the dynamic execution of Python program which
can either be a string or object code and it accepts large blocks of code, unlike the eval()
function which only accepts a single expression.

Python exec() Function Example

1. x = 8
2. exec('print(x==8)')
3. exec('print(x+4)')

Output:

True
12

Python sum() Function

As the name says, python sum() function is used to get the sum of numbers of an
iterable, i.e., list.

Python sum() Function Example

1. s = sum([1, 2,4 ])
2. print(s)
3.
4. s = sum([1, 2, 4], 10)
5. print(s)

Output:

7
17

Python any() Function

The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true. Otherwise, it
returns False.

Python any() Function Example

1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]

PYTHON: 97
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10. l = []
11. print(any(l))

Output:

True
False
True
False

Python ascii() Function

The python ascii() function returns a string containing a printable representation of an
object and escapes the non-ASCII characters in the string using \x, \u or \U escapes.

Python ascii() Function Example

1. normalText = 'Python is interesting'

2. print(ascii(normalText))
3.
4. otherText = 'Pythön is interesting'
5. print(ascii(otherText))
6.
7. print('Pyth\xf6n is interesting')

Output:

'Python is interesting'
'Pyth\xf6n is interesting'
Pythön is interesting

Python bytearray()
The python bytearray() returns a bytearray object and can convert objects into
bytearray objects, or create an empty bytearray object of the specified size.

Python bytearray() Example

PYTHON: 98
1. string = "Python is a programming language."
2.
3. # string with encoding 'utf-8'
4. arr = bytearray(string, 'utf-8')
5. print(arr)

Output:

bytearray(b'Python is a programming language.')

Python eval() Function

The python eval() function parses the expression passed to it and runs python
expression(code) within the program.

Python eval() Function Example

1. x = 8
2. print(eval('x + 1'))

Output:

Python float()
The python float() function returns a floating-point number from a number or string.

Python float() Example

1. # for integers
2. print(float(9))
3.
4. # for floats
5. print(float(8.19))
6.
7. # for string floats
8. print(float("-24.27"))
9.
10. # for string floats with whitespaces
11. print(float(" -17.19\n"))
12.
13. # string float error
14. print(float("xyz"))

PYTHON: 99
 Output:

9.0
8.19
-24.27
-17.19
ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'xyz'

Python format() Function

The python format() function returns a formatted representation of the given value.

Python format() Function Example

1. # d, f and b are a type

2.
3. # integer
4. print(format(123, "d"))
5.
6. # float arguments
7. print(format(123.4567898, "f"))
8.
9. # binary format
10. print(format(12, "b"))

Output:

123
123.456790
1100

Python frozenset()
The python frozenset() function returns an immutable frozenset object initialized with
elements from the given iterable.

Python frozenset() Example

1. # tuple of letters
2. letters = ('m', 'r', 'o', 't', 's')
3.
4. fSet = frozenset(letters)
5. print('Frozen set is:', fSet)
6. print('Empty frozen set is:', frozenset())

Output:

PYTHON: 100
 Frozen set is: frozenset({'o', 'm', 's', 'r', 't'})
Empty frozen set is: frozenset()

Python getattr() Function

The python getattr() function returns the value of a named attribute of an object. If it is
not found, it returns the default value.

Python getattr() Function Example

1. class Details:
2. age = 22
3. name = "Phill"
4.
5. details = Details()
6. print('The age is:', getattr(details, "age"))
7. print('The age is:', details.age)

Output:

The age is: 22

The age is: 22

Python globals() Function

The python globals() function returns the dictionary of the current global symbol table.

A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary
information about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.

Python globals() Function Example

1. age = 22
2.
3. globals()['age'] = 22
4. print('The age is:', age)

Output:

The age is: 22

Python hasattr() Function

The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true, otherwise it
returns False.

PYTHON: 101
 Python hasattr() Function Example

1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10. l = []
11. print(any(l))

Output:

True
False
True
False

Python iter() Function

The python iter() function is used to return an iterator object. It creates an object which
can be iterated one element at a time.

Python iter() Function Example

1. # list of numbers
2. list = [1,2,3,4,5]
3.
4. listIter = iter(list)
5.
6. # prints '1'
7. print(next(listIter))
8.
9. # prints '2'
10. print(next(listIter))
11.
12. # prints '3'
13. print(next(listIter))
14.
15. # prints '4'
16. print(next(listIter))
17.
18. # prints '5'

PYTHON: 102
19. print(next(listIter))

Output:

1
2
3
4
5

Python len() Function

The python len() function is used to return the length (the number of items) of an
object.

Python len() Function Example

1. strA = 'Python'
2. print(len(strA))

Output:

Python list()
The python list() creates a list in python.

Python list() Example

1. # empty list
2. print(list())
3.
4. # string
5. String = 'abcde'
6. print(list(String))
7.
8. # tuple
9. Tuple = (1,2,3,4,5)
10. print(list(Tuple))
11. # list
12. List = [1,2,3,4,5]
13. print(list(List))

Output:

[]
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']

PYTHON: 103
 [1,2,3,4,5]
[1,2,3,4,5]

Python locals() Function

The python locals() method updates and returns the dictionary of the current local
symbol table.

A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary
information about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.

Python locals() Function Example

1. def localsAbsent():
2. return locals()
3.
4. def localsPresent():
5. present = True
6. return locals()
7.
8. print('localsNotPresent:', localsAbsent())
9. print('localsPresent:', localsPresent())

Output:

localsAbsent: {}
localsPresent: {'present': True}

Python map() Function

The python map() function is used to return a list of results after applying a given
function to each item of an iterable(list, tuple etc.).

Python map() Function Example

1. def calculateAddition(n):
2. return n+n
3.
4. numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4)
5. result = map(calculateAddition, numbers)
6. print(result)
7.
8. # converting map object to set
9. numbersAddition = set(result)
10. print(numbersAddition)

PYTHON: 104
 Output:

<map object at 0x7fb04a6bec18>

{8, 2, 4, 6}

Python memoryview() Function

The python memoryview() function returns a memoryview object of the given
argument.

Python memoryview () Function Example

1. #A random bytearray
2. randomByteArray = bytearray('ABC', 'utf-8')
3.
4. mv = memoryview(randomByteArray)
5.
6. # access the memory view's zeroth index
7. print(mv[0])
8.
9. # It create byte from memory view
10. print(bytes(mv[0:2]))
11.
12. # It create list from memory view
13. print(list(mv[0:3]))

Output:

65
b'AB'
[65, 66, 67]

Python object()
The python object() returns an empty object. It is a base for all the classes and holds
the built-in properties and methods which are default for all the classes.

Python object() Example

1. python = object()
2.
3. print(type(python))
4. print(dir(python))

Output:

PYTHON: 105
 <class 'object'>
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__',
'__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__le__', '__lt__',
'__ne__',
'__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__',
'__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__']

Python open() Function

The python open() function opens the file and returns a corresponding file object.

Python open() Function Example

1. # opens python.text file of the current directory

2. f = open("python.txt")
3. # specifying full path
4. f = open("C:/Python33/README.txt")

Output:

Since the mode is omitted, the file is opened in 'r' mode; opens for
reading.

Python chr() Function

Python chr() function is used to get a string representing a character which points to a
Unicode code integer. For example, chr(97) returns the string 'a'. This function takes an
integer argument and throws an error if it exceeds the specified range. The standard
range of the argument is from 0 to 1,114,111.

Python chr() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = chr(102) # It returns string representation of a char
3. result2 = chr(112)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
7. # Verify, is it string type?
8. print("is it string type:", type(result) is str)

Output:

ValueError: chr() arg not in range(0x110000)

PYTHON: 106
 Python complex()
Python complex() function is used to convert numbers or string into a complex number.
This method takes two optional parameters and returns a complex number. The first
parameter is called a real and second as imaginary parts.

Python complex() Example

1. # Python complex() function example

2. # Calling function
3. a = complex(1) # Passing single parameter
4. b = complex(1,2) # Passing both parameters
5. # Displaying result
6. print(a)
7. print(b)

Output:

(1.5+0j)
(1.5+2.2j)

Python delattr() Function

Python delattr() function is used to delete an attribute from a class. It takes two
parameters, first is an object of the class and second is an attribute which we want to
delete. After deleting the attribute, it no longer available in the class and throws an error
if try to call it using the class object.

Python delattr() Function Example

1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "Pranshu"
4. email = "[email protected]"
5. # Declaring function
6. def getinfo(self):
7. print(self.id, self.name, self.email)
8. s = Student()
9. s.getinfo()
10. delattr(Student,'course') # Removing attribute which is not available
11. s.getinfo() # error: throws an error

Output:

101 Pranshu [email protected]

AttributeError: course

PYTHON: 107
 Python dir() Function
Python dir() function returns the list of names in the current local scope. If the object
on which method is called has a method named __dir__(), this method will be called and
must return the list of attributes. It takes a single object type argument.

Python dir() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. att = dir()
3. # Displaying result
4. print(att)

Output:

['__annotations__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',

'__loader__',
'__name__', '__package__', '__spec__']

Python divmod() Function

Python divmod() function is used to get remainder and quotient of two numbers. This
function takes two numeric arguments and returns a tuple. Both arguments are required
and numeric

Python divmod() Function Example

1. # Python divmod() function example

2. # Calling function
3. result = divmod(10,2)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)

Output:

(5, 0)

Python enumerate() Function

Python enumerate() function returns an enumerated object. It takes two parameters,
first is a sequence of elements and the second is the start index of the sequence. We can
get the elements in sequence either through a loop or next() method.

Python enumerate() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = enumerate([1,2,3])

PYTHON: 108
3. # Displaying result
4. print(result)
5. print(list(result))

Output:

<enumerate object at 0x7ff641093d80>

[(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)]

Python dict()
Python dict() function is a constructor which creates a dictionary. Python dictionary
provides three different constructors to create a dictionary:

o If no argument is passed, it creates an empty dictionary.

o If a positional argument is given, a dictionary is created with the same key-value
pairs. Otherwise, pass an iterable object.
o If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are
added to the dictionary created from the positional argument.

Python dict() Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = dict() # returns an empty dictionary
3. result2 = dict(a=1,b=2)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)

Output:

{}
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}

Python filter() Function

Python filter() function is used to get filtered elements. This function takes two
arguments, first is a function and the second is iterable. The filter function returns a
sequence of those elements of iterable object for which function returns true value.

The first argument can be none, if the function is not available and returns only
elements that are true.

Python filter() Function Example

1. # Python filter() function example

PYTHON: 109
2. def filterdata(x):
3. if x>5:
4. return x
5. # Calling function
6. result = filter(filterdata,(1,2,6))
7. # Displaying result
8. print(list(result))

Output:

[6]

Python hash() Function

Python hash() function is used to get the hash value of an object. Python calculates the
hash value by using the hash algorithm. The hash values are integers and used to
compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup. We can hash only the types which
are given below:

Hashable types: * bool * int * long * float * string * Unicode * tuple * code object.

Python hash() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = hash(21) # integer value
3. result2 = hash(22.2) # decimal value
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)

Output:

21
461168601842737174

Python help() Function

Python help() function is used to get help related to the object passed during the call. It
takes an optional parameter and returns help information. If no argument is given, it
shows the Python help console. It internally calls python's help function.

Python help() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. info = help() # No argument
3. # Displaying result

PYTHON: 110
4. print(info)

Output:

Welcome to Python 3.5's help utility!

Python min() Function

Python min() function is used to get the smallest element from the collection. This
function takes two arguments, first is a collection of elements and second is key, and
returns the smallest element from the collection.

Python min() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. small = min(2225,325,2025) # returns smallest element
3. small2 = min(1000.25,2025.35,5625.36,10052.50)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(small)
6. print(small2)

Output:

325
1000.25

Python set() Function

In python, a set is a built-in class, and this function is a constructor of this class. It is
used to create a new set using elements passed during the call. It takes an iterable
object as an argument and returns a new set object.

Python set() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = set() # empty set
3. result2 = set('12')
4. result3 = set('javatpoint')
5. # Displaying result
6. print(result)
7. print(result2)
8. print(result3)

PYTHON: 111
 Output:

set()
{'1', '2'}
{'a', 'n', 'v', 't', 'j', 'p', 'i', 'o'}

Python hex() Function

Python hex() function is used to generate hex value of an integer argument. It takes an
integer argument and returns an integer converted into a hexadecimal string. In case,
we want to get a hexadecimal value of a float, then use float.hex() function.

Python hex() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = hex(1)
3. # integer value
4. result2 = hex(342)
5. # Displaying result
6. print(result)
7. print(result2)

Output:

0x1
0x156

Python id() Function

Python id() function returns the identity of an object. This is an integer which is
guaranteed to be unique. This function takes an argument as an object and returns a
unique integer number which represents identity. Two objects with non-overlapping
lifetimes may have the same id() value.

Python id() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = id("Javatpoint") # string object
3. val2 = id(1200) # integer object
4. val3 = id([25,336,95,236,92,3225]) # List object
5. # Displaying result
6. print(val)
7. print(val2)
8. print(val3)

PYTHON: 112
 Output:

139963782059696
139963805666864
139963781994504

Python setattr() Function

Python setattr() function is used to set a value to the object's attribute. It takes three
arguments, i.e., an object, a string, and an arbitrary value, and returns none. It is
helpful when we want to add a new attribute to an object and set a value to it.

Python setattr() Function Example

1. class Student:
2. id = 0
3. name = ""
4.
5. def __init__(self, id, name):
6. self.id = id
7. self.name = name
8.
9. student = Student(102,"Sohan")
10. print(student.id)
11. print(student.name)
12. #print(student.email) product error
13. setattr(student, 'email','[email protected]') # adding new attribute
14. print(student.email)

Output:

102
Sohan
[email protected]

Python slice() Function

Python slice() function is used to get a slice of elements from the collection of elements.
Python provides two overloaded slice functions. The first function takes a single
argument while the second function takes three arguments and returns a slice object.
This slice object can be used to get a subsection of the collection.

PYTHON: 113
 Python slice() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = slice(5) # returns slice object
3. result2 = slice(0,5,3) # returns slice object
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)

Output:

slice(None, 5, None)
slice(0, 5, 3)

Python sorted() Function

Python sorted() function is used to sort elements. By default, it sorts elements in an
ascending order but can be sorted in descending also. It takes four arguments and
returns a collection in sorted order. In the case of a dictionary, it sorts only keys, not
values.

Python sorted() Function Example

1. str = "javatpoint" # declaring string

2. # Calling function
3. sorted1 = sorted(str) # sorting string
4. # Displaying result
5. print(sorted1)

Output:

['a', 'a', 'i', 'j', 'n', 'o', 'p', 't', 't', 'v']

Python next() Function

Python next() function is used to fetch next item from the collection. It takes two
arguments, i.e., an iterator and a default value, and returns an element.

This method calls on iterator and throws an error if no item is present. To avoid the
error, we can set a default value.

PYTHON: 114
 Python next() Function Example

1. number = iter([256, 32, 82]) # Creating iterator

2. # Calling function
3. item = next(number)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(item)
6. # second item
7. item = next(number)
8. print(item)
9. # third item
10. item = next(number)
11. print(item)

Output:

256
32
82

Python input() Function

Python input() function is used to get an input from the user. It prompts for the user
input and reads a line. After reading data, it converts it into a string and returns it. It
throws an error EOFError if EOF is read.

Python input() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = input("Enter a value: ")
3. # Displaying result
4. print("You entered:",val)

Output:

Enter a value: 45
You entered: 45

Python int() Function

Python int() function is used to get an integer value. It returns an expression converted
into an integer number. If the argument is a floating-point, the conversion truncates the
number. If the argument is outside the integer range, then it converts the number into a
long type.

If the number is not a number or if a base is given, the number must be a string.

PYTHON: 115
 Python int() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = int(10) # integer value
3. val2 = int(10.52) # float value
4. val3 = int('10') # string value
5. # Displaying result
6. print("integer values :",val, val2, val3)

Output:

integer values : 10 10 10

Python isinstance() Function

Python isinstance() function is used to check whether the given object is an instance of
that class. If the object belongs to the class, it returns true. Otherwise returns False. It
also returns true if the class is a subclass.

The isinstance() function takes two arguments, i.e., object and classinfo, and then it
returns either True or False.

Python isinstance() function Example

1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "John"
4. def __init__(self, id, name):
5. self.id=id
6. self.name=name
7.
8. student = Student(1010,"John")
9. lst = [12,34,5,6,767]
10. # Calling function
11. print(isinstance(student, Student)) # isinstance of Student class
12. print(isinstance(lst, Student))

Output:

True
False

PYTHON: 116
 Python oct() Function
Python oct() function is used to get an octal value of an integer number. This method
takes an argument and returns an integer converted into an octal string. It throws an
error TypeError, if argument type is other than an integer.

Python oct() function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = oct(10)
3. # Displaying result
4. print("Octal value of 10:",val)

Output:

Octal value of 10: 0o12

Python ord() Function

The python ord() function returns an integer representing Unicode code point for the
given Unicode character.

Python ord() function Example

1. # Code point of an integer

2. print(ord('8'))
3.
4. # Code point of an alphabet
5. print(ord('R'))
6.
7. # Code point of a character
8. print(ord('&'))

Output:

56
82
38

PYTHON: 117
 Python pow() Function
The python pow() function is used to compute the power of a number. It returns x to
the power of y. If the third argument(z) is given, it returns x to the power of y modulus
z, i.e. (x, y) % z.

Python pow() function Example

1. # positive x, positive y (x**y)

2. print(pow(4, 2))
3.
4. # negative x, positive y
5. print(pow(-4, 2))
6.
7. # positive x, negative y (x**-y)
8. print(pow(4, -2))
9.
10. # negative x, negative y
11. print(pow(-4, -2))

Output:

16
16
0.0625
0.0625

Python print() Function

The python print() function prints the given object to the screen or other standard
output devices.

Python print() function Example

1. print("Python is programming language.")

2.
3. x = 7
4. # Two objects passed
5. print("x =", x)
6.
7. y = x
8. # Three objects passed
9. print('x =', x, '= y')

Output:

Python is programming language.

PYTHON: 118
 x = 7
x = 7 = y

Python range() Function

The python range() function returns an immutable sequence of numbers starting from 0
by default, increments by 1 (by default) and ends at a specified number.

Python range() function Example

1. # empty range
2. print(list(range(0)))
3.
4. # using the range(stop)
5. print(list(range(4)))
6.
7. # using the range(start, stop)
8. print(list(range(1,7 )))

Output:

[]
[0, 1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Python reversed() Function

The python reversed() function returns the reversed iterator of the given sequence.

Python reversed() function Example

1. # for string
2. String = 'Java'
3. print(list(reversed(String)))
4.
5. # for tuple
6. Tuple = ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
7. print(list(reversed(Tuple)))
8.
9. # for range
10. Range = range(8, 12)
11. print(list(reversed(Range)))
12.
13. # for list
14. List = [1, 2, 7, 5]

PYTHON: 119
15. print(list(reversed(List)))

Output:

['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']

['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']
[11, 10, 9, 8]
[5, 7, 2, 1]

Python round() Function

The python round() function rounds off the digits of a number and returns the floating
point number.

Python round() Function Example

1. # for integers
2. print(round(10))
3.
4. # for floating point
5. print(round(10.8))
6.
7. # even choice
8. print(round(6.6))

Output:

10
11
7

Python issubclass() Function

The python issubclass() function returns true if object argument(first argument) is a
subclass of second class(second argument).

Python issubclass() Function Example

1. class Rectangle:
2. def __init__(rectangleType):
3. print('Rectangle is a ', rectangleType)
4.
5. class Square(Rectangle):
6. def __init__(self):
7. Rectangle.__init__('square')
8.

PYTHON: 120
9. print(issubclass(Square, Rectangle))
10. print(issubclass(Square, list))
11. print(issubclass(Square, (list, Rectangle)))
12. print(issubclass(Rectangle, (list, Rectangle)))

Output:

True
False
True
True

Python str
The python str() converts a specified value into a string.

Python str() Function Example

1. str('4')

Output:

'4'

Python tuple() Function

The python tuple() function is used to create a tuple object.

Python tuple() Function Example

1. t1 = tuple()
2. print('t1=', t1)
3.
4. # creating a tuple from a list
5. t2 = tuple([1, 6, 9])
6. print('t2=', t2)
7.
8. # creating a tuple from a string
9. t1 = tuple('Java')
10. print('t1=',t1)
11.
12. # creating a tuple from a dictionary
13. t1 = tuple({4: 'four', 5: 'five'})
14. print('t1=',t1)

PYTHON: 121
 Output:

t1= ()
t2= (1, 6, 9)
t1= ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
t1= (4, 5)

Python type()
The python type() returns the type of the specified object if a single argument is passed
to the type() built in function. If three arguments are passed, then it returns a new type
object.

Python type() Function Example

1. List = [4, 5]
2. print(type(List))
3.
4. Dict = {4: 'four', 5: 'five'}
5. print(type(Dict))
6.
7. class Python:
8. a=0
9.
10. InstanceOfPython = Python()
11. print(type(InstanceOfPython))

Output:

<class 'list'>
<class 'dict'>
<class '__main__.Python'>

Python vars() function

The python vars() function returns the __dict__ attribute of the given object.

Python vars() Function Example

1. class Python:
2. def __init__(self, x = 7, y = 9):
3. self.x = x
4. self.y = y
5.
6. InstanceOfPython = Python()
7. print(vars(InstanceOfPython))

PYTHON: 122
 Output:

{'y': 9, 'x': 7}

Python zip() Function

The python zip() Function returns a zip object, which maps a similar index of multiple
containers. It takes iterables (can be zero or more), makes it an iterator that aggregates
the elements based on iterables passed, and returns an iterator of tuples.

Python zip() Function Example

1. numList = [4,5, 6]
2. strList = ['four', 'five', 'six']
3.
4. # No iterables are passed
5. result = zip()
6.
7. # Converting itertor to list
8. resultList = list(result)
9. print(resultList)
10.
11. # Two iterables are passed
12. result = zip(numList, strList)
13.
14. # Converting itertor to set
15. resultSet = set(result)
16. print(resultSet)

Output:

[]
{(5, 'five'), (4, 'four'), (6, 'six')}

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 Python Lambda Functions
Python allows us to not declare the function in the standard manner, i.e., by using the
def keyword. Rather, the anonymous functions are declared by using lambda keyword.
However, Lambda functions can accept any number of arguments, but they can return
only one value in the form of expression.

The anonymous function contains a small piece of code. It simulates inline functions of C
and C++, but it is not exactly an inline function.

The syntax to define an Anonymous function is given below.

1. lambda arguments : expression

Example 1
1. x = lambda a:a+10 # a is an argument and a+10 is an expression which got evaluated
and returned.
2. print("sum = ",x(20))

Output:

sum = 30

Example 2
Multiple arguments to Lambda function

1. x = lambda a,b:a+b # a and b are the arguments and a+b is the expression which gets
evaluated and returned.
2. print("sum = ",x(20,10))

Output:

sum = 30

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 Why use lambda functions?
The main role of the lambda function is better described in the scenarios when we use
them anonymously inside another function. In python, the lambda function can be used
as an argument to the higher order functions as arguments. Lambda functions are also
used in the scenario where we need a Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #the function table(n) prints the table of n
2. def table(n):
3. return lambda a:a*n; # a will contain the iteration variable i and a multiple of n is r
eturned at each function call
4. n = int(input("Enter the number?"))
5. b = table(n) #the entered number is passed into the function table. b will contain a lamb
da function which is called again and again with the iteration variable i
6. for i in range(1,11):
7. print(n,"X",i,"=",b(i)); #the lambda function b is called with the iteration variable i,

Output:

Enter the number?10

10 X 1 = 10
10 X 2 = 20
10 X 3 = 30
10 X 4 = 40
10 X 5 = 50
10 X 6 = 60
10 X 7 = 70
10 X 8 = 80
10 X 9 = 90
10 X 10 = 100

Example 2
Use of lambda function with filter

1. #program to filter out the list which contains odd numbers

2. List = {1,2,3,4,10,123,22}
3. Oddlist = list(filter(lambda x:(x%3 == 0),List)) # the list contains all the items of the li
st for which the lambda function evaluates to true
4. print(Oddlist)

Output:

[3, 123]

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 Example 3
Use of lambda function with map

1. #program to triple each number of the list using map

2. List = {1,2,3,4,10,123,22}
3. new_list = list(map(lambda x:x*3,List)) # this will return the triple of each item of the l
ist and add it to new_list
4. print(new_list)

Output:

[3, 6, 9, 12, 30, 66, 369]

Python File Handling

Till now, we were taking the input from the console and writing it back to the console to
interact with the user.

Sometimes, it is not enough to only display the data on the console. The data to be
displayed may be very large, and only a limited amount of data can be displayed on the
console, and since the memory is volatile, it is impossible to recover the
programmatically generated data again and again.

However, if we need to do so, we may store it onto the local file system which is volatile
and can be accessed every time. Here, comes the need of file handling.

In this section of the tutorial, we will learn all about file handling in python including,
creating a file, opening a file, closing a file, writing and appending the file, etc.

Opening a file
Python provides the open() function which accepts two arguments, file name and access
mode in which the file is accessed. The function returns a file object which can be used
to perform various operations like reading, writing, etc.

The syntax to use the open() function is given below.

1. file object = open(<file-name>, <access-mode>, <buffering>)

The files can be accessed using various modes like read, write, or append. The following
are the details about the access mode to open a file.

SN Access Description
mode

1 r It opens the file to read-only. The file pointer exists at the

PYTHON: 126
 beginning. The file is by default open in this mode if no access
mode is passed.

2 rb It opens the file to read only in binary format. The file pointer
exists at the beginning of the file.

3 r+ It opens the file to read and write both. The file pointer exists at
the beginning of the file.

4 rb+ It opens the file to read and write both in binary format. The file
pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

5 w It opens the file to write only. It overwrites the file if previously

exists or creates a new one if no file exists with the same name.
The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

6 wb It opens the file to write only in binary format. It overwrites the

file if it exists previously or creates a new one if no file exists with
the same name. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

7 w+ It opens the file to write and read both. It is different from r+ in

the sense that it overwrites the previous file if one exists whereas
r+ doesn't overwrite the previously written file. It creates a new
file if no file exists. The file pointer exists at the beginning of the
file.

8 wb+ It opens the file to write and read both in binary format. The file
pointer exists at the beginning of the file.

9 a It opens the file in the append mode. The file pointer exists at the
end of the previously written file if exists any. It creates a new file
if no file exists with the same name.

10 ab It opens the file in the append mode in binary format. The pointer
exists at the end of the previously written file. It creates a new file
in binary format if no file exists with the same name.

11 a+ It opens a file to append and read both. The file pointer remains at
the end of the file if a file exists. It creates a new file if no file
exists with the same name.

12 ab+ It opens a file to append and read both in binary format. The file

PYTHON: 127
 pointer remains at the end of the file.
Let's look at the simple example to open a file named "file.txt" (stored in the same directory)
in read mode and printing its content on the console.

Example
1. #opens the file file.txt in read mode
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r")
3.
4. if fileptr:
5. print("file is opened successfully")

Output:

<class '_io.TextIOWrapper'>
file is opened successfully

The close() method

Once all the operations are done on the file, we must close it through our python script using
the close() method. Any unwritten information gets destroyed once the close() method is
called on a file object.

We can perform any operation on the file externally in the file system is the file is opened in
python, hence it is good practice to close the file once all the operations are done.

The syntax to use the close() method is given below.

1. fileobject.close()

Consider the following example.

Example
1. # opens the file file.txt in read mode
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r")
3.
4. if fileptr:
5. print("file is opened successfully")
6.
7. #closes the opened file
8. fileptr.close()

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 Reading the file
To read a file using the python script, the python provides us the read() method. The read()
method reads a string from the file. It can read the data in the text as well as binary format.

The syntax of the read() method is given below.

1. fileobj.read(<count>)

Here, the count is the number of bytes to be read from the file starting from the beginning of
the file. If the count is not specified, then it may read the content of the file until the end.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. #open the file.txt in read mode. causes error if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r");
3.
4. #stores all the data of the file into the variable content
5. content = fileptr.read(9);
6.
7. # prints the type of the data stored in the file
8. print(type(content))
9.
10. #prints the content of the file
11. print(content)
12.
13. #closes the opened file
14. fileptr.close()

Output:

<class 'str'>
Hi, I am

Read Lines of the file

Python facilitates us to read the file line by line by using a function readline(). The readline()
method reads the lines of the file from the beginning, i.e., if we use the readline() method two
times, then we can get the first two lines of the file.

Consider the following example which contains a function readline() that reads the first line
of our file "file.txt" containing three lines.

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 Example
1. #open the file.txt in read mode. causes error if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r");
3.
4. #stores all the data of the file into the variable content
5. content = fileptr.readline();
6.
7. # prints the type of the data stored in the file
8. print(type(content))
9.
10. #prints the content of the file
11. print(content)
12.
13. #closes the opened file
14. fileptr.close()

Output:

<class 'str'>
Hi, I am the file and being used as

Looping through the file

By looping through the lines of the file, we can read the whole file.

Example
1. #open the file.txt in read mode. causes an error if no such file exists.
2.
3.
4. fileptr = open("file.txt","r");
5.
6. #running a for loop
7. for i in fileptr:
8. print(i) # i contains each line of the file

Output:

Hi, I am the file and being used as

an example to read a
file in python.

PYTHON: 130
 Writing the file
To write some text to a file, we need to open the file using the open method with one of the
following access modes.

a: It will append the existing file. The file pointer is at the end of the file. It creates a new file
if no file exists.

w: It will overwrite the file if any file exists. The file pointer is at the beginning of the file.

Consider the following example.

Example 1
1. #open the file.txt in append mode. Creates a new file if no such file exists
.
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","a");
3.
4. #appending the content to the file
5. fileptr.write("Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simp
le.")
6.
7.
8. #closing the opened file
9. fileptr.close();

Now, we can see that the content of the file is modified.

File.txt:

1. Hi, I am the file and being used as

2. an example to read a
3. file in python.
4. Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.

Example 2
1. #open the file.txt in write mode.
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","w");
3.
4. #overwriting the content of the file
5. fileptr.write("Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simp
le.")
6.
7.

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8. #closing the opened file
9. fileptr.close();

Now, we can check that all the previously written content of the file is overwritten with the
new text we have passed.

File.txt:

1. Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.

Creating a new file

The new file can be created by using one of the following access modes with the function
open(). x: it creates a new file with the specified name. It causes an error a file exists with the
same name.

a: It creates a new file with the specified name if no such file exists. It appends the content to
the file if the file already exists with the specified name.

w: It creates a new file with the specified name if no such file exists. It overwrites the
existing file.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. #open the file.txt in read mode. causes error if no such file exists.
2. fileptr = open("file2.txt","x");
3.
4. print(fileptr)
5.
6. if fileptr:
7. print("File created successfully");

Output:

File created successfully

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 Using with statement with files
The with statement was introduced in python 2.5. The with statement is useful in the case of
manipulating the files. The with statement is used in the scenario where a pair of statements
is to be executed with a block of code in between.

The syntax to open a file using with statement is given below.

1. with open(<file name>, <access mode>) as <file-pointer>:

2. #statement suite

The advantage of using with statement is that it provides the guarantee to close the file
regardless of how the nested block exits.

It is always suggestible to use the with statement in the case of file s because, if the break,
return, or exception occurs in the nested block of code then it automatically closes the file. It
doesn't let the file to be corrupted.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. with open("file.txt",'r') as f:
2. content = f.read();
3. print(content)

Output:

Python is the modern day language. It makes things so simple.

File Pointer positions

Python provides the tell() method which is used to print the byte number at which the file
pointer exists. Consider the following example.

Example
1. # open the file file2.txt in read mode
2. fileptr = open("file2.txt","r")
3.
4. #initially the filepointer is at 0
5. print("The filepointer is at byte :",fileptr.tell())
6.
7. #reading the content of the file
8. content = fileptr.read();
9.

PYTHON: 133
10. #after the read operation file pointer modifies. tell() returns the loc
ation of the fileptr.
11.
12. print("After reading, the filepointer is at:",fileptr.tell())

Output:

The filepointer is at byte : 0

After reading, the filepointer is at 26

Modifying file pointer position

In the real world applications, sometimes we need to change the file pointer location
externally since we may need to read or write the content at various locations.

For this purpose, the python provides us the seek() method which enables us to modify the
file pointer position externally.

The syntax to use the seek() method is given below.

1. <file-ptr>.seek(offset[, from)

The seek() method accepts two parameters:

offset: It refers to the new position of the file pointer within the file.

from: It indicates the reference position from where the bytes are to be moved. If it is set to
0, the beginning of the file is used as the reference position. If it is set to 1, the current
position of the file pointer is used as the reference position. If it is set to 2, the end of the file
pointer is used as the reference position.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. # open the file file2.txt in read mode
2. fileptr = open("file2.txt","r")
3.
4. #initially the filepointer is at 0
5. print("The filepointer is at byte :",fileptr.tell())
6.
7. #changing the file pointer location to 10.
8. fileptr.seek(10);
9.
10. #tell() returns the location of the fileptr.
11. print("After reading, the filepointer is at:",fileptr.tell())

PYTHON: 134
 Output:

The filepointer is at byte : 0

After reading, the filepointer is at 10

Python os module
The os module provides us the functions that are involved in file processing operations like
renaming, deleting, etc.

Let's look at some of the os module functions.

Renaming the file

The os module provides us the rename() method which is used to rename the specified file to
a new name. The syntax to use the rename() method is given below.

1. rename(?current-name?, ?new-name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #rename file2.txt to file3.txt
4. os.rename("file2.txt","file3.txt")

Removing the file

The os module provides us the remove() method which is used to remove the specified file.
The syntax to use the remove() method is given below.

1. remove(?file-name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #deleting the file named file3.txt
4. os.remove("file3.txt")

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 Creating the new directory
The mkdir() method is used to create the directories in the current working directory. The
syntax to create the new directory is given below.

1. mkdir(?directory name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #creating a new directory with the name new
4. os.mkdir("new")

Changing the current working directory

The chdir() method is used to change the current working directory to a specified directory.

The syntax to use the chdir() method is given below.

1. chdir("new-directory")

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #changing the current working directory to new
4.
5. os.chdir("new")

The getcwd() method

This method returns the current working directory.

The syntax to use the getcwd() method is given below.

1. os.getcwd()

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #printing the current working directory
4. print(os.getcwd())

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 Deleting directory
The rmdir() method is used to delete the specified directory.

The syntax to use the rmdir() method is given below.

1. os.rmdir(?directory name?)

Example
1. import os;
2.
3. #removing the new directory
4. os.rmdir("new")

Writing python output to the files

In python, there are the requirements to write the output of a python script to a file.

The check_call() method of module subprocess is used to execute a python script and write
the output of that script to a file.

The following example contains two python scripts. The script file1.py executes the script
file.py and writes its output to the text file output.txt

file.py:

1. temperatures=[10,-20,-289,100]
2. def c_to_f(c):
3. if c< -273.15:
4. return "That temperature doesn't make sense!"
5. else:
6. f=c*9/5+32
7. return f
8. for t in temperatures:
9. print(c_to_f(t))

file.py:

1. import subprocess
2.
3. with open("output.txt", "wb") as f:
4. subprocess.check_call(["python", "file.py"], stdout=f)

Output:

PYTHON: 137
 50
-4
That temperature doesn't make sense!
212

The file related methods

The file object provides the following methods to manipulate the files on various operating
systems.

SN Method Description

1 file.close() It closes the opened file. The file once closed, it

can't be read or write any more.

2 File.fush() It flushes the internal buffer.

3 File.fileno() It returns the file descriptor used by the

underlying implementation to request I/O from
the OS.

4 File.isatty() It returns true if the file is connected to a TTY

device, otherwise returns false.

5 File.next() It returns the next line from the file.

6 File.read([size]) It reads the file for the specified size.

7 File.readline([size]) It reads one line from the file and places the file
pointer to the beginning of the new line.

8 File.readlines([sizehint]) It returns a list containing all the lines of the file.

It reads the file until the EOF occurs using
readline() function.

9 File.seek(offset[,from) It modifies the position of the file pointer to a

specified offset with the specified reference.

10 File.tell() It returns the current position of the file pointer

within the file.

11 File.truncate([size]) It truncates the file to the optional specified size.

12 File.write(str) It writes the specified string to a file

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 13 File.writelines(seq) It writes a sequence of the strings to a file.

Python Modules
A python module can be defined as a python program file which contains a python code
including python functions, class, or variables. In other words, we can say that our
python code file saved with the extension (.py) is treated as the module. We may have a
runnable code inside the python module.

Modules in Python provides us the flexibility to organize the code in a logical way.

To use the functionality of one module into another, we must have to import the specific
module.

Example
In this example, we will create a module named as file.py which contains a function func
that contains a code to print some message on the console.

Let's create the module named as file.py.

1. #displayMsg prints a message to the name being passed.

2. def displayMsg(name)
3. print("Hi "+name);

Here, we need to include this module into our main module to call the method
displayMsg() defined in the module named file.

Loading the module in our python code

We need to load the module in our python code to use its functionality. Python provides
two types of statements as defined below.

1. The import statement

2. The from-import statement

The import statement

The import statement is used to import all the functionality of one module into another.
Here, we must notice that we can use the functionality of any python source file by
importing that file as the module into another python source file.

We can import multiple modules with a single import statement, but a module is loaded
once regardless of the number of times, it has been imported into our file.

PYTHON: 139
 The syntax to use the import statement is given below.

1. import module1,module2,........ module n

Hence, if we need to call the function displayMsg() defined in the file file.py, we have to
import that file as a module into our module as shown in the example below.

Example:
1. import file;
2. name = input("Enter the name?")
3. file.displayMsg(name)

Output:

Enter the name?John

Hi John

The from-import statement

Instead of importing the whole module into the namespace, python provides the
flexibility to import only the specific attributes of a module. This can be done by using
from? import statement. The syntax to use the from-import statement is given below.

1. from < module-name> import <name 1>, <name 2>..,<name n>

Consider the following module named as calculation which contains three functions as
summation, multiplication, and divide.

calculation.py:

1. #place the code in the calculation.py

2. def summation(a,b):
3. return a+b
4. def multiplication(a,b):
5. return a*b;
6. def divide(a,b):
7. return a/b;

Main.py:

1. from calculation import summation

2. #it will import only the summation() from calculation.py
3. a = int(input("Enter the first number"))
4. b = int(input("Enter the second number"))
5. print("Sum = ",summation(a,b)) #we do not need to specify the module name while a
ccessing summation()

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 Output:

Enter the first number10

Enter the second number20
Sum = 30

The from...import statement is always better to use if we know the attributes to be

imported from the module in advance. It doesn't let our code to be heavier. We can also
import all the attributes from a module by using *.

Consider the following syntax.

1. from <module> import *

Renaming a module
Python provides us the flexibility to import some module with a specific name so that we
can use this name to use that module in our python source file.

The syntax to rename a module is given below.

1. import <module-name> as <specific-name>

Example
1. #the module calculation of previous example is imported in this example as cal.
2. import calculation as cal;
3. a = int(input("Enter a?"));
4. b = int(input("Enter b?"));
5. print("Sum = ",cal.summation(a,b))

Output:

Enter a?10
Enter b?20
Sum = 30

Using dir() function

The dir() function returns a sorted list of names defined in the passed module. This list
contains all the sub-modules, variables and functions defined in this module.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import json
2.
3. List = dir(json)

PYTHON: 141
4.
5. print(List)

Output:

['JSONDecoder', 'JSONEncoder', '__all__', '__author__', '__builtins__',

'__cached__', '__doc__',
'__file__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__path__',
'__spec__', '__version__',
'_default_decoder', '_default_encoder', 'decoder', 'dump', 'dumps',
'encoder', 'load', 'loads', 'scanner']

The reload() function

As we have already stated that, a module is loaded once regardless of the number of
times it is imported into the python source file. However, if you want to reload the
already imported module to re-execute the top-level code, python provides us the
reload() function. The syntax to use the reload() function is given below.

1. reload(<module-name>)

for example, to reload the module calculation defined in the previous example, we must
use the following line of code.

1. reload(calculation)

Scope of variables
In Python, variables are associated with two types of scopes. All the variables defined in
a module contain the global scope unless or until it is defined within a function.

All the variables defined inside a function contain a local scope that is limited to this
function itself. We can not access a local variable globally.

If two variables are defined with the same name with the two different scopes, i.e., local
and global, then the priority will always be given to the local variable.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. name = "john"
2. def print_name(name):
3. print("Hi",name) #prints the name that is local to this function only.
4. name = input("Enter the name?")
5. print_name(name)

Output:

Hi David

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 Python packages
The packages in python facilitate the developer with the application development
environment by providing a hierarchical directory structure where a package contains
sub-packages, modules, and sub-modules. The packages are used to categorize the
application level code efficiently.

Let's create a package named Employees in your home directory. Consider the following
steps.

1. Create a directory with name Employees on path /home.

2. Create a python source file with name ITEmployees.py on the path

/home/Employees.

ITEmployees.py

1. def getITNames():
2. List = ["John", "David", "Nick", "Martin"]
3. return List;

3. Similarly, create one more python file with name BPOEmployees.py and create a
function getBPONames().

4. Now, the directory Employees which we have created in the first step contains two
python modules. To make this directory a package, we need to include one more file
here, that is __init__.py which contains the import statements of the modules defined in
this directory.

__init__.py

1. from ITEmployees import getITNames

2. from BPOEmployees import getBPONames

5. Now, the directory Employees has become the package containing two python
modules. Here we must notice that we must have to create __init__.py inside a directory
to convert this directory to a package.

6. To use the modules defined inside the package Employees, we must have to import
this in our python source file. Let's create a simple python source file at our home
directory (/home) which uses the modules defined in this package.

Test.py

1. import Employees
2. print(Employees.getNames())

Output:

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['John', 'David', 'Nick', 'Martin']

We can have sub-packages inside the packages. We can nest the packages up to any
level depending upon the application requirements.

The following image shows the directory structure of an application Library management
system which contains three sub-packages as Admin, Librarian, and Student. The sub-
packages contain the python modules.

Python Exceptions
An exception can be defined as an abnormal condition in a program resulting in the
disruption in the flow of the program.

Whenever an exception occurs, the program halts the execution, and thus the further
code is not executed. Therefore, an exception is the error which python script is unable
to tackle with.

Python provides us with the way to handle the Exception so that the other part of the
code can be executed without any disruption. However, if we do not handle the
exception, the interpreter doesn't execute all the code that exists after the that.

Common Exceptions
A list of common exceptions that can be thrown from a normal python program is given
below.

1. ZeroDivisionError: Occurs when a number is divided by zero.

2. NameError: It occurs when a name is not found. It may be local or global.
3. IndentationError: If incorrect indentation is given.
4. IOError: It occurs when Input Output operation fails.
5. EOFError: It occurs when the end of the file is reached, and yet operations are
being performed.

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 Problem without handling exceptions
As we have already discussed, the exception is an abnormal condition that halts the
execution of the program. Consider the following example.

Example
1. a = int(input("Enter a:"))
2. b = int(input("Enter b:"))
3. c = a/b;
4. print("a/b = %d"%c)
5.
6. #other code:
7. print("Hi I am other part of the program")

Output:

Enter a:10
Enter b:0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "exception-test.py", line 3, in <module>
c = a/b;
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Exception handling in python

If the python program contains suspicious code that may throw the exception, we must
place that code in the try block. The try block must be followed with the except
statement which contains a block of code that will be executed if there is some exception
in the try block.

Syntax
1. try:
2. #block of code
3.
4. except Exception1:

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5. #block of code
6.
7. except Exception2:
8. #block of code
9.
10. #other code

We can also use the else statement with the try-except statement in which, we can place
the code which will be executed in the scenario if no exception occurs in the try block.

The syntax to use the else statement with the try-except statement is given below.

1. try:
2. #block of code
3.
4. except Exception1:
5. #block of code
6.
7. else:
8. #this code executes if no except block is executed

Example
1. try:
2. a = int(input("Enter a:"))
3. b = int(input("Enter b:"))
4. c = a/b;
5. print("a/b = %d"%c)
6. except Exception:
7. print("can't divide by zero")
8. else:
9. print("Hi I am else block")

PYTHON: 146
 Output:

Enter a:10
Enter b:2
a/b = 5
Hi I am else block

The except statement with no exception

Python provides the flexibility not to specify the name of exception with the except
statement.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. try:
2. a = int(input("Enter a:"))
3. b = int(input("Enter b:"))
4. c = a/b;
5. print("a/b = %d"%c)
6. except:
7. print("can't divide by zero")
8. else:
9. print("Hi I am else block")

Output:

Enter a:10
Enter b:0
can't divide by zero

Points to remember
1. Python facilitates us to not specify the exception with the except statement.
2. We can declare multiple exceptions in the except statement since the try block
may contain the statements which throw the different type of exceptions.
3. We can also specify an else block along with the try-except statement which will
be executed if no exception is raised in the try block.
4. The statements that don't throw the exception should be placed inside the else
block.

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 Example
1. try:
2. #this will throw an exception if the file doesn't exist.
3. fileptr = open("file.txt","r")
4. except IOError:
5. print("File not found")
6. else:
7. print("The file opened successfully")
8. fileptr.close()

Output:

File not found

Declaring multiple exceptions

The python allows us to declare the multiple exceptions with the except clause. Declaring
multiple exceptions is useful in the cases where a try block throws multiple exceptions.

Syntax
1. try:
2. #block of code
3.
4. except (<Exception 1>,<Exception 2>,<Exception 3>,...<Exception n>)
5. #block of code
6.
7. else:
8. #block of code

Example
1. try:
2. a=10/0;
3. except ArithmeticError,StandardError:
4. print "Arithmetic Exception"
5. else:
6. print "Successfully Done"

Output:

Arithmetic Exception

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 The finally block
We can use the finally block with the try block in which, we can pace the important code
which must be executed before the try statement throws an exception.

The syntax to use the finally block is given below.

syntax
1. try:
2. # block of code
3. # this may throw an exception
4. finally:
5. # block of code
6. # this will always be executed

Example
1. try:
2. fileptr = open("file.txt","r")
3. try:
4. fileptr.write("Hi I am good")
5. finally:
6. fileptr.close()
7. print("file closed")
8. except:
9. print("Error")

Output:

file closed
Error

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 Raising exceptions
An exception can be raised by using the raise clause in python. The syntax to use the
raise statement is given below.

syntax
1. raise Exception_class,<value>

Points to remember
1. To raise an exception, raise statement is used. The exception class name follows
it.
2. An exception can be provided with a value that can be given in the parenthesis.
3. To access the value "as" keyword is used. "e" is used as a reference variable
which stores the value of the exception.

Example
1. try:
2. age = int(input("Enter the age?"))
3. if age<18:
4. raise ValueError;
5. else:
6. print("the age is valid")
7. except ValueError:
8. print("The age is not valid")

Output:

Enter the age?17

The age is not valid

Example
1. try:
2. a = int(input("Enter a?"))
3. b = int(input("Enter b?"))
4. if b is 0:
5. raise ArithmeticError;
6. else:
7. print("a/b = ",a/b)
8. except ArithmeticError:
9. print("The value of b can't be 0")

Output:

Enter a?10

PYTHON: 150
 Enter b?0
The value of b can't be 0

Custom Exception
The python allows us to create our exceptions that can be raised from the program and
caught using the except clause. However, we suggest you read this section after visiting
the Python object and classes.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. class ErrorInCode(Exception):
2. def __init__(self, data):
3. self.data = data
4. def __str__(self):
5. return repr(self.data)
6.
7. try:
8. raise ErrorInCode(2000)
9. except ErrorInCode as ae:
10. print("Received error:", ae.data)

Output:

Received error: 2000

Python Date and time

In the real world applications, there are the scenarios where we need to work with the
date and time. There are the examples in python where we have to schedule the script
to run at some particular timings.

In python, the date is not a data type, but we can work with the date objects by
importing the module named with datetime, time, and calendar.

In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss how to work with the date and time objects
in python.

Tick
In python, the time instants are counted since 12 AM, 1st January 1970. The function
time() of the module time returns the total number of ticks spent since 12 AM, 1st
January 1970. A tick can be seen as the smallest unit to measure the time.

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 Consider the following example.

Example
1. import time;
2.
3. #prints the number of ticks spent since 12 AM, 1st January 1970
4.
5. print(time.time())

Output:

1545124460.9151757

How to get the current time?

The localtime() functions of the time module are used to get the current time tuple.
Consider the following example.

Example
1. import time;
2.
3. #returns a time tuple
4.
5. print(time.localtime(time.time()))

Output:

time.struct_time(tm_year=2018, tm_mon=12, tm_mday=18, tm_hour=15, tm_min=1,

tm_sec=32, tm_wday=1, tm_yday=352, tm_isdst=0)

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 Time tuple
The time is treated as the tuple of 9 numbers. Let's look at the members of the time
tuple.

Index Attribute Values

0 Year 4 digit (for example 2018)

1 Month 1 to 12

2 Day 1 to 31

3 Hour 0 to 23

4 Minute 0 to 59

5 Second 0 to 60

6 Day of weak 0 to 6

7 Day of year 1 to 366

8 Daylight savings -1, 0, 1 , or -1

Getting formatted time

The time can be formatted by using the asctime() function of time module. It returns the
formatted time for the time tuple being passed.

Example
1. import time;
2.
3. #returns the formatted time
4.
5. print(time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time())))

Output:

Tue Dec 18 15:31:39 2018

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 Python sleep time
The sleep() method of time module is used to stop the execution of the script for a given
amount of time. The output will be delayed for the number of seconds given as float.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import time
2. for i in range(0,5):
3. print(i)
4. #Each element will be printed after 1 second
5. time.sleep(1)

Output:

0
1
2
3
4

The datetime Module

The datetime module enables us to create the custom date objects, perform various
operations on dates like the comparison, etc.

To work with dates as date objects, we have to import datetime module into the python
source code.

Consider the following example to get the datetime object representation for the current
time.

Example
1. import datetime;
2.
3. #returns the current datetime object
4.
5. print(datetime.datetime.now())

Output:

2018-12-18 16:16:45.462778

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 Creating date objects
We can create the date objects by passing the desired date in the datetime constructor
for which the date objects are to be created.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. import datetime;
2.
3. #returns the datetime object for the specified date
4.
5. print(datetime.datetime(2018,12,10))

Output:

2018-12-10 00:00:00

We can also specify the time along with the date to create the datetime object. Consider
the following example.

Example
1. import datetime;
2.
3. #returns the datetime object for the specified time
4.
5. print(datetime.datetime(2018,12,10,14,15,10))

Output:

2018-12-10 14:15:10

Comparison of two dates

We can compare two dates by using the comparison operators like >, >=, <, and <=.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. from datetime import datetime as dt
2. #Compares the time. If the time is in between 8AM and 4PM, then it prints working hour
s otherwise it prints fun hours

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3. if dt(dt.now().year,dt.now().month,dt.now().day,8)<dt.now()<dt(dt.now().year,dt.now(
).month,dt.now().day,16):
4. print("Working hours....")
5. else:
6. print("fun hours")

Output:

fun hours

The calendar module

Python provides a calendar object that contains various methods to work with the
calendars.

Consider the following example to print the Calendar of the last month of 2018.

Example
1. import calendar;
2. cal = calendar.month(2018,12)
3. #printing the calendar of December 2018
4. print(cal)

Output:

Printing the calendar of whole year

The prcal() method of calendar module is used to print the calendar of the whole year.
The year of which the calendar is to be printed must be passed into this method.

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 Example
1. import calendar
2.
3. #printing the calendar of the year 2019
4. calendar.prcal(2019)

Output:

PYTHON: 157
 Python Regular Expressions
The regular expressions can be defined as the sequence of characters which are used
to search for a pattern in a string. The module re provides the support to use regex in
the python program. The re module throws an exception if there is some error while
using the regular expression.

The re module must be imported to use the regex functionalities in python.

1. import re

Regex Functions
The following regex functions are used in the python.

SN Function Description

1 match This method matches the regex pattern in the string with the
optional flag. It returns true if a match is found in the string
otherwise it returns false.

2 search This method returns the match object if there is a match found
in the string.

3 findall It returns a list that contains all the matches of a pattern in the
string.

4 split Returns a list in which the string has been split in each match.

5 sub Replace one or many matches in the string.

Forming a regular expression

A regular expression can be formed by using the mix of meta-characters, special
sequences, and sets.

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Meta-Characters

Metacharacter is a character with the specified meaning.

Metacharacter Description

[] It represents the set of characters.

\ It represents the special sequence.

. It signals that any character is present at some specific place.

^ It represents the pattern present at the beginning of the string.

$ It represents the pattern present at the end of the string.

* It represents zero or more occurrences of a pattern in the string.

+ It represents one or more occurrences of a pattern in the string.

{} The specified number of occurrences of a pattern the string.

| It represents either this or that character is present.

() Capture and group

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Special Sequences

Special sequences are the sequences containing \ followed by one of the characters.

Character Description

\A It returns a match if the specified characters are present at the beginning of the

\b It returns a match if the specified characters are present at the beginning or the

\B It returns a match if the specified characters are present at the beginning of the

\d It returns a match if the string contains digits [0-9].

\D It returns a match if the string doesn't contain the digits [0-9].

\s It returns a match if the string contains any white space character.

\S It returns a match if the string doesn't contain any white space character.

\w It returns a match if the string contains any word characters.

\W It returns a match if the string doesn't contain any word.

\Z Returns a match if the specified characters are at the end of the string.

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 Sets

A set is a group of characters given inside a pair of square brackets. It represents the
special meaning.

SN Set Description

1 [arn] Returns a match if the string contains any of the specified charac

2 [a-n] Returns a match if the string contains any of the characters betw

3 [^arn] Returns a match if the string contains the characters except a, r,

4 [0123] Returns a match if the string contains any of the specified digits.

5 [0-9] Returns a match if the string contains any digit between 0 and 9.

6 [0-5][0-9] Returns a match if the string contains any digit between 00 and 5

10 [a-zA-Z] Returns a match if the string contains any alphabet (lower-case o

The findall() function

This method returns a list containing a list of all matches of a pattern within the
string. It returns the patterns in the order they are found. If there are no matches,
then an empty list is returned.

Consider the following example.

Example

1. import re
2.
3. str = "How are you. How is everything"
4.
5. matches = re.findall("How", str)
6.

PYTHON: 161
7. print(matches)
8.
9. print(matches)

Output:

['How', 'How']

The match object

The match object contains the information about the search and the output. If there
is no match found, the None object is returned.

Example
1. import re
2.
3. str = "How are you. How is everything"
4.
5. matches = re.search("How", str)
6.
7. print(type(matches))
8.
9. print(matches) #matches is the search object

Output:

<class '_sre.SRE_Match'>
<_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='How'>

The Match object methods

There are the following methods associated with the Match object.

1. span(): It returns the tuple containing the starting and end position of the
match.
2. string(): It returns a string passed into the function.
3. group(): The part of the string is returned where the match is found.

PYTHON: 162
 Example
1. import re
2.
3. str = "How are you. How is everything"
4.
5. matches = re.search("How", str)
6.
7. print(matches.span())
8.
9. print(matches.group())
10.
11. print(matches.string)

Output:

(0, 3)
How
How are you. How is everything

Python OOPs Concepts

Like other general purpose languages, python is also an object-oriented language since
its beginning. Python is an object-oriented programming language. It allows us to
develop applications using an Object Oriented approach. In Python, we can easily create
and use classes and objects.

Major principles of object-oriented programming system are given below.

o Object
o Class
o Method
o Inheritance
o Polymorphism
o Data Abstraction
o Encapsulation

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 Object
The object is an entity that has state and behavior. It may be any real-world object like
the mouse, keyboard, chair, table, pen, etc.

Everything in Python is an object, and almost everything has attributes and methods. All
functions have a built-in attribute __doc__, which returns the doc string defined in the
function source code.

Class
The class can be defined as a collection of objects. It is a logical entity that has some
specific attributes and methods. For example: if you have an employee class then it
should contain an attribute and method, i.e. an email id, name, age, salary, etc.

Syntax
1. class ClassName:
2. <statement-1>
3. .
4. .
5. <statement-N>

Method
The method is a function that is associated with an object. In Python, a method is not
unique to class instances. Any object type can have methods.

Inheritance
Inheritance is the most important aspect of object-oriented programming which
simulates the real world concept of inheritance. It specifies that the child object acquires
all the properties and behaviors of the parent object.

By using inheritance, we can create a class which uses all the properties and behavior of
another class. The new class is known as a derived class or child class, and the one
whose properties are acquired is known as a base class or parent class.

It provides re-usability of the code.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism contains two words "poly" and "morphs". Poly means many and Morphs
means form, shape. By polymorphism, we understand that one task can be performed in
different ways. For example You have a class animal, and all animals speak. But they
speak differently. Here, the "speak" behavior is polymorphic in the sense and depends
on the animal. So, the abstract "animal" concept does not actually "speak", but specific
animals (like dogs and cats) have a concrete implementation of the action "speak".

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Encapsulation
Encapsulation is also an important aspect of object-oriented programming. It is used to
restrict access to methods and variables. In encapsulation, code and data are wrapped
together within a single unit from being modified by accident.

Data Abstraction
Data abstraction and encapsulation both are often used as synonyms. Both are nearly
synonym because data abstraction is achieved through encapsulation.

Abstraction is used to hide internal details and show only functionalities. Abstracting
something means to give names to things so that the name captures the core of what a
function or a whole program does.

Object-oriented vs Procedure-oriented Programming

languages
Index Object-oriented Programming Procedural Programming

1. Object-oriented programming is the Procedural programming uses a list

problem-solving approach and used of instructions to do computation
where computation is done by using step by step.
objects.

2. It makes the development and In procedural programming, It is

maintenance easier. not easy to maintain the codes
when the project becomes lengthy.

3. It simulates the real world entity. So It doesn't simulate the real world.
real-world problems can be easily It works on step by step
solved through oops. instructions divided into small parts
called functions.

4. It provides data hiding. So it is more Procedural language doesn't

secure than procedural languages. provide any proper way for data
You cannot access private data from binding, so it is less secure.
anywhere.

PYTHON: 165
 5. Example of object-oriented Example of procedural languages
programming languages is C++, are: C, Fortran, Pascal, VB etc.
Java, .Net, Python, C#, etc.

Python Class and Objects

As we have already discussed, a class is a virtual entity and can be seen as a blueprint of
an object. The class came into existence when it instantiated. Let's understand it by an
example.

Suppose a class is a prototype of a building. A building contains all the details about the
floor, doors, windows, etc. we can make as many buildings as we want, based on these
details. Hence, the building can be seen as a class, and we can create as many objects
of this class.

On the other hand, the object is the instance of a class. The process of creating an
object can be called as instantiation.

In this section of the tutorial, we will discuss creating classes and objects in python. We
will also talk about how an attribute is accessed by using the class object.

Creating classes in python

In python, a class can be created by using the keyword class followed by the class name.
The syntax to create a class is given below.

Syntax
1. class ClassName:
2. #statement_suite

In python, we must notice that each class is associated with a documentation string
which can be accessed by using <class-name>.__doc__. A class contains a statement
suite including fields, constructor, function, etc. definition.

Consider the following example to create a class Employee which contains two fields as
Employee id, and name.

The class also contains a function display() which is used to display the information of
the Employee.

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 Example
1. class Employee:
2. id = 10;
3. name = "ayush"
4. def display (self):
5. print(self.id,self.name)

Here, the self is used as a reference variable which refers to the current class object. It
is always the first argument in the function definition. However, using self is optional in
the function call.

Creating an instance of the class

A class needs to be instantiated if we want to use the class attributes in another class or
method. A class can be instantiated by calling the class using the class name.

The syntax to create the instance of the class is given below.

1. <object-name> = <class-name>(<arguments>)

The following example creates the instance of the class Employee defined in the above
example.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. id = 10;
3. name = "John"
4. def display (self):
5. print("ID: %d \nName: %s"%(self.id,self.name))
6. emp = Employee()
7. emp.display()

Output:

ID: 10
Name: ayush

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 Python Constructor
A constructor is a special type of method (function) which is used to initialize the
instance members of the class.

Constructors can be of two types.

1. Parameterized Constructor
2. Non-parameterized Constructor

Constructor definition is executed when we create the object of this class. Constructors
also verify that there are enough resources for the object to perform any start-up task.

Creating the constructor in python

In python, the method __init__ simulates the constructor of the class. This method is
called when the class is instantiated. We can pass any number of arguments at the time
of creating the class object, depending upon __init__ definition. It is mostly used to
initialize the class attributes. Every class must have a constructor, even if it simply relies
on the default constructor.

Consider the following example to initialize the Employee class attributes.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. def __init__(self,name,id):
3. self.id = id;
4. self.name = name;
5. def display (self):
6. print("ID: %d \nName: %s"%(self.id,self.name))
7. emp1 = Employee("John",101)
8. emp2 = Employee("David",102)
9.
10. #accessing display() method to print employee 1 information
11.
12. emp1.display();
13.
14. #accessing display() method to print employee 2 information
15. emp2.display();

Output:

ID: 101
Name: John
ID: 102
Name: David

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 Example: Counting the number of objects of a class
1. class Student:
2. count = 0
3. def __init__(self):
4. Student.count = Student.count + 1
5. s1=Student()
6. s2=Student()
7. s3=Student()
8. print("The number of students:",Student.count)

Output:

The number of students: 3

Python Non-Parameterized Constructor Example

1. class Student:
2. # Constructor - non parameterized
3. def __init__(self):
4. print("This is non parametrized constructor")
5. def show(self,name):
6. print("Hello",name)
7. student = Student()
8. student.show("John")

Output:

This is non parametrized constructor

Hello John

Python Parameterized Constructor Example

1. class Student:
2. # Constructor - parameterized
3. def __init__(self, name):
4. print("This is parametrized constructor")
5. self.name = name
6. def show(self):
7. print("Hello",self.name)
8. student = Student("John")
9. student.show()

PYTHON: 169
 Output:

This is parametrized constructor

Hello John

Python In-built class functions

The in-built functions defined in the class are described in the following table.

SN Function Description

1 getattr(obj,name,default) It is used to access the attribute of the object.

2 setattr(obj, name,value) It is used to set a particular value to the specific

attribute of an object.

3 delattr(obj, name) It is used to delete a specific attribute.

4 hasattr(obj, name) It returns true if the object contains some specific

attribute.

Example
1. class Student:
2. def __init__(self,name,id,age):
3. self.name = name;
4. self.id = id;
5. self.age = age
6.
7. #creates the object of the class Student
8. s = Student("John",101,22)
9.
10. #prints the attribute name of the object s
11. print(getattr(s,'name'))
12.
13. # reset the value of attribute age to 23
14. setattr(s,"age",23)
15.
16. # prints the modified value of age
17. print(getattr(s,'age'))

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18.
19. # prints true if the student contains the attribute with name id
20.
21. print(hasattr(s,'id'))
22. # deletes the attribute age
23. delattr(s,'age')
24.
25. # this will give an error since the attribute age has been deleted
26. print(s.age)

Output:

John
23
True
AttributeError: 'Student' object has no attribute 'age'

Built-in class attributes

Along with the other attributes, a python class also contains some built-in class
attributes which provide information about the class.

The built-in class attributes are given in the below table.

SN Attribute Description

1 __dict__ It provides the dictionary containing the information about the

class namespace.

2 __doc__ It contains a string which has the class documentation

3 __name__ It is used to access the class name.

4 __module__ It is used to access the module in which, this class is defined.

5 __bases__ It contains a tuple including all base classes.

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 Example
1. class Student:
2. def __init__(self,name,id,age):
3. self.name = name;
4. self.id = id;
5. self.age = age
6. def display_details(self):
7. print("Name:%s, ID:%d, age:%d"%(self.name,self.id))
8. s = Student("John",101,22)
9. print(s.__doc__)
10. print(s.__dict__)
11. print(s.__module__)

Output:

None
{'name': 'John', 'id': 101, 'age': 22}
__main__

Python Inheritance
Inheritance is an important aspect of the object-oriented paradigm. Inheritance provides
code reusability to the program because we can use an existing class to create a new
class instead of creating it from scratch.

In inheritance, the child class acquires the properties and can access all the data
members and functions defined in the parent class. A child class can also provide its
specific implementation to the functions of the parent class. In this section of the
tutorial, we will discuss inheritance in detail.

In python, a derived class can inherit base class by just mentioning the base in the
bracket after the derived class name. Consider the following syntax to inherit a base
class into the derived class.

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 Syntax
1. class derived-class(base class):
2. <class-suite>

A class can inherit multiple classes by mentioning all of them inside the bracket.
Consider the following syntax.

Syntax
1. class derive-class(<base class 1>, <base class 2>, ..... <base class n>):
2. <class - suite>

Example 1
1. class Animal:
2. def speak(self):
3. print("Animal Speaking")
4. #child class Dog inherits the base class Animal
5. class Dog(Animal):
6. def bark(self):
7. print("dog barking")
8. d = Dog()
9. d.bark()
10. d.speak()

Output:

dog barking
Animal Speaking

Python Multi-Level inheritance

Multi-Level inheritance is possible in python like other object-oriented languages. Multi-
level inheritance is archived when a derived class inherits another derived class. There is
no limit on the number of levels up to which, the multi-level inheritance is archived in
python.

PYTHON: 173
 The syntax of multi-level inheritance is given below.

Syntax
1. class class1:
2. <class-suite>
3. class class2(class1):
4. <class suite>
5. class class3(class2):
6. <class suite>
7. .
8. .

Example
1. class Animal:
2. def speak(self):
3. print("Animal Speaking")
4. #The child class Dog inherits the base class Animal
5. class Dog(Animal):
6. def bark(self):
7. print("dog barking")
8. #The child class Dogchild inherits another child class Dog
9. class DogChild(Dog):
10. def eat(self):
11. print("Eating bread...")
12. d = DogChild()
13. d.bark()
14. d.speak()
15. d.eat()

Output:

dog barking
Animal Speaking
Eating bread...

PYTHON: 174
 Python Multiple inheritance
Python provides us the flexibility to inherit multiple base classes in the child class.

The syntax to perform multiple inheritance is given below.

Syntax
1. class Base1:
2. <class-suite>
3.
4. class Base2:
5. <class-suite>
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. class BaseN:
10. <class-suite>
11.
12. class Derived(Base1, Base2, ...... BaseN):
13. <class-suite>

Example
1. class Calculation1:
2. def Summation(self,a,b):
3. return a+b;
4. class Calculation2:
5. def Multiplication(self,a,b):
6. return a*b;
7. class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
8. def Divide(self,a,b):
9. return a/b;
10. d = Derived()
11. print(d.Summation(10,20))
12. print(d.Multiplication(10,20))
13. print(d.Divide(10,20))

PYTHON: 175
 Output:

30
200
0.5

The issubclass(sub,sup) method

The issubclass(sub, sup) method is used to check the relationships between the specified
classes. It returns true if the first class is the subclass of the second class, and false
otherwise.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. class Calculation1:
2. def Summation(self,a,b):
3. return a+b;
4. class Calculation2:
5. def Multiplication(self,a,b):
6. return a*b;
7. class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
8. def Divide(self,a,b):
9. return a/b;
10. d = Derived()
11. print(issubclass(Derived,Calculation2))
12. print(issubclass(Calculation1,Calculation2))

Output:

True
False

The isinstance (obj, class) method

The isinstance() method is used to check the relationship between the objects and
classes. It returns true if the first parameter, i.e., obj is the instance of the second
parameter, i.e., class.

Consider the following example.

PYTHON: 176
 Example
1. class Calculation1:
2. def Summation(self,a,b):
3. return a+b;
4. class Calculation2:
5. def Multiplication(self,a,b):
6. return a*b;
7. class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
8. def Divide(self,a,b):
9. return a/b;
10. d = Derived()
11. print(isinstance(d,Derived))

Output:

True

Method Overriding
We can provide some specific implementation of the parent class method in our child
class. When the parent class method is defined in the child class with some specific
implementation, then the concept is called method overriding. We may need to perform
method overriding in the scenario where the different definition of a parent class method
is needed in the child class.

Consider the following example to perform method overriding in python.

Example
1. class Animal:
2. def speak(self):
3. print("speaking")
4. class Dog(Animal):
5. def speak(self):
6. print("Barking")
7. d = Dog()
8. d.speak()

Output:

Barking

PYTHON: 177
 Real Life Example of method overriding
1. class Bank:
2. def getroi(self):
3. return 10;
4. class SBI(Bank):
5. def getroi(self):
6. return 7;
7.
8. class ICICI(Bank):
9. def getroi(self):
10. return 8;
11. b1 = Bank()
12. b2 = SBI()
13. b3 = ICICI()
14. print("Bank Rate of interest:",b1.getroi());
15. print("SBI Rate of interest:",b2.getroi());
16. print("ICICI Rate of interest:",b3.getroi());

Output:

Bank Rate of interest: 10

SBI Rate of interest: 7
ICICI Rate of interest: 8

Data abstraction in python

Abstraction is an important aspect of object-oriented programming. In python, we can
also perform data hiding by adding the double underscore (___) as a prefix to the
attribute which is to be hidden. After this, the attribute will not be visible outside of the
class through the object.

Consider the following example.

Example
1. class Employee:
2. __count = 0;
3. def __init__(self):
4. Employee.__count = Employee.__count+1
5. def display(self):
6. print("The number of employees",Employee.__count)
7. emp = Employee()
8. emp2 = Employee()
9. try:
10. print(emp.__count)
11. finally:
12. emp.display()

PYTHON: 178
Output:

The number of employees 2

AttributeError: 'Employee' object has no attribute '__count'

PYTHON: 179
 Python program to do arithmetical operations
The arithmetic operations are performed by calculator where we can perform addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. This example shows the basic arithmetic
operations i.e.

o Addition
o Subtraction
o Multiplication
o Division

See this example:

1. # Store input numbers:

2. num1 = input('Enter first number: ')
3. num2 = input('Enter second number: ')
4.
5. # Add two numbers
6. sum = float(num1) + float(num2)
7. # Subtract two numbers
8. min = float(num1) - float(num2)
9. # Multiply two numbers
10. mul = float(num1) * float(num2)
11. #Divide two numbers
12. div = float(num1) / float(num2)
13. # Display the sum
14. print('The sum of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, sum))
15.
16. # Display the subtraction
17. print('The subtraction of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, min))
18. # Display the multiplication
19. print('The multiplication of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, mul))
20. # Display the division
21. print('The division of {0} and {1} is {2}'.format(num1, num2, div))

Note: Here input numbers are 10 and 20.

PYTHON: 180
 Python program to solve quadratic equation
Quadratic equation:

Quadratic equation is made from a Latin term "quadrates" which means square. It is a
special type of equation having the form of:

ax2+bx+c=0

Here, "x" is unknown which you have to find and "a", "b", "c" specifies the numbers such
that "a" is not equal to 0. If a = 0 then the equation becomes liner not quadratic
anymore.

In the equation, a, b and c are called coefficients.

Let's take an example to solve the quadratic equation 8x2 + 16x + 8 = 0

See this example:

1. # import complex math module

2. import cmath
3. a = float(input('Enter a: '))
4. b = float(input('Enter b: '))
5. c = float(input('Enter c: '))
6.
7. # calculate the discriminant
8. d = (b**2) - (4*a*c)
9.
10. # find two solutions
11. sol1 = (-b-cmath.sqrt(d))/(2*a)
12. sol2 = (-b+cmath.sqrt(d))/(2*a)
13. print('The solution are {0} and {1}'.format(sol1,sol2))

Output:

PYTHON: 181
 Python program to swap two variables
Variable swapping:

In computer programming, swapping two variables specifies the mutual exchange of

values of the variables. It is generally done by using a temporary variable.

For example:

1. data_item x := 1
2. data_item y := 0
3. swap (x, y)

After swapping:

1. data_item x := 0
2. data_item y := 1

See this example:

1. # Python swap program

2. x = input('Enter value of x: ')
3. y = input('Enter value of y: ')
4.
5. # create a temporary variable and swap the values
6. temp = x
7. x = y
8. y = temp
9.
10. print('The value of x after swapping: {}'.format(x))
11. print('The value of y after swapping: {}'.format(y))

Output:

PYTHON: 182
 Python program to generate a random
number
In Python programming, you can generate a random integer, doubles, longs etc . in
various ranges by importing a "random" class.

Syntax:

First you have to import the random module and then apply the syntax:

1. import random
2. random.randint(a,b)

See this example:

1. import random
2. print(random.randint(100,500))

Output:

Python program to convert kilometers to miles

Here, we are going to see the python program to convert kilometers to miles. Let's
understand kilometers and miles first.

Kilometer:

The kilometer is a unit of length in the metric system. It is equivalent to 1000 meters.

Miles:

Mile is also the unit of length. It is equal to 1760 yards.

PYTHON: 183
 Conversion formula:

1 kilometer is equal to 0.62137 miles.

1. Miles = kilometer * 0.62137

2. Kilometer = Miles / 0.62137

See this example:

1. # Collect input from the user

2. kilometers = float(input('How many kilometers?: '))
3. # conversion factor
4. conv_fac = 0.621371
5. # calculate miles
6. miles = kilometers * conv_fac
7. print('%0.3f kilometers is equal to %0.3f miles' %(kilometers,miles))

Output:

Python program to convert Celsius to

Fahrenheit
Celsius:

Celsius is a unit of measurement for temperature. It is also known as centigrade. It is a

SI derived unit used by most of the countries worldwide.

It is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius.

Fahrenheit:

Fahrenheit is also a temperature scale. It is named on Polish-born German physicist

Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit. It uses degree Fahrenheit as a unit for temperature.

Conversion formula:

PYTHON: 184
 T(℉) = T(℃) x 9/5 + 32

Or,

T(℉) = T(℃) x 1.8 + 32

See this example:

1. # Collect input from the user

2. celsius = float(input('Enter temperature in Celsius: '))
3.
4. # calculate temperature in Fahrenheit
5. fahrenheit = (celsius * 1.8) + 32
6. print('%0.1f Celsius is equal to %0.1f degree Fahrenheit'%(celsius,fahrenheit))

Output:

Python program to display calendar

It is simple in python programming to display calendar. To do so, you need to import the
calendar module which comes with Python.

1. import calendar
2. And then apply the syntax
3. (calendar.month(yy,mm))

See this example:

1. import calendar
2. # Enter the month and year
3. yy = int(input("Enter year: "))
4. mm = int(input("Enter month: "))
5.
6. # display the calendar
7. print(calendar.month(yy,mm))

Output:

PYTHON: 185
 Python Program to Add Two Matrices
What is Matrix?

In mathematics, matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols or expressions

arranged in the form of rows and columns. For example: if you take a matrix A which is
a 2x3 matrix then it can be shown like this:

1. 2 3 5
2. 8 12 7

Image representation:

In Python, matrices can be implemented as nested list. Each element of the matrix is
treated as a row. For example X = [[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]] would represent a 3x2 matrix.
First row can be selected as X[0] and the element in first row, first column can be
selected as X[0][0].

PYTHON: 186
 Let's take two matrices X and Y, having the following value:

1. X = [[1,2,3],
2. [4,5,6],
3. [7,8,9]]
4.
5. Y = [[10,11,12],
6. [13,14,15],
7. [16,17,18]]

Create a new matrix result by adding them.

See this example:

1. X = [[1,2,3],
2. [4,5,6],
3. [7,8,9]]
4.
5. Y = [[10,11,12],
6. [13,14,15],
7. [16,17,18]]
8.
9. Result = [[0,0,0],
10. [0,0,0],
11. [0,0,0]]
12. # iterate through rows
13. for i in range(len(X)):
14. # iterate through columns
15. for j in range(len(X[0])):
16. result[i][j] = X[i][j] + Y[i][j]
17. for r in result:
18. print(r)

Output:

PYTHON: 187
 Python Program to Multiply Two Matrices
This Python program specifies how to multiply two matrices, having some certain values.

Matrix multiplication:

Matrix multiplication is a binary operation that uses a pair of matrices to produce another
matrix. The elements within the matrix are multiplied according to elementary
arithmetic.

See this example:

1.
2. X = [[1,2,3],
3. [4,5,6],
4. [7,8,9]]
5.
6. Y = [[10,11,12],
7. [13,14,15],
8. [16,17,18]]
9.
10. Result = [[0,0,0],
11. [0,0,0],
12. [0,0,0]]
13.
14. # iterate through rows of X
15. for i in range(len(X)):
16. for j in range(len(Y[0])):
17. for k in range(len(Y)):
18. result[i][j] += X[i][k] * Y[k][j]
19. for r in result:
20. print(r)

Output:

PYTHON: 188
 Python Program to Transpose a Matrix
Transpose Matrix:

If you change the rows of a matrix with the column of the same matrix, it is known as
transpose of a matrix. It is denoted as X'. For example: The element at i th row and
jth column in X will be placed at jth row and ith column in X'.

Let's take a matrix X, having the following elements:

1. X = [[1,2],
2. [4,5],
3. [7,8]]

See this example:

1. X = [[1,2],
2. [4,5],
3. [7,8]]
4.
5. Result = [[0,0,0],
6. [0,0,0]]
7.
8. # iterate through rows
9. for i in range(len(X)):
10. for j in range(len(X[0])):
11. result[j][i] = X[i][j]
12.
13. for r in result:
14. print(r)

PYTHON: 189
 Output:

Python Program to Sort Words in Alphabetic

Order
Sorting:

Sorting is a process of arrangement. It arranges data systematically in a particular

format. It follows some algorithm to sort data.

See this example:

1. my_str = input("Enter a string: ")

2. # breakdown the string into a list of words
3. words = my_str.split()
4. # sort the list
5. words.sort()
6. # display the sorted words
7. for word in words:
8. print(word)

PYTHON: 190
 Output:

Python Program to Remove Punctuation from

a String
Punctuation:

The practice, action, or system of inserting points or other small marks into texts, in
order to aid interpretation; division of text into sentences, clauses, etc., is called
punctuation. -Wikipedia

Punctuation are very powerful. They can change the entire meaning of a sentence.

See this example:

o "Woman, without her man, is nothing" (the sentence boasting about men's
importance.)
o "Woman: without her, man is nothing" (the sentence boasting about women's
importance.)

This program is written to remove punctuation from a statement.

See this example:

1. # define punctuation
2. punctuation = '''''!()-[]{};:'"\,<>./?@#$%^&*_~'''
3. # take input from the user
4. my_str = input("Enter a string: ")
5. # remove punctuation from the string

PYTHON: 191
6. no_punct = ""
7. for char in my_str:
8. if char not in punctuation:
9. no_punct = no_punct + char
10. # display the unpunctuated string
11. print(no_punct)

Output:

Python Program to check if a Number is Positive,

Negative or Zero
We can use a Python program to distinguish that if a number is positive,
negative or zero.

Positive Numbers: A number is known as a positive number if it has a greater value

than zero. i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.

Negative Numbers: A number is known as a negative number if it has a lesser value

than zero. i.e. -1, -2, -3, -4 etc.

See this example:

1. num = float(input("Enter a number: "))

2.
3. if num > 0:
4. print("{0} is a positive number".format(num))

PYTHON: 192
5. elif num == 0:
6. print("{0} is zero".format(num))
7. else:
8. print("{0} is negative number".format(num))

Output:

Note:In the above example, elif statement is used. The elif statement is used to check
multiple expressions for TRUE and executes a block of code when one of the conditions
becomes TRUE.

It is always followed by if statement.

Python Program to Check if a Number is Odd

or Even
Odd and Even numbers:

If you divide a number by 2 and it gives a remainder of 0 then it is known as even

number, otherwise an odd number.

PYTHON: 193
 Even number examples: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, etc.

Odd number examples:1, 3, 5, 7, 9 etc.

See this example:

1. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

2. if (num % 2) == 0:
3. print("{0} is Even number".format(num))
4. else:
5. print("{0} is Odd number".format(num))

Output:

Python Program to Check Leap Year

Leap Year:

A year is called a leap year if it contains an additional day which makes the number of
the days in that year is 366. This additional day is added in February which makes it 29
days long.

A leap year occurred once every 4 years.

How to determine if a year is a leap year?

You should follow the following steps to determine whether a year is a leap year or not.

PYTHON: 194
 1. If a year is evenly divisible by 4 means having no remainder then go to next step.
If it is not divisible by 4. It is not a leap year. For example: 1997 is not a leap
year.
2. If a year is divisible by 4, but not by 100. For example: 2012, it is a leap year. If
a year is divisible by both 4 and 100, go to next step.
3. If a year is divisible by 100, but not by 400. For example: 1900, then it is not a
leap year. If a year is divisible by both, then it is a leap year. So 2000 is a leap
year.

See this example:

1. year = int(input("Enter a year: "))

2. if (year % 4) == 0:
3. if (year % 100) == 0:
4. if (year % 400) == 0:
5. print("{0} is a leap year".format(year))
6. else:
7. print("{0} is not a leap year".format(year))
8. else:
9. print("{0} is a leap year".format(year))
10. else:
11. print("{0} is not a leap year".format(year))

Output:

PYTHON: 195
 Python Program to Check Prime Number
Prime numbers:

A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 and having no positive divisor other
than 1 and itself.

For example: 3, 7, 11 etc are prime numbers.

Composite number:

Other natural numbers that are not prime numbers are called composite numbers.

For example: 4, 6, 9 etc. are composite numbers.

See this example:

1. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

2.
3. if num > 1:
4. for i in range(2,num):
5. if (num % i) == 0:
6. print(num,"is not a prime number")
7. print(i,"times",num//i,"is",num)
8. break
9. else:
10. print(num,"is a prime number")
11.
12. else:
13. print(num,"is not a prime number")

Output:

PYTHON: 196
 Python Program to Print all Prime Numbers
between an Interval
We have already read the concept of prime numbers in the previous program. Here, we
are going to print the prime numbers between given interval.

See this example:

1. #Take the input from the user:

2. lower = int(input("Enter lower range: "))
3. upper = int(input("Enter upper range: "))
4.
5. for num in range(lower,upper + 1):
6. if num > 1:
7. for i in range(2,num):
8. if (num % i) == 0:
9. break
10. else:
11. print(num)

This example will show the prime numbers between 10 and 50.

PYTHON: 197
 Output:

Python Program to Display the multiplication

Table
In Python, you can make a program to display the multiplication table of any number.
The following program displays the multiplication table (from 1 to 10) according to the
user input.

See this example:

1. num = int(input("Show the multiplication table of? "))

2. # using for loop to iterate multiplication 10 times
3. for i in range(1,11):
4. print(num,'x',i,'=',num*i)

The following example shows the multiplication table of 18.

Output:

PYTHON: 198
 Python Program to Print the Fibonacci
sequence
Fibonacci sequence:

The Fibonacci sequence specifies a series of numbers where the next number is found by
adding up the two numbers just before it.

For example:

1.
2. 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on....

See this example:

1. nterms = int(input("How many terms you want? "))

2. # first two terms
3. n1 = 0
4. n2 = 1
5. count = 2
6. # check if the number of terms is valid
7. if nterms <= 0:
8. print("Plese enter a positive integer")
9. elif nterms == 1:
10. print("Fibonacci sequence:")
11. print(n1)
12. else:
13. print("Fibonacci sequence:")
14. print(n1,",",n2,end=', ')
15. while count < nterms:

PYTHON: 199
16. nth = n1 + n2
17. print(nth,end=' , ')
18. # update values
19. n1 = n2
20. n2 = nth
21. count += 1

Output:

Python Program to Check Armstrong Number

Armstrong number:

A number is called Armstrong number if it is equal to the sum of the cubes of its own
digits.

For example: 153 is an Armstrong number since 153 = 1*1*1 + 5*5*5 + 3*3*3.

The Armstrong number is also known as narcissistic number.

See this example:

1. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

2. sum = 0
3. temp = num
4.
5. while temp > 0:

PYTHON: 200
6. digit = temp % 10
7. sum += digit ** 3
8. temp //= 10
9.
10. if num == sum:
11. print(num,"is an Armstrong number")
12. else:
13. print(num,"is not an Armstrong number")

Output:

Python Program to Find Armstrong Number

between an Interval
We have already read the concept of Armstrong numbers in the previous program. Here,
we print the Armstrong numbers within a specific given interval.

See this example:

1. lower = int(input("Enter lower range: "))

2. upper = int(input("Enter upper range: "))
3.
4. for num in range(lower,upper + 1):
5. sum = 0
6. temp = num
7. while temp > 0:

PYTHON: 201
8. digit = temp % 10
9. sum += digit ** 3
10. temp //= 10
11. if num == sum:
12. print(num)

This example shows all Armstrong numbers between 100 and 500.

Output:

Python Program to Find the Sum of Natural

Numbers
Natural numbers:

As the name specifies, a natural number is the number that occurs commonly and
obviously in the nature. It is a whole, non-negative number.

Some mathematicians think that a natural number must contain 0 and some don't
believe this theory. So, a list of natural number can be defined as:

1.
2. N= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .... and so on}
3. N= {1, 2, 3, 4, .... and so on}

PYTHON: 202
 See this example:

1. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

2.
3. if num < 0:
4. print("Enter a positive number")
5. else:
6. sum = 0
7. # use while loop to iterate un till zero
8. while(num > 0):
9. sum += num
10. num -= 1
11. print("The sum is",sum)

This example shows the sum of the first 100 positive numbers (0-100)

Output:

Python Program to Find LCM

LCM: Least Common Multiple/ Lowest Common Multiple

LCM stands for Least Common Multiple. It is a concept of arithmetic and number system.
The LCM of two integers a and b is denoted by LCM (a,b). It is the smallest positive
integer that is divisible by both "a" and "b".

For example: We have two integers 4 and 6. Let's find LCM

Multiples of 4 are:

1. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36,... and so on...

PYTHON: 203
 Multiples of 6 are:

1. 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42,... and so on....

Common multiples of 4 and 6 are simply the numbers that are in both lists:

1. 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72,.... and so on....

LCM is the lowest common multiplier so it is 12.

See this example:

1. def lcm(x, y):

2. if x > y:
3. greater = x
4. else:
5. greater = y
6. while(True):
7. if((greater % x == 0) and (greater % y == 0)):
8. lcm = greater
9. break
10. greater += 1
11. return lcm
12.
13.
14. num1 = int(input("Enter first number: "))
15. num2 = int(input("Enter second number: "))
16. print("The L.C.M. of", num1,"and", num2,"is", lcm(num1, num2))

The following example will show the LCM of 12 and 20 (according to the user input)

Output:

PYTHON: 204
 Python Program to Find HCF
HCF: Highest Common Factor

Highest Common Factor or Greatest Common Divisor of two or more integers when at
least one of them is not zero is the largest positive integer that evenly divides the
numbers without a remainder. For example, the GCD of 8 and 12 is 4.

For example:

We have two integers 8 and 12. Let's find the HCF.

The divisors of 8 are:

1. 1, 2, 4, 8

The divisors of 12 are:

1. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12

HCF /GCD is the greatest common divisor. So HCF of 8 and 12 are 4.

See this example:

1. def hcf(x, y):

2. if x > y:
3. smaller = y
4. else:
5. smaller = x
6. for i in range(1,smaller + 1):
7. if((x % i == 0) and (y % i == 0)):
8. hcf = i
9. return hcf
10.
11. num1 = int(input("Enter first number: "))
12. num2 = int(input("Enter second number: "))
13. print("The H.C.F. of", num1,"and", num2,"is", hcf(num1, num2))

The following example shows the HCF of 24 and 54. (according to user input)

Output:

PYTHON: 205
 Python Program to Convert Decimal to Binary,
Octal and Hexadecimal
Decimal System: The most widely used number system is decimal system. This system
is base 10 number system. In this system, ten numbers (0-9) are used to represent a
number.

Binary System: Binary system is base 2 number system. Binary system is used
because computers only understand binary numbers (0 and 1).

Octal System: Octal system is base 8 number system.

Hexadecimal System: Hexadecimal system is base 16 number system.

This program is written to convert decimal to binary, octal and hexadecimal.

See this example:

1. dec = int(input("Enter a decimal number: "))

2.
3. print(bin(dec),"in binary.")
4. print(oct(dec),"in octal.")
5. print(hex(dec),"in hexadecimal."

Output:

PYTHON: 206
 Python Program To Find ASCII value of a
character
ASCII: ASCII is an acronym stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. In ASCII, a specific numerical value is given to different characters and
symbols, for computers to store and manipulate.

It is case sensitive. Same character, having different format (upper case and lower case)
has different value. For example: The ASCII value of "A" is 65 while the ASCII value of
"a" is 97.

See this example:

1. c = input("Enter a character: ")

2.
3. print("The ASCII value of '" + c + "' is",ord(c))

Output:

PYTHON: 207
 Python Program to Make a Simple Calculator
In Python, you can create a simple calculator, displaying the different arithmetical
operations i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

The following program is intended to write a simple calculator in Python:

See this example:

1. # define functions
2. def add(x, y):
3. """This function adds two numbers""
4. return x + y
5. def subtract(x, y):
6. """This function subtracts two numbers"""
7. return x - y
8. def multiply(x, y):
9. """This function multiplies two numbers"""
10. return x * y
11. def divide(x, y):
12. """This function divides two numbers"""
13. return x / y
14. # take input from the user
15. print("Select operation.")
16. print("1.Add")
17. print("2.Subtract")
18. print("3.Multiply")
19. print("4.Divide")
20.
21. choice = input("Enter choice(1/2/3/4):")
22.
23. num1 = int(input("Enter first number: "))
24. num2 = int(input("Enter second number: "))
25.
26. if choice == '1':
27. print(num1,"+",num2,"=", add(num1,num2))
28.
29. elif choice == '2':
30. print(num1,"-",num2,"=", subtract(num1,num2))
31.
32. elif choice == '3':
33. print(num1,"*",num2,"=", multiply(num1,num2))
34. elif choice == '4':
35. print(num1,"/",num2,"=", divide(num1,num2))
36. else:

PYTHON: 208
37. print("Invalid input")

Output:

PYTHON: 209
 Python Function to Display Calendar
In Python, we can display the calendar of any month of any year by importing the
calendar module.

See this example:

1. # First import the calendar module

2. import calendar
3. # ask of month and year
4. yy = int(input("Enter year: "))
5. mm = int(input("Enter month: "))
6. # display the calendar
7. print(calendar.month(yy,mm))

Output:

Python Program to Display Fibonacci

Sequence Using Recursion
Fibonacci sequence:

A Fibonacci sequence is a sequence of integers which first two terms are 0 and 1 and all
other terms of the sequence are obtained by adding their preceding two numbers.

For example: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 and so on...

PYTHON: 210
 See this example:

1. def recur_fibo(n):
2. if n <= 1:
3. return n
4. else:
5. return(recur_fibo(n-1) + recur_fibo(n-2))
6. # take input from the user
7. nterms = int(input("How many terms? "))
8. # check if the number of terms is valid
9. if nterms <= 0:
10. print("Plese enter a positive integer")
11. else:
12. print("Fibonacci sequence:")
13. for i in range(nterms):
14. print(recur_fibo(i))

Output:

PYTHON: 211
 Python Program to Find Factorial of Number
Using Recursion
Factorial: Factorial of a number specifies a product of all integers from 1 to that
number. It is defined by the symbol explanation mark (!).

For example: The factorial of 5 is denoted as 5! = 1*2*3*4*5 = 120.

See this example:

1. def recur_factorial(n):
2. if n == 1:
3. return n
4. else:
5. return n*recur_factorial(n-1)
6. # take input from the user
7. num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
8. # check is the number is negative
9. if num < 0:
10. print("Sorry, factorial does not exist for negative numbers")
11. elif num == 0:
12. print("The factorial of 0 is 1")
13. else:
14. print("The factorial of",num,"is",recur_factorial(num))

Output:

PYTHON: 212