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Fabio Nelli

Python Data Analytics

With Pandas, NumPy, and Matplotlib
2nd ed.
Fabio Nelli
Rome, Italy

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the

author in this book is available to readers on GitHub via the book’s
product page, located at www.​apress.​com/​9781484239124 . For more
detailed information, please visit http://​www.​apress.​com/​source-code
.

ISBN 978-1-4842-3912-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-3913-1

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-3913-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018957991

© Fabio Nelli 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the

Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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“Science leads us forward in knowledge, but only analysis makes us more
aware”
This book is dedicated to all those who are constantly looking for
awareness
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​An Introduction to Data Analysis
Data Analysis
Knowledge Domains of the Data Analyst
Computer Science
Mathematics and Statistics
Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
Professional Fields of Application
Understanding the Nature of the Data
When the Data Become Information
When the Information Becomes Knowledge
Types of Data
The Data Analysis Process
Problem Definition
Data Extraction
Data Preparation
Data Exploration/​Visualization
Predictive Modeling
Model Validation
Deployment
Quantitative and Qualitative Data Analysis
Open Data
Python and Data Analysis
Conclusions
Chapter 2:​Introduction to the Python World
Python—The Programming Language
 Python—The Interpreter
Python 2 and Python 3
Installing Python
Python Distributions
Using Python
Writing Python Code
IPython
PyPI—The Python Package Index
The IDEs for Python
SciPy
NumPy
Pandas
matplotlib
Conclusions
Chapter 3:​The NumPy Library
NumPy:​A Little History
The NumPy Installation
Ndarray:​The Heart of the Library
Create an Array
Types of Data
The dtype Option
Intrinsic Creation of an Array
Basic Operations
Arithmetic Operators
The Matrix Product
Increment and Decrement Operators
 Universal Functions (ufunc)
Aggregate Functions
Indexing, Slicing, and Iterating
Indexing
Slicing
Iterating an Array
Conditions and Boolean Arrays
Shape Manipulation
Array Manipulation
Joining Arrays
Splitting Arrays
General Concepts
Copies or Views of Objects
Vectorization
Broadcasting
Structured Arrays
Reading and Writing Array Data on Files
Loading and Saving Data in Binary Files
Reading Files with Tabular Data
Conclusions
Chapter 4:​The pandas Library—An Introduction
pandas:​The Python Data Analysis Library
Installation of pandas
Installation from Anaconda
Installation from PyPI
Installation on Linux
 Installation from Source
A Module Repository for Windows
Testing Your pandas Installation
Getting Started with pandas
Introduction to pandas Data Structures
The Series
The DataFrame
The Index Objects
Other Functionalities on Indexes
Reindexing
Dropping
Arithmetic and Data Alignment
Operations Between Data Structures
Flexible Arithmetic Methods
Operations Between DataFrame and Series
Function Application and Mapping
Functions by Element
Functions by Row or Column
Statistics Functions
Sorting and Ranking
Correlation and Covariance
“Not a Number” Data
Assigning a NaN Value
Filtering Out NaN Values
Filling in NaN Occurrences
Hierarchical Indexing and Leveling
 Reordering and Sorting Levels
Summary Statistic by Level
Conclusions
Chapter 5:​pandas:​Reading and Writing Data
I/​O API Tools
CSV and Textual Files
Reading Data in CSV or Text Files
Using RegExp to Parse TXT Files
Reading TXT Files Into Parts
Writing Data in CSV
Reading and Writing HTML Files
Writing Data in HTML
Reading Data from an HTML File
Reading Data from XML
Reading and Writing Data on Microsoft Excel Files
JSON Data
The Format HDF5
Pickle—Python Object Serialization
Serialize a Python Object with cPickle
Pickling with pandas
Interacting with Databases
Loading and Writing Data with SQLite3
Loading and Writing Data with PostgreSQL
Reading and Writing Data with a NoSQL Database:​MongoDB
Conclusions
Chapter 6:​pandas in Depth:​Data Manipulation
 Data Preparation
Merging
Concatenating
Combining
Pivoting
Removing
Data Transformation
Removing Duplicates
Mapping
Discretization and Binning
Detecting and Filtering Outliers
Permutation
Random Sampling
String Manipulation
Built-in Methods for String Manipulation
Regular Expressions
Data Aggregation
GroupBy
A Practical Example
Hierarchical Grouping
Group Iteration
Chain of Transformations
Functions on Groups
Advanced Data Aggregation
Conclusions
Chapter 7:​Data Visualization with matplotlib
The matplotlib Library
Installation
The IPython and IPython QtConsole
The matplotlib Architecture
Backend Layer
Artist Layer
Scripting Layer (pyplot)
pylab and pyplot
pyplot
A Simple Interactive Chart
The Plotting Window
Set the Properties of the Plot
matplotlib and NumPy
Using the kwargs
Working with Multiple Figures and Axes
Adding Elements to the Chart
Adding Text
Adding a Grid
Adding a Legend
Saving Your Charts
Saving the Code
Converting Your Session to an HTML File
Saving Your Chart Directly as an Image
Handling Date Values
Chart Typology
Line Charts
 Line Charts with pandas
Histograms
Bar Charts
Horizontal Bar Charts
Multiserial Bar Charts
Multiseries Bar Charts with pandas Dataframe
Multiseries Stacked Bar Charts
Stacked Bar Charts with a pandas Dataframe
Other Bar Chart Representations
Pie Charts
Pie Charts with a pandas Dataframe
Advanced Charts
Contour Plots
Polar Charts
The mplot3d Toolkit
3D Surfaces
Scatter Plots in 3D
Bar Charts in 3D
Multi-Panel Plots
Display Subplots Within Other Subplots
Grids of Subplots
Conclusions
Chapter 8:​Machine Learning with scikit-learn
The scikit-learn Library
Machine Learning
Supervised and Unsupervised Learning
 Training Set and Testing Set
Supervised Learning with scikit-learn
The Iris Flower Dataset
The PCA Decomposition
K-Nearest Neighbors Classifier
Diabetes Dataset
Linear Regression:​The Least Square Regression
Support Vector Machines (SVMs)
Support Vector Classification (SVC)
Nonlinear SVC
Plotting Different SVM Classifiers Using the Iris Dataset
Support Vector Regression (SVR)
Conclusions
Chapter 9: Deep Learning with TensorFlow
Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, and Deep Learning
Artificial intelligence
Machine Learning Is a Branch of Artificial Intelligence
Deep Learning Is a Branch of Machine Learning
The Relationship Between Artificial Intelligence, Machine
Learning, and Deep Learning
Deep Learning
Neural Networks and GPUs
Data Availability:​Open Data Source, Internet of Things, and
Big Data
Python
Deep Learning Python Frameworks
Artificial Neural Networks
 How Artificial Neural Networks Are Structured
Single Layer Perceptron (SLP)
Multi Layer Perceptron (MLP)
Correspondence Between Artificial and Biological Neural
Networks
TensorFlow
TensorFlow:​Google’s Framework
TensorFlow:​Data Flow Graph
Start Programming with TensorFlow
Installing TensorFlow
Programming with the IPython QtConsole
The Model and Sessions in TensorFlow
Tensors
Operation on Tensors
Single Layer Perceptron with TensorFlow
Before Starting
Data To Be Analyzed
The SLP Model Definition
Learning Phase
Test Phase and Accuracy Calculation
Multi Layer Perceptron (with One Hidden Layer) with
TensorFlow
The MLP Model Definition
Learning Phase
Test Phase and Accuracy Calculation
Multi Layer Perceptron (with Two Hidden Layers) with
TensorFlow
 Test Phase and Accuracy Calculation
Evaluation of Experimental Data
Conclusions
Chapter 10:​An Example— Meteorological Data
A Hypothesis to Be Tested:​The Influence of the Proximity of
the Sea
The System in the Study:​The Adriatic Sea and the Po Valley
Finding the Data Source
Data Analysis on Jupyter Notebook
Analysis of Processed Meteorological Data
The RoseWind
Calculating the Mean Distribution of the Wind Speed
Conclusions
Chapter 11:​Embedding the JavaScript D3 Library in the IPython
Notebook
The Open Data Source for Demographics
The JavaScript D3 Library
Drawing a Clustered Bar Chart
The Choropleth Maps
The Choropleth Map of the U.​S.​Population in 2014
Conclusions
Chapter 12:​Recognizing Handwritten Digits
Handwriting Recognition
Recognizing Handwritten Digits with scikit-learn
The Digits Dataset
Learning and Predicting
Recognizing Handwritten Digits with TensorFlow
 Learning and Predicting
Conclusions
Chapter 13:​Textual Data Analysis with NLTK
Text Analysis Techniques
The Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK)
Import the NLTK Library and the NLTK Downloader Tool
Search for a Word with NLTK
Analyze the Frequency of Words
Selection of Words from Text
Bigrams and Collocations
Use Text on the Network
Extract the Text from the HTML Pages
Sentimental Analysis
Conclusions
Chapter 14:​Image Analysis and Computer Vision with OpenCV
Image Analysis and Computer Vision
OpenCV and Python
OpenCV and Deep Learning
Installing OpenCV
First Approaches to Image Processing and Analysis
Before Starting
Load and Display an Image
Working with Images
Save the New Image
Elementary Operations on Images
Image Blending
 Image Analysis
Edge Detection and Image Gradient Analysis
Edge Detection
The Image Gradient Theory
A Practical Example of Edge Detection with the Image
Gradient Analysis
A Deep Learning Example:​The Face Detection
Conclusions
Appendix A:​Writing Mathematical Expressions with LaTeX
With matplotlib
With IPython Notebook in a Markdown Cell
With IPython Notebook in a Python 2 Cell
Subscripts and Superscripts
Fractions, Binomials, and Stacked Numbers
Radicals
Fonts
Accents
Appendix B:​Open Data Sources
Political and Government Data
Health Data
Social Data
Miscellaneous and Public Data Sets
Financial Data
Climatic Data
Sports Data
Publications, Newspapers, and Books
Musical Data
Index
About the Author and About the Technical
Reviewer

About the Author

Fabio Nelli
is a data scientist and Python consultant, designing and developing
Python applications for data analysis and visualization. He has
experience with the scientific world, having performed various data
analysis roles in pharmaceutical chemistry for private research
companies and universities. He has been a computer consultant for
many years at IBM, EDS, and Hewlett-Packard, along with several banks
and insurance companies. He has an organic chemistry master’s degree
and a bachelor’s degree in information technologies and automation
systems, with many years of experience in life sciences (as as Tech
Specialist at Beckman Coulter, Tecan, Sciex).
For further info and other examples, visit his page at
https://www.meccanismocomplesso.org and the GitHub page
https://github.com/meccanismocomplesso .

About the Technical Reviewer

Raul Samayoa
is a senior software developer and machine learning specialist with
many years of experience in the financial industry. An MSc
graduate from the Georgia Institute of Technology, he’s never met a
neural network or dataset he did not like. He’s fond of evangelizing the
use of DevOps tools for data science and software development.
Raul enjoys the energy of his hometown of Toronto, Canada, where
he runs marathons, volunteers as a technology instructor with the
University of Toronto coders, and likes to work with data in Python and
R.
© Fabio Nelli 2018
Fabio Nelli, Python Data Analytics
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-3913-1_1

1. An Introduction to Data Analysis

Fabio Nelli1

(1) Rome, Italy

In this chapter, you begin to take the first steps in the world of data
analysis, learning in detail about all the concepts and processes that
make up this discipline. The concepts discussed in this chapter are
helpful background for the following chapters, where these concepts
and procedures will be applied in the form of Python code, through the
use of several libraries that will be discussed in just as many chapters.

Data Analysis
In a world increasingly centralized around information technology,
huge amounts of data are produced and stored each day. Often these
data come from automatic detection systems, sensors, and scientific
instrumentation, or you produce them daily and unconsciously every
time you make a withdrawal from the bank or make a purchase, when
you record various blogs, or even when you post on social networks.
But what are the data? The data actually are not information, at
least in terms of their form. In the formless stream of bytes, at first
glance it is difficult to understand their essence if not strictly the
number, word, or time that they report. Information is actually the
result of processing, which, taking into account a certain dataset,
extracts some conclusions that can be used in various ways. This
process of extracting information from raw data is called data analysis .
The purpose of data analysis is to extract information that is not
easily deducible but that, when understood, leads to the possibility of
carrying out studies on the mechanisms of the systems that have
produced them, thus allowing you to forecast possible responses of
these systems and their evolution in time.
Starting from a simple methodical approach on data protection,
data analysis has become a real discipline, leading to the development
of real methodologies generating models. The model is in fact the
translation into a mathematical form of a system placed under study.
Once there is a mathematical or logical form that can describe system
responses under different levels of precision, you can then make
predictions about its development or response to certain inputs. Thus
the aim of data analysis is not the model, but the quality of its predictive
power .
The predictive power of a model depends not only on the quality of
the modeling techniques but also on the ability to choose a good
dataset upon which to build the entire data analysis process. So the
search for data, their extraction, and their subsequent preparation,
while representing preliminary activities of an analysis, also belong to
data analysis itself, because of their importance in the success of the
results.
So far we have spoken of data, their handling, and their processing
through calculation procedures. In parallel to all stages of processing of
data analysis, various methods of data visualization have been
developed. In fact, to understand the data, both individually and in
terms of the role they play in the entire dataset, there is no better
system than to develop the techniques of graphic representation
capable of transforming information, sometimes implicitly hidden, in
figures, which help you more easily understand their meaning. Over the
years lots of display modes have been developed for different modes of
data display: the charts .
At the end of the data analysis process, you will have a model and a
set of graphical displays and then you will be able to predict the
responses of the system under study; after that, you will move to the
test phase. The model will be tested using another set of data for which
you know the system response. These data are, however, not used to
define the predictive model. Depending on the ability of the model to
replicate real observed responses, you will have an error calculation
and knowledge of the validity of the model and its operating limits.
 These results can be compared with any other models to
understand if the newly created one is more efficient than the existing
ones. Once you have assessed that, you can move to the last phase of
data analysis—deployment . This consists of implementing the results
produced by the analysis, namely, implementing the decisions to be
taken based on the predictions generated by the model and the
associated risks.
Data analysis is well suited to many professional activities. So,
knowledge of it and how it can be put into practice is relevant. It allows
you to test hypotheses and to understand more deeply the systems
analyzed.

Knowledge Domains of the Data Analyst

Data analysis is basically a discipline suitable to the study of problems
that may occur in several fields of applications. Moreover, data analysis
includes many tools and methodologies that require good knowledge of
computing, mathematical, and statistical concepts.
A good data analyst must be able to move and act in many different
disciplinary areas. Many of these disciplines are the basis of the
methods of data analysis, and proficiency in them is almost necessary.
Knowledge of other disciplines is necessary depending on the area of
application and study of the particular data analysis project you are
about to undertake, and, more generally, sufficient experience in these
areas can help you better understand the issues and the type of data
needed.
Often, regarding major problems of data analysis, it is necessary to
have an interdisciplinary team of experts who can contribute in the
best possible way in their respective fields of competence. Regarding
smaller problems, a good analyst must be able to recognize problems
that arise during data analysis, inquire to determine which disciplines
and skills are necessary to solve these problems, study these
disciplines, and maybe even ask the most knowledgeable people in the
sector. In short, the analyst must be able to know how to search not
only for data, but also for information on how to treat that data.

Computer Science
Knowledge of computer science is a basic requirement for any data
analyst. In fact, only when you have good knowledge of and experience
in computer science can you efficiently manage the necessary tools for
data analysis. In fact, every step concerning data analysis involves using
calculation software (such as IDL, MATLAB, etc.) and programming
languages (such as C ++, Java, and Python).
The large amount of data available today, thanks to information
technology, requires specific skills in order to be managed as efficiently
as possible. Indeed, data research and extraction require knowledge of
these various formats. The data are structured and stored in files or
database tables with particular formats. XML, JSON, or simply XLS or
CSV files, are now the common formats for storing and collecting data,
and many applications allow you to read and manage the data stored on
them. When it comes to extracting data contained in a database, things
are not so immediate, but you need to know the SQL query language or
use software specially developed for the extraction of data from a given
database.
Moreover, for some specific types of data research, the data are not
available in an explicit format, but are present in text files (documents
and log files) or web pages, and shown as charts, measures, number of
visitors, or HTML tables. This requires specific technical expertise for
the parsing and the eventual extraction of these data (called web
scraping ).
So, knowledge of information technology is necessary to know how
to use the various tools made available by contemporary computer
science, such as applications and programming languages. These tools,
in turn, are needed to perform data analysis and data visualization.
The purpose of this book is to provide all the necessary knowledge,
as far as possible, regarding the development of methodologies for data
analysis. The book uses the Python programming language and
specialized libraries that provide a decisive contribution to the
performance of all the steps constituting data analysis, from data
research to data mining, to publishing the results of the predictive
model.

Mathematics and Statistics

As you will see throughout the book, data analysis requires a lot of
complex math during the treatment and processing of data. You need to
be competent in all of this, at least to understand what you are doing.
Some familiarity with the main statistical concepts is also necessary
because all the methods that are applied in the analysis and
interpretation of data are based on these concepts. Just as you can say
that computer science gives you the tools for data analysis, so you can
say that the statistics provide the concepts that form the basis of data
analysis.
This discipline provides many tools to the analyst, and a good
knowledge of how to best use them requires years of experience.
Among the most commonly used statistical techniques in data analysis
are
Bayesian methods
Regression
Clustering
Having to deal with these cases, you’ll discover how mathematics
and statistics are closely related. Thanks to the special Python libraries
covered in this book, you will be able to manage and handle them.

Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence

One of the most advanced tools that falls in the data analysis camp is
machine learning. In fact, despite the data visualization and techniques
such as clustering and regression, which should help you find
information about the dataset, during this phase of research, you may
often prefer to use special procedures that are highly specialized in
searching patterns within the dataset.
Machine learning is a discipline that uses a whole series of
procedures and algorithms that analyze the data in order to recognize
patterns, clusters, or trends and then extracts useful information for
data analysis in an automated way.
This discipline is increasingly becoming a fundamental tool of data
analysis, and thus knowledge of it, at least in general, is of fundamental
importance to the data analyst.

Professional Fields of Application

Another very important point is the domain of competence of the data
(its source—biology, physics, finance, materials testing, statistics on
population, etc.). In fact, although analysts have had specialized
preparation in the field of statistics, they must also be able to document
the source of the data, with the aim of perceiving and better
understanding the mechanisms that generated the data. In fact, the
data are not simple strings or numbers; they are the expression, or
rather the measure, of any parameter observed. Thus, better
understanding where the data came from can improve their
interpretation. Often, however, this is too costly for data analysts, even
ones with the best intentions, and so it is good practice to find
consultants or key figures to whom you can pose the right questions.

Understanding the Nature of the Data

The object of study of data analysis is basically the data. The data then
will be the key player in all processes of data analysis. The data
constitute the raw material to be processed, and thanks to their
processing and analysis, it is possible to extract a variety of information
in order to increase the level of knowledge of the system under study,
that is, one from which the data came.

When the Data Become Information

Data are the events recorded in the world. Anything that can be
measured or categorized can be converted into data. Once collected,
these data can be studied and analyzed, both to understand the nature
of the events and very often also to make predictions or at least to make
informed decisions.

When the Information Becomes Knowledge

You can speak of knowledge when the information is converted into a
set of rules that helps you better understand certain mechanisms and
therefore make predictions on the evolution of some events.

Types of Data
Data can be divided into two distinct categories:
 Categorical (nominal and ordinal)
Numerical (discrete and continuous)
Categorical data are values or observations that can be divided into
groups or categories. There are two types of categorical values: nominal
and ordinal. A nominal variable has no intrinsic order that is identified
in its category. An ordinal variable instead has a predetermined order.
Numerical data are values or observations that come from
measurements. There are two types of numerical values: discrete and
continuous numbers. Discrete values can be counted and are distinct
and separated from each other. Continuous values, on the other hand,
are values produced by measurements or observations that assume any
value within a defined range.

The Data Analysis Process

Data analysis can be described as a process consisting of several steps
in which the raw data are transformed and processed in order to
produce data visualizations and make predictions thanks to a
mathematical model based on the collected data. Then, data analysis is
nothing more than a sequence of steps, each of which plays a key role in
the subsequent ones. So, data analysis is schematized as a process chain
consisting of the following sequence of stages:
Problem definition
Data extraction
Data preparation - Data cleaning
Data preparation - Data transformation
Data exploration and visualization
Predictive modeling
Model validation/test
Deploy - Visualization and interpretation of results
Deploy - Deployment of the solution
Figure 1-1 shows a schematic representation of all the processes
involved in the data analysis.
Figure 1-1 The data analysis process

Problem Definition
The process of data analysis actually begins long before the collection
of raw data. In fact, data analysis always starts with a problem to be
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was still a flourishing city, but commenced to decline as Surat
increased in importance. In the i8th century it was plundered more
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harbour began to silt up, and it is now an unimportant place.
Cambay was formerly a stronghold of the Jains, and still possesses
some of their MSS. , second only to those at Patan. The Jama Masjid
(12,2^) was built with fragments of Jain and Hindu temples. The
town is celebrated for the manufacture of agate, cornelian, and onyx
ornaments.] 291 m. Mehmadabad station. Picturesque view of river
from railway station. In the morning and evening troops of grey
monkeys play near the line. Mehmadabad was founded by Mahmud
Bigara in 1479. There is a fine tomb i\ m. E. of the town, built in
1484 in honour of Mubarak Saiyad, a minister of Mahmud. For
"simplicity about its plan, and solidity and balance of parts in the
design, it has rarely if ever been surpassed in any tomb in India." ^
Bigara also constructed the Bhamara Baoli well, passed on the way
to the tomb. It has two stone arches, on which it was said the king's
swing was hung. It is 74 ft. long by 24 ft. broad, is entered by four
winding stairs, and has eight underground chambers. Eaira, 7 m.
from Mehmadabad, by a gooa road shaded by fine trees (population
10.400), is the largest town in the district of that name. It consists
of two parts, the town 1 See Fergusson's Indian Architecture, ii. 244.
 ROUTE lO. MEHMADABAD — AHMEDABAD 123 proper and
the suburbs. Kaira is said to be as old as 1400 B.C. Copper-plate
grants show that the city was in existence in the 5^^^^ century.
The chief industry is printing cloth for saris and other native
garments. In the centre of the town is the Court House, a building
with pillars of a Greek order. Near it is a Jain temple, with beautiful
dark wood carving. Outside the E. gate is the new Jail. It was once a
military cantonment, but proved so unhealthy for Europeans that the
troops were withdrawn. The large church was consecrated by Bishop
Heber in 1822, and has a beautiful bell. Wild hog may still be found
in the district and the Nilgai {Portax pictus), antelope (Antilope
bezoartica), and Indian gazelle ( Gazella Bennettii), are common.
The Sartis {Ardea Antigone) is a tall grey crane with a crimson head.
Wild-fowl, bustard {Eupodotis Edwardsii), and florican {Sypheotides
auritus), partridges and quails, sand-grouse, plovers and bitterns,
pea-fowl and green pigeon, are found everywhere. The Mahsir
(Barbus Mosul) is found in the Mahi, Vatrak, Meshwa, and
Sabarmati, and afford excellent sport with the rod and fly, 310 m.
Ahmedabad 1 Jn. * Change to metre gauge railway for Delhi and
stations on C.I. line. This most beautiful city, covering an area of 2
sq. m. (215,000 inhabitants), stands on the left bank of the
Sabarmati river, in Lat. 23° 2 ', Long. 72° 38'. The remains of an old
wall, with twelve gateways, surround it. Ahmedabad, once the
greatest city in Western India, is said to have been from 1573 to
1600 the "handsomest town in Hindustan, perhaps in the world." In
Sir Thomas Roe's time, 1615, we are 1 No one should pass this
ancient capital, the stronghold of the Northern Jains, without
pausing long enough (four hours) to visit the Jama Masjid, the
Tombs of the Queens. and the Rani Sepree Mosque. The chief
objects of interest are marked ^. told, "it was a goodly city as large
as London." It was founded in 141 1 by Sultan Ahmad I., who made
Asaval, the old Hindu town now included in the S. part of the city,
his capital. It passed through two periods of greatness, two of
decay, and one of revival. From 1411 to 1511 it grew in size and
wealth; from 1512 to 1572 it declined with the decay of the dynasty
of Guzerat ; from 1572 to 1709 it recovered under the Mughals ;
from 1709 to 1809 it dwindled with them ; and from 1818 it has
again increased under British rule. There are 34 mills in it, employing
20,000 hands. It is supplied with filtered water obtained from wells
sunk in the bed of the river. The Cantonment lies 3^ m. N.E. of the
city, and is reached by a good road lined by an avenue of trees, the
haunt of thousands of parrots. Here there is an English Church, and
there is another, Ctirist Clmrch, in the Idaria Quarter, 500 yds. S. of
the Delhi Gate. It is hard to account for Ahmedabad being so little
known to modern travellers from Europe. It certainly ranks next to
Delhi and Agra for the beauty and the extent of its architectural
remains.^ Its architecture is an interesting and striking example of
the combination of Hindu and Mohammedan forms. "Nowhere did
the inhabitants of Ahmedabad show how essentially they were an
architectural people as in their utilitarian works (wells \^Baolis\ and
inlets to water reservoirs). It was a necessity of their nature that
every object should be made ornamental, and their success was as
great in these as in their mosques or palaces " (see Fergusson's
Indian Architecture). The Jain feeding-places for birds, which at the
first glance look like pigeon-houses, may be seen in many of the
streets, and are a peculiar feature 1 The amplest details of the
architecture of Ahmedabad will be fouad in a recent volume of the A
rcJuFological Survey 0/ N. India, by Mr Burgess.
 124 ROUTE lO. BOMBAY TO DELHI India of Ahmedabad :
they are extremely picturesque, ornamented with carving, and often
gaily painted. Many of the houses in the streets have fronts
beautifully ornamented with wood carving. The old parts of the city
are divided into quarters wholly separated off from one another. The
buildings in the city may be seen in the following order: — ■ The
Jama Masjid and Tombs of Ahmad Shah, and his wives ; the Rani
Sepree Tomb and Mosque ; Dastur Khan's Mosque ; the Tin
Darwazah ; the Bhadr Azam Khan's palace ; Sidi Said's Mosque ;
Ahmad Shah's Mosque ; Shaikh Hasan's Mosque ; the Rani (or
Queen's) Mosque in Mirzapur ; Muhafiz Khan's Mosque. With a
second morning to spare, he should start early and see Sarkhej,
across the river to the S.W., giving himself at least four hours for the
trip. A second afternoon could be devoted to the Kankariya Tank and
Shah 'Alam, S. of the city, and perhaps the modern Jain Temple of
Hathisingh, outside the Delhi Gate. Near the railway station are the
handsome lofty minarets and arched central gateway, which are all
that remain of a mosque^ (l) destroyed in the struggle with the
Mahrattas in 1753The Jama Masjid (3),* or principal mosque, stands
near the centre of the city, on the S. side of the main street (Manik
Chauk), a little E. of the Three Gateways. It was built by Sultan
Ahmad I. (Ahmad Shah) in 1424. Mr Fergusson says : " Though not
remarkable for its size, it is one of the most beautiful mosques in the
East." The mosque is entered from the N. by a flight of steps. On the
S. is another porch leading into the street, and on the E. is the
enclosure, in which is the tomb of the founder. The court is
surrounded 1 These numbers in brackets refer to the numbers on
the accompanying plan. by a cloister. To the W. is the mosque
proper. On the threshold of the main arch, embedded in the
pavement, lies a black slab brought from Chintaman's Temple,
which, according to Mr Hope, is a Jain idol turned upside down for
the faithful to tread on ; and touching it on the E. is a white marble
crescent, where the Imam stands to pray. In the right-hand corner
on entering is a gallery, which was probably used by the members of
the royal family. The roof, supported by 260 columns, has fifteen
cupolas with galleries round the three in front. The centre cupola is
larger and much higher than the others. The two minarets lost half
their height in the earthquake of 16th June 1 81 9. They are now 43
ft. high.^ On the marble slab above the centre of the three kiblahs
or prayer-niches are these words in Arabic: "This high and far-
stretching mosque was raised by the slave who trusts in the mercy
of God, the compassionate, the alone to be worshipped." The Koran
says, "Truly mosques belong to God, worship no one else with Him."
"The slave who trusts in God, the Aider, Nasir-ud-dunya waud-din
Abu'l Fath Ahmad Shah, son of Muhammad Shah, son of Sultan
Muzafifar. " Through the E. gate is the Tomb of Ahmad Shall (2),
(repaired 1587). This domed building has a portico to the S. with
eighteen pillars. The windows are of perforated stonework. The
central chamber is 36 ft. square. It is paved with marble of different
colours. The centre cenotaph is that of Ahmad Shah, the one to the
W. is that of his son, Muhammad Shah,' and that on the E. is that of
his grandson, Kutab Shah, died 1441, 1451, and 1459 A.D. 50 yds.
to the E. across the street are the Tombs of the queens of 1 In 1781
Mr Forbes, in his Oriental Memoirs, said of them: "A circular flight of
steps led to a gallery near the top of each. A little force at the arch
of the upper gallery made both minarets shake, though the roof of
the mosque remained unmoved."
The text on this page is estimated to be only 9.74%
accurate

AHMEDABAD TOWB Ruined MosQue near the Rai/wny

Station Tnmbs of Ahmad Shah and his wues i/umma Musjid Rani
St^prpe\ Mosque Dastur Khan's Mosque Haibat Khan's Mosque 7
Fhe Triple Gatewaif 8. The Bhadr including 9. Azam Khan's Palace
10. Ahmad Shah's /f.' Mosque 11 The Manih Burj 12 Sidi Said's
Mosque 13 Shah Wa/ihuddin's Tomb 11. Said Aiam's Mosque 15. The
Rani's Mosque in Murzepur X^. Mosque of the Shaikh Hasan n.
Muhafiz Khan's Mosque . Qi IB.Sivami Narayan's r^mp/c'-; Suburbs :
^ 19. Hathi Sings Temple 1 20 Darya Khan's Tomb '. 21 Achut Bibi's
Mosque \ 22 Miyan Khan ChisH's \ Mosque 23. Dada Hnri's Well ; 24
Mata Bhawam's Well \ / 25 Chintaman's Temple \/ in Saraspur '*^
26. Hankariya Lake '• 27. Ranchhod Lai Chbota Laf Technical
Institute 28. H.C.Hnjh School ^ 29. \i^ictoria Gardens 30. Guzerat
College ^^i ,-fiA •/^. %■■■■' } The Cqmp ♦ / ^ %'n.^V' .<-€«•■
 ROUTE lO. AHMEDABAD I2C Ahmad Shah (2).* The houses
are so close that they quite shut out the fa9ade of the mausoleum,
which is raised on a platform. In the fa9ade are thirteen highly
ornamented carved recesses. Inside is a rectangular court, with a
corridor running round it. In the centre are eight large cenotaphs
and several small ones. The centre tombstone is fmely carved, and is
the tomb of Mughlai Bibi. It is of black stone or marble, inlaid with
white. This building is one of the finest in Ahmedabad, but much out
of repair Rani Sepree's Mosque and Tomb (4) * are almost the most
beautiful monuments in Ahmedabad. Rani Asni, by whom the
mosque and tomb were really built, was one of the wives of
Mahmud Bigara, and they were completed in 1514. "They are the
first of a series of buildings more delicately ornate than any that
preceded."^ The mosque has two minarets, about 50 ft. high,
having four compartments tapering up to the top. The roof is
supported by a row of six coupled pillars with single ones behind.
The roza, or tomb, is 36 ft. sq. Dastiir Khan's Mosque (5), built in
i486 by one of Mahmud Bigara's ministers. The open stone
screenwork that shuts in the cloister round the courtyard is very fine.
In the gateway the marks of shot may be seen. A few yds. to the E.
of Dastur Khan's Mosque is Asa Bhits Mound, the site of the fort of
the Bhil chief, from whom the town of Asaval had its name. A little to
the N.E. of the Jamalpur Gate is Haibat Khan's Mosque (6), which is
interesting as one of the earliest attempts to combine Mohammedan
and Hindu elements. Haibat Khan was one of the noblemen of
Ahmad Shah's court. The mosque is very plain. The front wall is
pierced by three small 1 Mr. T. Hope's Ahmedabad. pointed arches
some distance apart. The minarets are small and without ornament,
and rise like chimneys from the roof. The central dome, of Hindu
workmanship and of great beauty, is barely raised above the others.
The pillars, taken from difierent temples, display every variety of rich
ornament. Except for the form of its dome, the outer porch would
suit a Hindu temple. The Tin Darwazah, or Three Gateways (7), built
by Sultan Ahmad I., is of stone richly carved. It crosses the main
street a little to the N. of the Jama Masjid. This gateway led into the
outer court of the Bhadr, kno%vn as the Royal Square, and was
surrounded, in 1638, by two rows of palm trees and tamarinds (J. A.
de Mandelso's Voyages, 1662, p. 76). Facing the Bhadr Gate is a
municipal garden. N. of the garden is the High School, and to the W.
the Hemabhai Institute, with a good library and newspapers and
periodicals. Near it is the Mosque of Malik Sha'ban, with an
inscription that says it was built in the reign of Kutab-ud-din, by
Sh'aban, son of 'Imad-ul-mulk, in 856 A. H. = 1452 A.D. The Bhadr
(8), (pronounced Bhaddar), an ancient enclosure or citadel, built by
Ahmad Shah, 141 1, and named after the goddess Bhadra, a
propitious form of Kali, is occupied by public offices. In the E. face is
the Palace, built by 'Azam Khan (9), the 23rd Viceroy (1635-42), who
was called Udai, "the white ant," from his love of building. It is now
the Post Office. Over the gate is a Persian chronogram, giving the
date 1636 A.D. The N. entrance to the Bhadr is very handsome. The
gate under an archway is 18 ft. high, and opens into a regular
octagonal hall of great elegance, containing, in the upper story, an
arched gallery, having in front a low wall of opencut stone, and each
gallery surmounted by a cupola. Underneath this hall is a fine
vaulted chamber.
 126 ROUTE lO. BOMBAY TO DELHI India entered by a flight
of steps at each side, with a reservoir and fountain in the middle.
Close to the Jail is a temple to Bhadra Kali Mata. At the N.E. corner
is Sidi Said's Mosque (12),* which forms part of the wall, and was till
lately the Mamlatdar's office. Two of its windows are filled with
deUcate stone tracery of tree-stems and branches beautifully
wrought. Mr Fergusson, who gives an illustration of one of the
windows, says in his History of Architecture : " It would be difilicult
to excel the skill with which the vegetable forms are
conventionalised just to the extent required for the purpose. The
equal spacing also of the subject by the three ordinary trees and
four palms takes it out of the category of direct imitation of nature,
and renders it sufficiently structural for its situation ; but perhaps the
greatest skill is shown in the even manner in which the pattern is
spread over the whole surface. There are some exquisite specimens
of tracery in precious marbles at Agra and Delhi, but none quite
equal to this." In the S.W. corner of the Bhadr is Ahmad Shah's
Mosque (10), built by him in 1414, twenty years before the Jama
Masjid, being perhaps the oldest here. It is said to have been used
as the king's private chapel. Left on advancing towards the mosque,
was once the Ganj iShahid or Store of Martyrs, where were buried
the Moslems killed in storming the town. The fa9ade is almost bare
of ornament, with illdesigned pointed arches. The two minarets are
evidently unfinished. The niimbar, or pulpit, is adorned with what
looks like laurel leaves. The architecture shows the first attempts at
building a Moslem edifice in what had been a Hindu city. The pillars
still bear Hindu figures and emblems. The N. porch, leading into the
latticed ladies' gallery, is Hindu throughout, and may be part of a
temple in situ. W. of this mosque is the Manik Burj (11) or Ruby
Bastion, built round the foundation-stone of the city. There is a small
round tomb in the yard near the collector's office, which is said to be
that of Ibrahim Kuli Khan, a Persian warrior. Shah Wajihud-din's
Tomb (13), built by Saiyad Murtaza Khan Bokhari, iith Viceroy, 1606-
1609, is a very beautiful monument. Said 'Alam's Mosque (14), was
built about 1420 by Abubakr Husaini. The inner details are as rich as
Hindu art could make them. S. of this 170 yds. is The Rani Masjid
(Queen's Mosque) (15) in Mirzapitr, a few yds. to the S. of the D.B.,
built probably in Sultan Ahmad I.'s reign. There are two minarets,
unfinished or partly destroyed by an earthquake, and now only 33 ft.
high. The roof has three domes, and is supported by thirty-six plain
pillars. To the N.E. of the mosque is the roza or tomb (restored).
Under the dome are two cenotaphs of white marble ; the central one
is the tomb of Rupvati, a princess of Dhar. It is in good preservation,
while that on the W. side is much injured ; both are ornamented
with the chain and censer, a Hindu device. Mr Fergusson has given a
plan of this mosque, and says : " The lower part of the minaret is of
pure Hindu architecture. We can follow the progress of the
development of this form from the first rude attempt in the Jama
Masjid, through all its stages to the exquisite patterns of the Queen's
Mosque at Mirzapur." The Mosque of Shaikh Hasan Muhammad
Chishti in Shahpur (16) is in the N.VV. angle of the city, not far from
the Sabarmati, 1565 A.D. The minarets are unfinished. "The tracery
in the niches of their bases is perhaps superior to any other in the
city." On the S. or left side of the central arch is a Persian quatrain.
 ROUTE lO. AHMEDABAD 127 This chronogram gives the
date 1566 A.D. East of the Rani's Masjid the Mosque of Muhaflz Klian
(17) was built in 1465 by Jamal-ud-din Muhafiz Khan, governor of
the city in 1471 under Mahmud Bigara. It is the best preserved of all
the mosques. According to Mr Hope, "its details are exquisite," and
the minarets of the mosque and those of Rani Sepree "surpass those
of Cairo in beauty." S. of this mosque is the modern Swami
Narayan's Temple (18), finished in 1850. It has an octagonal dome,
supported on twelve pillars, and is a fine building. Close to it is the
Pinjrapol or Asylum for Animals. The enclosure is surrounded by
sheds where about 800 animals are lodged. There is also a room
where insects are fed. Close to the S. of it are nine tombs, each 18
ft. 3 in. long, called the Nau Gaz Pirs, "the Nine Yard Saints." They
are most likely the tombs of a number of men killed in some battle.
The Mosque, Tomb, and ^College of Shuja'at Klian. This mosque,
which stands 400 yds. N. E. of the Lai Gate of the Bhadr, has two
slender minarets, and is divided by piers into five bays, and over the
kiblah are written the creed and date = 1695. The walls, up to 6 ft.,
are lined with marble. The tomb is of brick, with a marble floor,
much destroyed. It is called both the Marble and the Ivory Mosque.
Ahmedabad is celebrated for its Handicraftsmen — goldsmiths,
jewellers, etc., who carry the chopped form of jewellery (the finest
archaic jewellery in India) to the highest perfection ; copper and
brass-workers, as instanced particularly in the very graceful and
delicate brass - screens and pandans (betel -boxes) ; carpenters,
who have long been famous for their superior carving in shisham, or
mongrel blackwood, of which the finest specimens are to be found
here ; stone-masons, lacquer-workers, carvers in ivory, — also for
the manufacture of "Bombay boxes " ; mock ornaments for idols ;
leather shields ; cotton cloth (four monster steam-factories) ;
calicoprinting, gold-figured silks, and gold and silver tissues ;
Kimkhwab (kinkab), or brocades (the noblest produced in India) ;
gold and silver lace and thread, and all manner of tinsel ornaments.
Its industrial importance is shown by the fact that " the Nagar-Seth"
or city lord, of Ahmedabad is the titular head of all the Guilds and
one of the highest personages in the city. Carpets\\'3.\Q. also
become a speciality of Ahmedabad, and the manufactories as well as
the workshops of the other crafts are well worth visiting. ENVIRONS.
— For 12 m. round Ahmedabad the country is full of interesting ruins
; but here only the principal can be mentioned. Just outside the
Delhi Gate, on the N., is the modern HatM Singh Temple (19),* built
of white marble and surmounted by fifty-three domes. This and a
rest-house and family mansion close by were finished in 1848, at a
cost of Rs. 1 ,000,000. The dimensions of this temple are of the first
order ; its style the pure Jain ; and it stands a convincing proof that
the native architecture has not been extinguished by centuries of
repression. In its sculptures may be seen representations of the
twenty-four holy men, or Tirthankars, and hundreds of other images,
all similar, but each labelled on the base with the emblem of some
distinct Jain. The entrance is from a courtyard surrounded by a
corridor, where woollen slippers are provided before ascending a
portico richly carved and supported by pillars The temple consists of
an outer and an inner chamber, both paved with coloured marbles
chiefly from Makran in Rajputana : in the latter is the image of
Dharmnath, who is represented as a beautiful youth, with a
sparkling tiara of imitation diamonds. Mr Fergusson says: "Each part
in 
 128 ROUTE lO. BOMBAY TO DELHI India creases in dignity
to the sanctuary. The exterior expresses the interior more completely
than even a Gothic design, and, whether looked at from its courts or
from the outside, it possesses variety without confusion, and an
appropriateness of every part to the purpose intended." N.W. of this
is the ruined Tomb of Darya Khan (20), 1453, chief minister of
Mahmud Bigara. The dome is 9 ft. thick, and the largest in Guzerat.
Not far beyond it is the Chhota or small Slialii Bagb, of no
architectural interest, now a private house, where it is said the ladies
of the royal harem lived. Across the railway line is the Shahi Bagh, a
very fine garden-house, now the residence of the Commissioner of
the N. Division. A subterranean passage is said to communicate
between the two places. The building was erected in 1622 by Shah
Jahan, when Viceroy of Ahmedabad, to give work to the poor during
a season of scarcity. In the i6th century this was the great resort for
the people of the city. The Shahi Bagh is close to the railway bridge
over the Sabarmati, which river it overlooks. Half a m. S.W. of the
Shahi Bagh is Miyan Khan Chlshti's Mosque (22), built in 1465 by
Malik Maksud Vazir ; and \ m. more to the S.W. is Achut Bibi's
Mosque (21), built in 1469 by 'Imadu'l mulk, one of Bigara's
ministers, for his wife Bibi Achut Kuki, whose tomb is close by. There
were seven minarets here, all of which were thrown down in the
earthquake of 1819. Returning from this point, the drive may be
continued to the N. E. side of the city, to Asarva, about \ m. N. E. of
the Daryapur Gate, where are the Baolis or Wells of Dada Hari (23) *
and Mata Bbawani. The real name of Dada is said by the local
people to have been Halim, "mild," and they call him Dada Hari. He
is said to have been the husband of the Dai, or nurse of one of the
kings. There is an ascent from the road to the platform which
surrounds the well's mouth. A domed portico, supported by twelve
pillars, gives entrance to three tiers of finely constructed galleries
below ground, which lead to the octagonal well, with inscriptions in
Sanscrit and Arabic. The well beyond the octagonal one has pillars
round it and a fence wall. Beyond this is a circular well for irrigation.
A very narrow staircase leads to the level ground, where by the side
of the well are two stone kiosks. About 50 yds. to the W. is Dada
Hurl's Mosque, one of the best decorated buildings at Ahmedabad,
though no marble is employed. The stone is of a dull reddish-grey
colour. The bases of the two minarets are richly carved ; a portion of
them was thrown down by the earthquake of 1 8 19. To the N. is the
Roza of Dada Hari or Halim. The N. door is exquisitely carved, but
the inside is quite plain. Mata Bbawani (24). — This well is about
100 yrds. N. of Dada Hari's, but is much older, and is thought to be
of the time of Karan, when Ahmedabad was called Karanavati. The
descent to the water from the platform is by fifty-two steps and
pillared galleries as at Dada Hari. The porticoes are quite plain, and
the well is altogether inferior to that of Dada Hari. Most of the
houses in the Madhavpura suburb are warehouses, and it is the
great business quarter. Saraspur, E. of the railway station, is a
distinct walled town, the largest of the suburbs. In this suburb is the
Jain Temple of Chintaman (25), restored in 1868 by Shantidas, a rich
merchant, at a cost of Rs. 900,000. Aurangzeb defiled it and
changed it into a mosque. The Jains petitioned the Emperor Shah
Jahan, who ordered his son to repair and restore the temple. But in
1666 Thevonet speaks of it as a mosque ( Voyages, v. p. 28). f m.
S.E. of the Rajpur Gate is the Hauz-i-Kutab, generally called the
Kankariya Lake (26), or Pebble Lake. This reservoir, one of the
largest of its kind in this part of India, is a regular polygon of thirty-
four sides, each side 190 ft. long, the whole being more than I m.
round. The area is 72 acres. It was constructed by Sultan
 ROUTE lO. BATWA — SARKHEJ 129 Kutab-ud-din in 145 1,
and was then surrounded by many tiers of cut-stone steps, with six
sloping approaches, flanked by cupolas and an exquisitely carved
water-sluice. In the centre was an island, with a garden called
Nagina or the Gem, and a pavilion called Ghattamandal. In 1872 Mr
Borrodaile, the Collector, repaired the building, and made a road
from the Rajpur Gate. On the E. bank of the lake are some Dutch
and Armenian tombs, Saracenic in style, with domes and pillars a
good deal ruined. The dates range from 1 641 to 1689. This
expedition may be continued to Batwa, which is almost 5 m. due S.
of the Rajpur Gate. Here Burhanud-din Kutab-ul-Alam, the grandson
of a famous saint buried at Uch on the Sutlej, is interred. He came
to the court of Sultan Ahmad I., settled at Batwa, and died there in
1452. A vast mausoleum of fine design and proportions was erected
to his memory. It resembles the buildings at Sarkhej, but the aisles
are ^.rched and vaulted, and the dome is raised by a second tier of
arches. The workmanship is most elaborate, but the building is
unfortunately much out of repair. Adjoining it are a mosque and
tank. The tomb of Shah 'Alam, the son of the saint buried at Batwa,
is 2 m. S.E. of the town on the Batwa road. Before reaching the
tomb the road passes under two plain gateways, and then through
one with a Nakar Khana (music gallery) above the archway, and so
into a vast court. To the W. is the mosque, which has two minarets
of seven stories, handsomely carved and about 90 ft. high. The
tomb of Shah 'Alam is to the E., and is protected by metal lattices :
he was a spiritual guide of Mahmud Bigara and died in 1475. To the
S. is an assembly hall, built by Muzaffar III. (1561-72) and partly
destroyed by the British in 1780 to furnish materials for the siege of
the city. The tomb is said to have been built by Taj Khan Nariali, one
of Mahmud's courtiers. Early in the 17th century Asaf Khan (p. 238),
brother of the Empress Nur Jahan, adorned the dome with gold and
precious stones. The floor of the tomb is inlaid with black and white
marble, the doors are of open brasswork, and the frame in which
they set, as well as what shows between the door-frame and the
two stone pillars to the right and left, is of pure white marble
beautifully carved and pierced. The tomb itself is enclosed by an
inner wall of pierced stone. The outer wall in the N. is of stone
trellis-work of the most varied design, and here Shaikh Kabir,
renowned for his learning, who died in 161S, is buried. The mosque
was built by Muhammad Salih Badakhshi. The minarets were much
damaged by the earthquake of 1819, but have been repaired, and
are now in good order. To the S. of the mosque is a tomb like that of
the chief mausoleum where the family of Shah 'Alam are buried.
Outside the wall to the W. is a reservoir, built by the wife of Taj Khan
Nariali. Sarkhej is 6 m. to the S.W. of the Jamalpore Gate, whence a
good carriage will take two people comfortably in about an hour.
Sarkhej is served by the railway line to Dholka (p. 130), but the
service is not likely to be suitable to visitors. The road crosses the
Sabarmati river, the channel of which is about i m. broad, but the
water in the dry weather is only 2 ft. deep. On the left bank is the
Victoria Garden, of which the site was given by Govt, to the city, with
a marble seated statue of the Queen Empress by Mr G. A. Mhatre.
The river-bed is dotted with enclosures for the cultivation of melons,
potatoes, and other vegetables, and the running water is lined with
gaily-dressed women washing their clothes. Garments of every
shape and of the brightest colours are laid out to dry. These persons
are not professional washerwomen, but belong to many classes of
society. The remains of a bridge will be seen near the crossing ; both
it and the railway bridge were carried away by the great flood in
1875, but the latter
 I30 ROUTE to. BOMBAY TO DELHI India was at once
restored. Near the bridge the city wall is from 40 to 60 ft. high. The
road from the river's bank is good, with rich fields on either side,
and at if m. right is the massive brick. Mausoleum of Azam and
Mu'azzam, built probablyin 1457. These brothers are said to have
been the architects of Sarkhej, and to have come from Khorasan.
The immense structure which contains their tombs is raised on a
platform. About 300 yds. from the principal buildings at Sarkhej
there are two brick towers about 30 ft. high, the bases of which,
close to the ground, have been so dug away that it seems a miracle
they do not fall. After another 200 yds., the road passes under two
arches, leading into the courtyard of Sarkhej. To the left on entering
is the fine mausoleum of Mahmud Bigara^ and his sons, and
connected with it by a beautiful portico another equally magnificent
tomb on the border of the tank for his queen Rajabai. To the right is
the Tomb of the Saint Shaikh Ahmad KhaltiL Ganj Bakhsh, called also
Maghrabi. Ganj Bakhsh lived at Anhalvvara, and was the spiritual
guide of Sultan Ahmad I. , and a renowned Mohammedan saint ; he
retired to Sarkhej, and died there in 1445 ^^ the age of in, and this
magnificent tomb and mosque were erected to his memor)'. The
tomb is the largest of its kind in Guzerat, and has a great central
dome and many smaller ones. Over the central door of the tomb is a
Persian quatrain. It gives the date 1473 a.d. The shrine inside is
octagonal, surrounded by finely-worked brass lattice-windows. The
pavement is of coloured marbles, and the dome inside richly gilt ;
from it hangs a long silver chain which once reached to the ground.
The vast adjoining Mosque is the perfection of elegant simplicity : it
has ten cupolas supported on eighteen rows of pillars. The whole of
these buildings, says Mr Fergusson, "are constructed without a
single arch ; all the pillars have the 1 Reigned 1459-1513 a.d. Bigara
means with horn-like moustaches. usual bracket capitals of the
Hindus, and all the domes are on the horizontal principle." S. of the
saint's tomb is that of his disciple Shaikh Salah-ud-din. Mahmud
Bigara excavated the great tank of 17^ acres, surrounded it by
flights of stone steps, constructed a richly-decorated supply-sluice,
and built at its S.W. corner a splendid palace and harem (now in
ruins). With the lake, the Sarkhej buildings form the most beautiful
group in Ahmedabad, They belong to the best period of the style,
and have the special interest of being almost purely Hindu, with only
the faintest trace of the Mohammedan style. Numbers of people
bathe in the tank in spite of the alligators. A little S. of the lake is the
tomb of Baba Ali Sher, a saint even more venerated than Ganj
Bakhsh. It is small, ugly, and white-washed. Close by arethe rema ns
ofMirza Khan Khanan's Garden of Victory, laid out in 1584 after his
defeat of Muzaffar III., the last Ahmedabad king. In the 17th century
.Sarkhej was so famous for indigo that in 1620 the Dutch established
a factory there. Leaving Ahmedabad, the metre gauge railway
crosses the Sabarmati river quite close to the Shahi-bagh on a fine
bridge which carries the rails for both gauges and a footway on one
side. At 314 m. Sabarmati junction station the narrow gauge
continues N. to Delhi, whilst the broad gauge turns \V. for
Wadhwanand Kathiawar (Rte. 11). There are also branch lines to the
S.W. to Dholka {-i-;^ m.) passing Sarkhej (above), and to the N.E.
to Parantij (41 m.) and Idar (55 m.). The chief of Idar is Major-
General M aharaja Sir Partab Singh, G. C. S. I. , K.C.B., A.D.C., uncle
of the late Maharaja of Jodhpur. The country going N. is flat and well
cultivated. The beautiful and celebrated well at Adalaj is in this
direction, but can perhaps be more easily visited by road. 353 m.
Mebsana junction station. This is one of the most important
 ROUTE lO. MOUNT ABU railway centres in Guzerat, as it is
the junction for three branch lines constructed by the Gaekwar of
Baroda. They are : (i) a line passing through Visnagax, Vadnagar,
and Kheralu, total distance 27 m., general direction N.E. ; (2) a line
to Patan, the historic capital of Guzerat, distance 24 m. N.W. ; (3) a
line to Viramgam, 40 m. S.W., made to connect the Rajputana and
Kathiawar metre-gauge lines of railway. (For Viramgam see p. 148).
On these branch lines two places only need be noticed here.
[Vadnagar, 21 m. N.E. (population 13,700). This place, once very
important as the site of Anandpura, is stated to have been
conquered by a Rajput prince from Ayodhya in 145 A.D. There are
some interesting ruins, including a very iine Kirti Stambha gateway,
and the Temple of Hatkeshvar Mahadeo is worth a visit. It is now the
religious capital of the Nagar Brahmans, a most influential class of
men in Guzerat and Kathiawar. It was long the chartered refuge of
the Dhinoj Brahmans, a class of robbers who were protected and
taxed by successive native governments down to quite a recent
date. Patan, 24 m. N.W. of Mehsana (population 31,500). The city
stands on the site of the ancient Anhilvara, capital of the Hindu kings
of Guzerat, which was taken by Mahmud of Ghazni on his way to
attack the temple of Somnath in 1024 a.d. The site for generations
has been a quarry whence beautiful carved stones have been carried
to other places. It is still famous for its libraries of Jain MSS. There
are no less than 108 Jain temples here.] 366 m. Unjha station. A
town in the Baroda territory, and the headquarters of the
Kadwakanbis, a peculiar caste of agriculturists. Marriages among
them take place but once in eleven years, when every girl over forty
days old must be married on one or other of the days fixed. Should
no husband be found, a proxy bridegroom is sometimes set up and
married to a number of girls who immediately enter a state of
nominal widowhood until an eligible suitor presents himself, when a
second marriage takes place. 374 m. Sidlipur station (population
16,224). It stands on the steep northern bank of the Sarasvati river,
and the scene in the bed of the stream during the day in the dry
weather is specially gay. The place is of extreme antiquity, and
contains the ruins of Rudra Mala, one of the most famous ancient
temples in W. India. It was wrecked by Ala-ud-din Khilji in 1297 ;
and much of it has been carried off since for building purposes. The
stones are gigantic, and the carving superb, but very little of it
remains. A row of small temples has been converted into a mosque.
The more modern temples are very numerous. Kadi, the N. division
of Baroda, in which Sidhpur is situated, is the only part of the whole
of the Bombay Presidency in which poppies are allowed to be grown.
The opium is manufactured in Sidhpur at the State Sto7'es. 390 m.
Palanpur station (R.), D.B. The chief town of a native state of that
name, the residence of a Political Agent. [Railway N.W. to the
military station of Deesa on the R. Banas 20 m. distant.] 425 m. Abu
Road station "*(■ (R.), D.B. This is a well-built, attractivelooking
place. Mount Abu looks down on it from the N.W. [The excursion to
Mount Abu is one of the most interesting in India, on account of the
Jain temples. The ascent to it, 16^ m., is by a good road, now
practicable for tongas — (cost Rs. 10, per seat Rs. 4), which should
be ordered beforehand by telegram. An ekka for luggage costs Rs.
4.8 as. Rooms should be secured beforehand at the small Rajputana
Hotel. The Dilwarra temples can be visited only in the afternoon —
pass necessary from the Magt., Mount Abu. Though part of the
Aravalli range, which runs up to Delhi, Abu is detached from that
chain by a valley
 132 ROUTE lO. BOMBAY TO DELHI India about 15 m. wide.
The plateau at the top is about 14 m. by 4 m., and varies in height
from 4000 to 5600 ft. Mount Abu '¥ is the headquarters of the
Rajputana administration, and the residence of vakils or agents from
a large number of native states. It is also a sanatorium for European
troops and a hot-weather resort in the summer season. At it are the
Residency, Church, Lawrence Asylum Schools for children of soldiers,
Barracks, Cliih, Bazaar of shops, and a considerable number of
private houses on the margin of the Gem Lake, a most charming
piece of artificial water studded with islands, and overhung by a
curious rock that looks like a gigantic toad about to spring into the
water. The Railway Schools for children are outside the station on
the plateau. The surface of Mount Abu is very much broken up, so
that the carriage roads are very few, but there are many bridle-roads
and picturesque footpaths. The views over the plains from various
points are exceedingly fine. An attack was made on the place on
21st August 1857 by mutineers from the Erinpura force, but was
beaten off. The DUwarra Temples, the great attraction of Mount Abu,
are reached by a good bridle-path (2 m.). A pass to visit them is
necessary. In spite of ill-usage and some very bad restoration in
parts, the Dilwarra temples are very beautiful, and find a fitting
framework in their nest of mango trees, with green fields of barley
waving at their feet, and high hills surrounding them on all sides. "
The more modem of the two temples was built by the samebrothers,
Tejahpala and Vastupala, who erected the triple temple at Girnar.^
This one, we learn from inscriptions, was erected between I197 and
1247, andforminute delicacyof carving and beauty of detail stands
almost unrivalled, even in the land of patient and lavish labour. It Is
said to have taken fourteen years to build, and to have cost Rs.
18,000,000, » See p. 156. besides a large sum spent in levelling the
hill on which it stands. " The other, built by another merchant prince,
Vimala Sah, apparently about 1032 A. D. , is simpler and bolder,
though still as elaborate as good taste would allow in any purely
architectural object. Being one of the oldest as well as one of the
most complete examples known of a Jain temple, its peculiarities
form a convenient introduction to the style, and serve to illustrate
how complete and perfect it had already become when we first meet
with it in India. " The principal object here, as elsewhere, is a cell
lighted only from the door, containing a cross-legged seated figure of
the saint to whom the temple is dedicated, in this instance
Parswanatha. The cell terminates upwards in a sikra, or pyramidal
spire-like roof, which is common to all Hindu and Jain temples of the
age in the north of India. To this is attached a portico composed of
forty-eight freestanding pillars; and the whole is enclosed in an
oblong courtyard, about 140 ft. by 90 ft., surrounded by a double
colonnade of smaller pillars, forming porticoes to a range of fiftyfive
cells, which enclose it on all sides, exactly as they do in Buddhist
viharas. In this case, however, each cell, instead of being the
residence of a monk, is occupied by one of those crosslegged
images which belong alike to Buddhism and Jainism. Here they are,
according to the Jain practice, all repetitions of the same image of
Parswanatha, and over the door of each cell, or on its jambs, are
sculptured scenes from his life. The long beams, stretching from
pillar to pillar, supporting the roof, are relieved by curious angular
struts of white marble, springing from the middle of the pillar up to
the middle of the beam " (Fergusson, ii. 36-) Achilghax is reached by
following the bridle-path past Dilwarra forabout 4 m. to the village of
Uria, where there is a bungalow. From this a bad track turns right for
another i m. to the first temple. It is surrounded by
 ROUTE lO. JODHPUR 133 a wall, approached by a flight of
steps, and beautifully ornamented. S.E. of this are other temples on
higher ground overlooking the valley. The view is magnificent. These
are the buildings seen on the right during the ascent from Abu Road.
S. of the first temple is the Agni Kund, a tank famous in Hindu
mythology. On the bank is a marble image of Pramar with his bow,
and near him three large stone buffaloes. This figure is superior in
style and treatment to most ; and the same may be said of the
statues in other temples around the Hill of Abu, specially of the brass
figure at Gaumukh alluded to below. The Achilghar group is perhaps
as attractive as the more renowned temples at Dilwarra, though not
comparable in size or finish ; but the absence of modern work, and
an air of antiquity, solidity, and repose, make them worthy of all
admiration. Other paths lead to the following sites ; the beaten way
should not be left without a guide or person who knows the country
intimately. Gaumrikk, a beautifully situated temple 500 ft. down the
S.E. slope, and 3 m. from the church. There is a brass figure facing
the temple. Gautatna, on S. side of the hill, W. of Gaumukh ; 5 m.
firom station. Lovely view. Rishi Krishna, at the foot of the hill, S.E.
side, 14 m. from the Civil Station, is easily visited from Abu Road
railway station. 476 m. Erinpura Road for the cantonment of the
Erinpura Irregular Force, lying 6 m. W. The Jodhpur legion there, in
1857, mutinied on 23rd August, but spared its officers. Two weeks
later it defeated the troops of the Jodhpur State sent against them,
and finally started for Delhi. It was intercepted on i6th Octoberat
Narnaul (p. 145), and defeated by Colonel Gerrard, who lost his life
in the engagement. 25 m. S.E. of the railway station is the famous
marble temple of Sadri, which is really at Rampura, 5 m. S. of Sadri,
built by the Kumbo Rana (p. 94), and considered by Mr Fergusson to
be the finest Jain temple in all India {Indian Architecture, p. 240). It
can be visited only by riding and with the assistance of the officer
commanding at Erinpura. 528 m. Marwax Railway junction station.
Route to Hyderabad Sindh and excursion to Jodhpur. From this point
the Jodhpur-Bikanir Railway branches E. to (44 m. ) Ltini Jn. , and
then continues in a northerly direction. From Luni Junction a line 310
m. long runs to Balotra Junction for the salt-works at Pachbad7-a
{60 m.), and on through a desolate country to Hyderabad Sindh, in
15^ hours, and to (420 m. ) Korachi in 29^ hours — through
journey from Bombay in 43 hours. A refreshment car is now
attached to the trains on this line, which forms the most direct route
between Bombay and Korachi. Many miles before reaching Jodhpur
the Fort can be distinguished rising abruptly out of the bare plain. 64
m. JODHPUR station, D.B., the capital of the Rajput state of that
name, and of the country known as Marwar, is the residence of the
chief and of a Resident, from whom it is necessary to ask permission
to see the Fort. The State of Jodhpur or Marwar covers an area of
35,000 sq. m., with a population of 2,000,000; the revenue of the
state amounts to 49 lakhs. The present chief is H.II. Maharaja Dhiraj
Summair Singh. The state was founded from Kanauj, after the
defeat of the Rathors there in 1211. The City was built by Rao Jodha
in 1459, and from that time has been the seat of government.
Maharaja Udai Singh, of the Jodhpur House, and his grandson,
Maharaja Gaj Singh, were leading nobles at the Court of the
Emperors Akbar and Jahangir ; and Maharaja Jaswant Singh
commanded the armies of Shah Jahan and Dara Shikoh against the
forces of Princes Aurangzeb and
 134 ROUTE lO. BOMBAY TO DELHI India Muradin 1658,
anddied in Kabul, commanding the Imperial Forces there. The city
(population 79,000) stands on the S. end of a range of sandstone
hills running E. and W., and is surrounded by a strong wall nearly 6
m. in extent, with seven gates, each bearing the name of the town
to which it leads. Some of the houses and temples in the city are of
stone richly carved. Amongst the most important buildings are the
Temple in the Dhan Mandi (wheat market), and the Talaiti Mai, an
old palace now used as the Jaswant Female Hospital. The Fort
stands up boldly some 400 ft. above the city and the plain, and
presents a magnificent appearance. The rock is on every side
scarped, but especially at the N. end, where the palace is built on
the edge of a perpendicular cliff at least 120 ft. high. Strong walls
and numerous round and square towers encircle the crest of the hill.
A modern engineered road winds up the neighbouring slopes to a
massive gateway. Here is the first of seven barriers thrown across
the zigzag ascent, having immense portals with separate guards at
each. On the wall of the last are represented the hands of fifteen w
ives of the Maharajas who underwent sail at their deaths. At the top
of the rock are the highly interesting Old Palaces. There are
courtyards within courtyards, all solidly built and surrounded by
lattice windows of the most delicate and beautiful designs. Here in
the Treasttry are the Maharaja's jewels, a wonderful collection, and
well worth seeing. Some of the pearls, emeralds, and diamonds are
unusually fine. The silver trappings for elephants and horses should
also be noticed. The view from the palace windows is most
interesting and extensive, and shows the town nestling under the
huge rock. There was formerly great scarcity of water in the fort,
and the women had daily to walk all the way to Mandor (see p. 135)
to fetch it, but now it is brought up to the top of the fort in pipes.
There is a well in the fort 450 ft. deep. The principal Tants ^ are—
The Padam Sangar Tank in the N.W. part of the city, excavated out
of the rock, but of small size. In the same quarter is the Rani Saugar,
at the foot of the W. entrance into the fort with which it is connected
by outworks, and is chiefly reserved for the garrison and ladies
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