Computer Architecture

and Organization
[CSE2003]

1
Ashfaq Ahmad Najar
Faculty, SCSE,
VIT- Bhopal University.
2 Contents
UNIT – I: Introduction to Computer Architecture
Session – 1:
> Introduction to computer systems
> Overview of Organization and Architecture
> Functional components of a computer
> Overview of Von Neumann machine
3 Session Objectives

After this session students will be able to:

> Understand and identify functional components of
computer system.
> To discuss the evolution of computer system.
> To define computer organization and architecture.
4
 5 Entry Ticket

True or False? T F

It is sufficient that a computer be able to read/write from memory and perform

arithmetic operation.
Computers in 50s as well as 90s have a processor, memory and I/O as common
elements.
The three requirements driving architecture are functionality, hardware
technology and performance.
6 Entry Ticket
> 1. A source program is usually in
> 2. Name a memory device generally made up of semiconductors?
> 3. The control unit controls other units by generating
a) Control signals
b) Timing signals
c) Transfer signals
d) Command Signals
> 4. A basic instruction that can be interpreted by a computer generally has
a. An operand and an address
b . A decoder and an accumulator.
c. Sequence register and decoder.
d. None of these
 Vacuum Tubes (1940s)
7

• Controlled the flow of electricity.

• Used for, amplifying signals, switching and logic operations.
8 Transistors (1950s)

• Replaced Vacuum Tubes.

• Used for, amplifying signals, switching and logic operations.
9

Brief History of Computers

 Manual calculating devices:
10
The Abacus (c. 3 0 0 0 BCE)
 11 Napier’s Bones and
Logarithms (1617)

• Made up of rods with numbers inscribed on them.

• Perform multiplication and division quickly by using a clever arrangement of numbers.
Picture courtesy IBM
 Mechanical Calculators
Blaise Pascal’s
Pascaline (1645)

• First mechanical calculator known as Pascaline.

• Perform addition and subtraction automatically using a series of gears and dials.
13 Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz’s
Stepped Reckoner (1674)

• This mechanical calculator could not only perform addition and subtraction but
also handle multiplication and division.
14 Charles Babbage (1791-1871)
The Father of Computers
15 Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine

• Early mechanical calculator to compute mathematical tables, such as

logarithmic and trigonometry tables by using a method of finite difference.
16 Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine
• First concept of General purpose
computer.
• Advanced version of the difference
engine.
• ALU, memory, CU, and
programmability.
• Results were displayed on the
printing mechanism.

http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
17

> List some other inventions by Prof. Charles Babbage

 Alan Turing
1912-1954

The Turing Machine

Aka
The Universal Machine
1936
• Theoretical model that
formalized the concept of
computation and algorithms.
 The ENIAC:
19
Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer
• First general-
purpose
electronic digital
computer.
• Used Vacuum
tubes(around
17,468 tubes) to
perform
calculations.
• Perform 5000
additions per
second
20 Programming the ENIAC
 ENIAC’s Wiring!
21

John Von Neumann

John Von Neumann came up with the bright idea of

using part of the computer’s internal memory
(called Primary Memory) to “store” the program
inside the computer and have the computer go get
the instructions from its own memory, just as we do
with our human brain.
 The Harvard Mark I (1944) aka IBM’s
22 Automatic Sequence Controlled
Calculator (ASCC)

• One of the first electromechanical

computers.
• It relied on relays and punch
cards to input and output data.
• The machine could perform
addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division on
floating point numbers
The first computer bug
Rear Admiral Dr. Grace Murray Hopper
24 Basic Information
> The basic functional units of computer are made of electronics
circuit and it works with electrical signal.
> We provide input to the computer in form of electrical signal
and get the output in form of electrical signal.
> There are two basic types of electrical signals, namely, analog
and digital.
> The analog signals are continuous in nature and digital
signals are discrete in nature.
> Computer is a digital device, which works on two levels of
signal. high-level signal (say 5 Volt or 12 Volt) and Low-level
signal (say 0 Volt).
25 Basic Information

> With the symbol 0 and 1, we have a mathematical system,

which is knows as binary number system.
> Basically binary number system is used to represent the
information and manipulation of information in computer.
This information is basically strings of 0s and 1s.
> The smallest unit of information that is represented in
computer is known as Bit.
> Eight bits together is known as Byte, and Four bits together is
known as Nibble.
26 Computer Architecture

> Computer architecture refers to those parameters of a

computer system that are visible to a programmer or those
parameters that have a direct impact on the logical
execution of a program.
> Examples of architectural attributes include the
> instruction set,
> number of bits used to represent different data types,
> I/O mechanisms, and
> techniques for addressing memory.
27 Computer Organization

> Computer organization refers to the operational units and

their interconnections that realize the architectural
specifications.
> Examples of organizational attributes include those
hardware details transparent to the programmer, such as
> control signals,
> interfaces between the computer and peripherals, and
> the memory technology used.
28 Basic Computer Model and functional
units of Computer
> The model of a computer can be described by four basic units
in high level abstraction. These basic units are:
> ❍ Central Processor Unit
> ❍ Input Unit
> ❍ Output Unit
> ❍ Memory Unit
29
30 Von Neumann Model
MEMORY
MAR MDR

INPUT OUTPUT
Keyboard Monitor
Mouse PROCESSING UNIT Printer
Scanner LED
Disk ALU TEMP Disk

C O N T R O L UNIT
PC IR

4-32
31 A. Central Processor Unit [CPU] :

> Central processor unit consists of two basic blocks :

> ❍ The program control unit has a set of registers and
control circuit to generate control signals.
> ❍ The execution unit or data processing unit contains a set
of registers for storing data and an Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU) for execution of arithmetic and logical
operations.
> In addition, CPU may have some additional registers for
temporary storage of data.
32 B. Input Unit :

> With the help of input unit data from outside can be
supplied to the computer.
> Program or data is read into main storage from input
device or secondary storage under the control of CP U input
instruction.
> Example of input devices: Keyboard, Mouse, Hard disk,
Floppy disk, CD-R OM drive etc.
33 C. Output Unit :

> With the help of output unit computer results can be

provided to the user or it can be stored in storage device
permanently for future use.
> Output data from main storage go to output device under
the control of CPU output instructions.
> Example of output devices: Printer, Monitor, Plotter, Hard
Disk, Floppy Disk etc.
34 D. Memory Unit :

> Memory unit is used to store the data and program. CP U can
work with the information stored in memory unit.
> This memory unit is termed as primary memory or main
memory module.
> These are basically semi conductor memories. There ate two
types of semiconductor memories.
> Volatile Memory : R A M (Random Access Memory).
> Non-Volatile Memory : R O M (Read only Memory), PROM (Programmable ROM)
EPROM (Erasable PROM), EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM)
35 Task of Control Unit
> To generate the appropriate signal at right moment.
> There is an instruction decoder in CP U which decodes this
information in such a way that computer can perform the desired
task.
> The simple model for the decoder may be considered that there is
three input lines to the decoder and correspondingly it generates
eight output lines.
> Depending on input combination only one of the output signals will
be generated and it is used to indicate the corresponding operation
of ALU.
36 The different operations and their
binary code is as follows:
Arithmetic Logical
> 000 ADD > 100 OR
> 001 SUB > 101 A N D
> 010 MULT > 110 N A N D
> 011 DIV > 111 X-OR
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