Topics to be covered

1. Database concepts
2. Relational data model
3. Structured Query Language
4. Interface of python with an sql database

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UNIT-III
DATABASE MANAGEMENT:
Database Concept:
Introduction of Database:
Database is a word which composed of two words Data and Base. Data means raw facts and
figures and base is place or location where data is being stored.

Or we can say that Database is collection of interrelated data or record in organized form so
it can easily be accessed, managed and updated. Interrelated data means that the data is
related or connected to each other with respect to the given attributes or column.

Database uses various fields to manage and store large amounts of information in organized
and structured format

Introduction of Database Management System (DBMS):

DBMS is shorten name used for Database Management System. So, as we are aware of
database now, we need to understand what DBMS is. Let’s understand it.

DBMS is a software system which is used to manage Database. DBMS acts as an interface
between a user and database which enables the user to create, insert, retrieve, update and
delete the data.

Need of Database:
Centralized Storage: Storage of data in a single location or central database.
Data Integrity: Enforces data integrity rules which ensures that information stored is accurate,
valid and consistent.

Data Security: Control access to sensitive data and protecting data from unauthorized access.
Data Retrieval: Authorized User/Application can access and retrieve the information as per
their need.

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Efficient Data Retrieval: Database helps user to retrieve data in an efficient way.

DBMS Model:
DBMS refers to that architecture/approach for how data is stored, organized and manipulated
in a database. There are several types of DBMS Model.

1. Relational Model:
Data organized into tables with rows and columns.
2. Hierarchical Model:
Data organized in Tree like structure with parent child relationship
3. Network Model:
Similar to hierarchical model. It uses pointers to navigate through data.
4. Object Oriented Model:
Data is represented as object. This model uses object oriented databases.

Now as per your CBSE syllabus we will discuss about Relational Data Model in detail.

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Relational Data Model:
Relation Data Model is proposed by E.F. Codd in 1970.
In simple words, we can say that Relational data model is a model which uses relation to
organize their data. Here, Relation means table and table is composed of rows and columns.

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Relation/Table:
Relation is also known table. And table is a collection of related data and information in row
and column. Relation is composed of rows and columns.

Row/Tuple/Record:
Row represent horizontal form of Table/Relation. Row is also known as tuple/record.

Column/Attributes:
Column represent vertical form of Table/Relation. Column is also known as attributes.

Cardinality:
Total number of row/record/tuple in a relation is called as Cardinality.

Degree:
Total number of column/attributes in a relation is called as Degree.

Domain:
Domain is set of possible value or range of valid values or set of all unique values that an
attribute/column can hold.

A Domain of database is set of atomic value (which can’t further be distributed) of a particular
attribute/column.

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For example:
In table Employee, Attribute/column gender may have only M, F and T Domain. Only these
value valid for that column.

Domain of S.No. Contain set of all possible roll numbers.

Domain of Martial Status contain set of all possible values like Married, Widow, Unmarried
and Divorce.

In the below diagram 4, Table Employee contain S.No, Name, Address, Gender and Marital
status. Two domain is showing name gender and marital status which contain set of possible
values that an attribute can hold. Gender can only hold three possible values and marital
status can only hold four possible values

DATATYPES IN SQL:
Before discussing commands in detail we need to learn about datatype of
column/attribute:
We need to assign datatype when we are declaring any column/attributes. Every column
required name and datatype. This datatypes is used to declare what type of data that will be
stored in particular column. There are lots of datatypes available in SQL we will discuss some
important datatype.

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Commonly used datatype in SQL:
1. Numeric Type:

• INT: Integer type

• FLOAT: Floating-point number
• DECIMAL or NUMERIC: Fixed-point number

2. Character String Type:

• CHAR(n): Fixed-length character string with maximum length of n

• VARCHAR(n): Variable-length character string with maximum length of n
• TEXT Type : Variable-length character string with no specified maximum length

3. Data and Time Type:

• DATE : for date only

• TIME: for time only
• DATETIME or TIMESTAMP: for date and time combined

4. Other Data type:

• NULL: to represent a missing/unknown/empty value

• ENUM: A enumeration type for a set of predefined values

Now let’s learn datatype in detailed as per your syllabus

NUMERIC INT/INTEGER Signed range is from -2147483648 to

2147483647. Unsigned range is from 0 to
DATATYPE 4294967295
SMALLINT(SIZE) SIGNED RANGE IS FROM -32768 TO 32767.
UNSIGNED RANGE IS FROM 0 TO 65535
TINYINT(SIZE) SIGNED RANGE IS FROM -128 TO 127.UNSINED
RANGE IS FROM 0 TO 255
MEDIUMINT(SIZE) SIGNED RANGE IS FROM -8388608 TO 8388607.
UNSIGNED RANGE IS FROM 0 TO 16777215
BIGINT(SIZE) Signed range is from -9223372036854775808
to 9223372036854775807. Unsigned range is
from 0 to 18446744073709551615
FLOAT(SZ,D) SZ IS SIZE AND D IS NO. OF DIGIT AFTER
DECIMAL
STRING CHAR(SIZE) CHAR IS FIXED SIZED STRING AS PER SIZE
DEFINED IN PARANTHESIS. SIZE OF CHAR
DATATYPE DATATYPE IN RANGE OF 0 TO 255.
BYDEFAULT SIZE OF CHAR IS 1
VARCHAR(SIZE) VARCHAR STANDS FOR VARIABLE LENGTH
CHARACTER STRING
RANGE OF VARCHAR IS 0 TO 65535

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 DATE AND DATE AS THE NAME SUGGEST IT IS USED TO STORE
DATE IN ANY ATTRIBUTE
TIME SUPPORTED FORMAT : YYYY-MM-DD
DATATYPE TIME USED TO STORE TIME IN ANY ATTRIBUTE
SUPPORTED FORMAT : HH:MM:SS

Keys:
In database, keys is column/attribute which is used to fetch/extract/retrieve row in a table. Or
we can say that Keys are used to uniquely identify records in a table through column or
combination of column. To extract any particular row/record from a table, we need a key
attribute which contain unique values.

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Primary Key:
Primary Key is a unique identifier which identify unique record in a particular table. It must
contain unique values for each record. And Primary key attribute/column/field can’t be NULL.
A table can have only ONE primary key

Note: A Primary key must be a candidate key but not all candidate key are Primary key

Candidate Key:
Candidate key are those key which are eligible for primary key and can be used as primary key
in a table.

Candidate key is a set of one or more column that could be used as primary key and from the
set of these candidate key, one column is selected as primary key.

Candidate key can have more than one attribute like Emp_ID, Name, and Address etc.

Alternate Key:
After selecting primary key from candidate key, the remaining keys (which are also eligible for
primary key) are called Alternate Key.

Foreign Key:
A Foreign key is a column or group of columns in a table that provides a link between two
tables.

Let’s see how actually foreign key work in table.

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It is an attribute whose values can be derived from primary key of some other table.
It ensure referential integrity. Referential Integrity is protocol which is used to ensure that
relationship between record/row is valid and can’t change in related data.

Structured Query Language:

Introduction:
SQL is shortened of Structured Query Language. And it is pronounced as See-Quell. SQL is
used to manage database. SQL was developed in 1970 in IBM Laboratory and it became a
standard of the ANSI (American National Standard Institute) in 1986.

SQL is query language not a database system. You are required to install DBMS software in
your system to perform SQL Language operation with help to query Example – Oracle, MySQL,
MongoDB, PostgreSQL, SQL Server, DB2 etc.

SQL is mainly used for maintaining the data in relational database management system. SQL
provide interaction between user and database via set of standard commands.

In simple words, SQL is language that help user to communicate with databases. SQL is not
case sensitive language means you can type your query in small or capital letter as per user.

You may write comments in SQL using “--” (Double hyphen)

User may get information from a database file from required query. Query is a request in the
form of SQL command to retrieve information with some condition. You will see lots of query
performing different type of operations. SQL is query language (Query based language) which
works on structured data (data in structured form).

Now let’s discuss all the SQL Commands in categorized way.

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SQL perform following operation:
▪ Create a database
▪ Create a table
▪ Create view
▪ Insert data
▪ Update data
▪ Delete data
▪ Execute Query
▪ Set Permission or Constraints in table

SQL Commands:
SQL commands are predefined set of commands which are already defined in SQL. Commands
are basically combination of keyword and statement you want to execute. Keywords are
reserved words that has special meaning for SQL, you don’t need to define they are already
defined in SQL. All you need to use these keywords with you particular statements.

CLAUSE IN SQL:
Clause: Clause are built in functions which is use to deal with data inside the table that help
SQL to filter and analyses data quickly.

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Any SQL statements is composed of two or more clause.
These clause are used with your SQL statements to filter commands you may learn in detail in
further section. Some mainly used clause are discussed below.

NOTE: All SQL statements are terminated with (;) semicolon

SQL statements are not case sensitive means SQL treats both upper and lower case commands
as same.

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We are going to use these above clauses in our all types of commands in SQL.

Few basic SQL Commands:

Create databases:
To create a new database, create databases command is used.
SQL Syntax: create database <database name>;

Show databases:
To view the list of available/created databases in SQL, show databases command is used.
SQL Syntax:
show databases;

Use database:
To select a database among available databases, use database command is used.
SQL Syntax:
use <database_name>;

Show tables:
To view the list of available/created databases in SQL, show tables command is used.
SQL Syntax:
show tables;

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Create table:
To create a new table in the selected database. For example, if I want to create a table Student
with following attributes and data types:
SQL Syntax:
create table <table name>(<attribute name> <data type> (size), <attribute name> <data type>
(size) … );

Name of attribute Data Type

Student_ID int
Student_Name char(30)
Age int
Phone int
Address varchar(50)

Describe table:
To view the structure of table (like attributes and its data types, keys, constraints, default
values), desc command is used.
SQL Syntax:
desc <table name>; OR describe <table name>;

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Insert command:
To insert data in table, insert command is used (one row at a time). Here in this example, data
of 4 students are inserted in table student.
SQL Syntax:
insert into <table name> values (<value>, <value> , <value> …);

Select command:
To show the data of a table, select command is used. Let’s show the data of 4 students in
student table that was inserted in the previous command.
SQL Syntax:
select * from <table name>;

Drop table command:

To delete data as well as structure of a table, drop command is used.
SQL Syntax:
drop table <table name>;

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Drop database command:
To delete a database along with all the tables present in the database, drop command is used.
SQL Syntax:
drop database <database name>;

Constraints:
Constraints in SQL are set of rules that are applied to the data in a relation/table. Constraints
are used to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data. Constraints can be at column level
or at table level. Column level constraints apply to a column, and table level constraints apply
to the whole table. After applying constraints to the table, if any violation happens then the
data can’t be inserted or action can’t be completed.

Types of constraints:
1. Primary key
2. Unique
3. Not Null
4. Foreign Key

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Let’s discuss in Details:

1. Primary Key Constraints:

NOT NULL+UNIQUE=Primary Key
This key applies unique and not null constraint to the column.
This constraints ensure that each column/attribute of table contain unique value for each
row.
Let’s learn with the help of example:
First we have created a table named student_demo and applying primary key constraints
on roll_no attribute.

SQL Syntax:
create table <table_name>(<column_name> <datatype> <size> <constraint>);

Command:
create table student_demo(roll_no int(10) primary key,name varchar(20),subject
varchar(20));

2. Unique Constraints :
NULL VALUES or (NOT NULL VALUES+UNIQUE) =UNIQUE
Unique constraint make sure that all values present or inserted in a column are different.
And this constraints follows all property of primary key constraints except that Primary key
can’t contain NULL values but unique constraints allows NULL values. It ensures that values
in the column are unique across all rows.
NOTE: You can have more than one unique key but only one primary key

SQL Syntax: alter table <table_name> add <constraints_name>(<column_name>);

Command: alter table student add unique(standard);

Let’s see table schema after applying above code:

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As you can see Unique Key constraints assigned to attribute/Field named standard. Which
means standard column hold unique value.
Now as we know standard attribute can only hold unique value. If we attempt to insert
duplicate values in standard attribute. This may occur an error. Let’s see how

Now we are going to enter a valid entry in student table. Let’s see

As you can see all entry are clearly affected in table student. Now we need to check that
standard attribute allows NULL values. Let’s understand with SQL command.

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3. NOT NULL Constraints : Which never accept NULL values
NOT NULL constraints ensures that columns in table does not contain any NULL values.
NULL values means missing or unknown values. If you enforce this NOT NULL constraints
to any attribute than you are not able to insert any NULL values in it. Let’s see how.

In student table, only two attribute assigned with NOT NULL constraint, first one is roll_no
and std_name which means that these column can’t accept NULL values
Now we enforce NOT NULL constraint to another column named subject in existing table
student.

As you can command is successfully executed. Let’s see the schema of the table to check
NOT NULL constraint successfully applied on subject column.
In below diagram it is clearly shows that subject NULL Type is set to NO means you can’t
insert NULL value.

After that we have to check by insert a command with NULL values whether the subject
column is accepting NULL value or not. Let’s see

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 As you can there is error occur that column ‘subject’ cannot be null
Now we try to insert a another command in the student table and check whether the
insertion is successful or not

4. Foreign Key:
In Foreign Key constraints, unique, not null and primary key constraint applies to a single
table where as foreign key constraint applies to two tables.

For example: we have two tables’ student and awards as follows:

Table: Student Table: Awards
ID Name Age City ID Award Sport
1 Amit 15 Delhi 1 Gold Badminton
2 Madhu 14 Gurugram
2 Silver Tennis
3 Manoj 15 Noida
4 Asif 15 Faridabad 1 Silver Hockey
4 Bronze Badminton

Here we will establish foreign key constraint on column ID of student table and column id
of awards table. Here we will consider Student table as parent table and Awards table as
child table. Following rules must be followed:

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 (a) Column ID of Student table must be its primary key.
(b) Column ID of Awards table may or may not be primary key of Awards table.

• Foreign key constraint ensures that only that data can be inserted in column ID of
Awards table which is present in column ID of Student table.

Example: We will create two tables. Student table as parent table and Awards table as
child table. Now we will establish foreign key constraint on column ID of student table and
column id of awards table.

mysql>create table Awards(ID int references

Student(ID), Event char(20));
Now let’s check how foreign key constraint works. We have already added data in Student
table.

Now let’s check how foreign key constraint enforces referential integrity.

Here we can see that ID 5 is not present in parent table (Student). So, ID 5 can’t be added
in child table (Awards).

DDL (Data Definition Language) Commands:

These commands are used to make any changes in the structure of the table/database. These
command don’t change the data of the table.

Example: create table, alter table, drop table

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We have already covered few DDL Commands like create database, create table, drop
database, drop table. Few more DDL commands like alter table will be discussed now.

Alter Table:
This is a DDL command and it is used to modify a table. This command can be used to add,
delete, or modify columns, add or drop constraints etc.
SQL Syntax:
alter table <table name> [alter option];

Add a column to the table:

We have table student which was created in previous section.

SQL Syntax:
alter table <table name> add <column name><data type> [constraint];
Example: If we want to add a column class with data type varchar and size 50 and nulls are
not allowed.

Drop a column from the table:

Let’s delete a column class from table student which we added in the previous section.
SQL Syntax:
alter table <table name> drop <column name>;
Example:
alter table student drop class;

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2. Changing column data type: We can change the column data type from varchar
to char or int to varchar etc. of a table using alter command. For example, in
table student, we are going to change datatype of column ID from int to varchar.
SQL Syntax:
alter table <table name> modify <column name><new data type>;

mysql>alter table student modify ID varchar(50);

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3. Changing maximum size of the data in a column: We can change the maximum size
of the data in a column of a table using alter command. For example, in table student,
we are going to change size of column ID from varchar(50) to varchar(40).
SQL Syntax:
alter table <table name> modify <column name> <data type with size>;

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5. Add/drop constraints/column: We can add/drop constraints in a table using alter
command.
➢ Adding primary key: We are going to add primary key at column ID using alter
command.
Command: alter table <table name> add primary key(<column name>);

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➢ Dropping primary key: We are going to remove primary key at column ID which
we added in the previous section.
Command: alter table <table name> drop primary key;

➢ Dropping a column: We are going to remove a column ‘country’ which we added

in the last section using alter command.
Command: alter table <table name> drop <column name>;
Example: alter table student drop address;

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DML (Data Manipulation Language) Commands:
These commands are used to make any changes in the data of the table.

DML commands: Insert, delete, update, select etc.

We have already covered few DML Commands like insert and select. Now we will discuss
delete and update command.

Delete command:
Delete command is used to delete data from the table. Where clause is used to give condition
in a SQL query. All those tuples which satisfies the condition will be deleted from the table.
SQL Syntax:
delete from <table name> where <condition>;
Now let’s delete data of all those students from student table whose ID is greater than 5.

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Update command: Update command is used to update data from the table. Where
clause is used to give condition in a SQL query. All those tuples which satisfies the condition
will be update from the table.
SQL Syntax:
update <table name> set <column name>=<new data> where <condition>;

Now let’s update the Address from ‘Delhi’ to ‘Sonipat’ of that student whose name is ‘Amit’.

Aliasing:
Aliasing in SQL is the process of assigning a nick name or a temporary name to a table or
column. We create aliases to make queries more readable and easier to use. Alias created
using as keyword. Creating aliases don’t change name of any table or column permanently.

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Distinct clause:
Distinct clause is used to remove duplicate values from the table. As we studied earlier,
changes in data of a table is done using delete and update command. So, removing duplicate
values using distinct clause is temporary and only reflected during output. Distinct clause can
be used for more than one column.

Here in student table, two duplicate ID’s 1 and 3 are present. Now using distinct clause we can
get only unique values.

As we can see that all duplicate ID’s are removed but it is temporary. Duplicate values are not
removed and still present in the table.

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Where clause:
The WHERE clause in SQL is used to filter the results of a SELECT statement by specifying one
or more conditions. All those tuples which meets the condition will be included in the final
result.

The WHERE clause is a very powerful technique to select particular rows from a table. It can
be used to filter by the values in a column, by the values in multiple columns, or by the
outcome of any calculation.

Uses of where clause:

• Where clause can be used with select statement to filter the result.
• Where clause can be used with update statement to update the data of table that
matches with the condition.
• Where clause can be used with delete statement to delete the rows of table that
matches with the condition.
SQL Syntax:
where <condition>;
Examples:
1. To filter the result based on only one condition:

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2. To filter the result based on multiple condition:

In clause and not in clause:

In sql, in clause and not in clause is used to filter the rows in output based on list of values.
Syntax for in clause:
where <column name> in (item1, item2,…);
Syntax for not in clause:
where <column name> not in (item1, item2,…);
Example of in clause: if we want to find the data of those students who lives in either delhi or
Jaipur or gurugram. Now to solve this problem, we have two ways. Either we write multiple
comparison using or keyword or we can use in clause. Now you will see that using in clause
for comparing with a list of items is an easy option.

Example of not in clause: if we want to find the data of those students who don’t lives in delhi
or Jaipur or gurugram.

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Between Clause:
It is used to filter the rows in output based on the range of values.
SQL Syntax:
where <column name> between <starting value> and <ending value>;
Note: The final result of between clause filters the rows of the table based on range of values
including starting and ending value.

Order by Clause: It is used to sort the output of the select statement in ascending or
descending order.
SQL Syntax:
order by <column name> [ASC|DESC];
Note: If not mentioned, by default it will sort the output in ascending order. So, if you want to
sort the data in ascending order, you need not to mention the order of sorting.

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We can sort multiple columns together in ASC and DESC order.

NULL:
In SQL, null is a special value which means absence of value or a field doesn’t has a value. Null
doesn’t mean zero. Null also doesn’t mean empty string. Null is a kind of placeholder of that
value which is not present or not known.

Example: If the phone number of a student is not known at present, so we can store NULL
instead of zero or make it empty.

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IS NULL Clause:
IS NULL clause is used to check that value in particular column is NULL value

Example: To find out name of students whose phone number is NULL.

Note: is keyword is used to compare values of a column with NULL.

IS NOT NULL Clause:

IS NULL clause is used to check that value in particular column is not NULL value

Example: To find out name of students whose phone number is not NULL.

Like operator:
Like operator is used to match a pattern. The like operator is used with were clause. Like
operator has 2 wildcards:

1. _ (underscore): It is used to match one character.

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2. % (percentage sign): It is used to match zero or more characters.
Example 1: To match a string that starts with ‘s’, its pattern will be ‘s%’. As we don’t know how
many characters are there after ‘s’, so ‘%’ sign is used after ’s’.

Example 2: To match a string that ends with ‘a’, its pattern will be ‘%a’. As we don’t know how
many characters are there before ‘a’, so ‘%’ sign is used before ’a’.

Example 3: To match a string that contains with ‘a’, its pattern will be ‘%a%’. As we don’t know
how many characters are there before or after ‘a’, so ‘%’ sign is used before and after ’a’.

Example 4: To match a string that has letter ‘a’ at second position, its pattern will be ‘_a%’. As
we know there must be exact one character before ‘a’ and we don’t know how many
characters are there after ‘a’, so ‘_’ sign is used before ‘a’ and ‘%’ sign is used after ’a’.

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Example 5: To match a string that has exactly 5 character, its pattern will be ‘_ _ _ _ _’. As we
know there must be exact 5 character, so ‘_’ sign is used 5 times.

Example 6: To match a string that has exactly 7 character and ends with ‘t’, its pattern will be
‘_ _ _ _ _ _ t’. As we know there must be exact 7 character, so ‘_’ sign is used 6 times before
‘t’.

Update Command:
It is used to update the existing data in a table.
SQL Syntax:
update <table name> set <column name> = <new data> where <condition>;

Example 1: Let’s update the Age to 18 of that student whose name is Amit.

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Example 2: Let’s update the city to delhi of that student whose ID is 1 and Age is 17.

Delete Command:
It is used to delete the existing rows in a table that matches the condition.

SQL Syntax:

delete from <table name> where <condition>;

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Example 1: Let’s delete data of those students whose ID is 1 but age is not 18.

Example 2: Let’s delete all data of student table. For doing those, we needs to give a condition
that matches with all the records. As ID’s are greater than 0, so let’s delete all those records
where ID is greater than 0.

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Aggregate Functions:
Aggregate functions are those functions that operates on a list of values and returns a single
digit value or we can summarize the data using aggregate functions.

1. Max():
It is used to find out the maximum value from a column.

2. Min():
It is used to find out the minimum value from a column.

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 3. Avg():
It is used to find out the average value from a column.

4. Sum():
It is used to find out the sum of all values of a column.

5. Count: it is used to count number of values in a column.

Note: Distinct keyword can be used with aggregate functions to find out max, min, sum, avg,
count of only unique values.

Example: Let’s find out total number of cities from where student came for study. Here more
than one student is from same city. So we needs to use distinct keyword along with count
function.

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Group by clause:
The GROUP BY clause is used to group rows that have the same values into summary rows.
Group by clause is often used with aggregate functions like MAX(), MIN(), SUM(), AVG() and
COUNT() to group the result by one or more columns.

• It can be used with or without where clause in select statement.

• It is applied only on numeric values.
• It can’t be applied with distinct keyword.

SQL Syntax:

group by <column name>

Example 1: Let’s count number of students having same age in student table.

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Example 2: Let’s city wise find out the minimum value of ID.

Having clause:
It is used to filter the result set of group by clause in select statement.
Note: To filter the result set of group by clause, only having clause can be used whereas for all
other queries where clause is used.

Joins:
Joins are used to combine rows from multiple tables.

Types of joins:
1. Cartesian product (Cross Join):
It gives all possible combinations from more than one table. It combines every row
from one table with every row from another table. Suppose we have 5 rows in first
table and 4 rows in second table then the total number of rows in Cartesian product
of these two tables will be 20 rows.
Cardinality of final table of Cartesian product = cardinality of first table * cardinality
of second table

Example: we have two tables’ student and awards. Let’s apply Cartesian product on
these two tables.

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2. Equi join:
It joins the tables based on one common column. However, final result will consists of
common column from both the tables.

Example: we have two tables’ student and awards. Let’s apply equi join on these two
tables.

Here both the tables has common column ID. So, to avoid ambiguity (confusion), we
needs to mention table name before column name.

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3. Natural Join:
It joins the tables based on one common column. However, final result will consists of
common column only once.

Example: we have two tables’ student and awards. Let’s apply natural join on these
two tables.

Here both the tables has common column ID. But there is no ambiguity arises on name
of common column.

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