1

ISP BUNIA
TECHNICAL ENGLISH III
G3 MP&MI 2020-2021
Moses NGADJOLE KABONA
Assistant
15 hours theory
30 hours
15 hours practice
I. Teaching objectives
The course aims to
 enhance students’ understanding of some technical terminologies related to
mathematics computing and physics as well as some grammar points in
English.
 Develop student’s listening, speaking, reading and writing skills in English.
II. Learning outcomes
By the end of the course, students will develop:
 a sound understanding and the use of the adjectives and pronouns in English
grammar;

 ability to write, solve and explain integer exponents in mathematics using

English language;

 ability to solve quadratic equation in mathematics using English language;

 Identify appropriate useful vocabulary and expressions;

 Explain some terms in Computing;

 Define some concepts of Physics.

III. Teaching methods

 formal lectures

 tutorials

 self-directed study

IV. Assessment patterns

 assignments: 40 %
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 cours attendance 10 %

 final examination: 50 %

V. Course outline
Section one: SOME GRAMMAR POINTS
1. ADJECTIVES
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The comparison of the Adjectives
2. PRONOUNS
2.1 Personal and possessive pronouns
2.2 Reflexive and Emphatic pronouns
2.3 Reciprocal pronouns
2.4 Demonstrative pronouns
2.5 Interrogative pronouns
2.6 Relative pronouns
2.7 Numerical pronouns
Section two: MATHEMATICS
1. INTERGER EXPONENTS
2. QUADRATIC EQUATION

Section three: COMPUTING

Section four: PHYSICS

BIBLIOGRAGY
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Section one: SOME GRAMMAR POINTS

1.1 ADJECTIVE
1.1.1 Introduction

Adjectives describe or give information about nouns or pronouns.

Example:-

The grey dog barked.( the adjective grey describes the noun “dog”).

The good news in that the form of an adjective does not change. It does not matter if
the noun being modified is male or female, singular or plural, subject or object.

Some adjectives give us factual information about the noun- age, size, color etc. (fact
adjectives – can’t be argued with). Some adjectives show what something or
somebody. – nice, horrid, beautiful etc.( opinion adjectives- not everyone may agree).

If you are asked questions with which, whose, what kind, or how many, you need an
adjective to be able to answer.

There are different types of adjectives in the English language:

1. Numeric: six, one hundred and one
2. Quantitative: more, all, some, half, than enough
3. Qualitative: colour, size, smell etc.
4. Possessive : my, his, their, your
5. Interrogative : which, whose, what
6. Demonstrative : this, that, those, these.
1.1.2 Comparison of Adjectives

Ammu is tall.
Job is taller than Abu.
Mohan is the tallest of the three.
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In the second sentence, the word’ taller’ is the comparative form of the adjective. The
comparative form of the adjective denotes a higher of the adjective ‘ tall’ when two
people or things are compared.

In the third sentence, the word ‘ tallest’ is the superlative form of the adjective
denotes the highest degree of the adjective ‘ tall’ when more than two people or
things are compared.

Here are some simple rules to keep in mind when forming comparatives and
superlatives.

Rule 1
For most adjectives,’er’ is added for the comparative form and ‘est’ for the
superlative form.

 Tall – taller- tallest

 Strong- stronger- strongest
 Short- shorter- shortest
 Kind- kinder- kindest

Rule 2
For adjectives ending with ‘e’, ‘r’ is added for the comparative and ‘st’ for the
superlative form.

 Wise- wiser- wisest

 Large- larger- largest
 Nice- nicer- nicest
 Fine- finer- finest

Rule 3
For adjectives ending with ‘y’, ‘y’ is removed and ‘ier’ is added for comparative form
and ‘iest’ for the superlative form.
 Lazy- lazier- laziest
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 Crazy- crazier- craziest

 Wealthy- wealthier- wealthiest
 Heavy- heavier- heaviest.

Rule 4
Usually for longer adjectives, ‘more’ + adjectives is used for comparative form and
‘most’ + adjective is used for the superlative form.

 Handsome- More handsome- Most handsome

 Beautiful- More beautiful- Most beautiful
 Intelligent- More intelligent- Most intelligent
 Difficult- More difficult- Most difficult.

Rule 5
Irregular adjectives: There are some irregular adjectives for which the comparative
and the superlative form follow no particular rule.

 Good- better- best

 Bad- worse- worst
 Many- more- most
 Little- less- least
The + Superlative
‘The’ is placed before the superlative:

Examples:

 He is the richest man in the world.

She is the tallest girl in her class.
Practice Exercise:
1. A stone is harder……….. a brick.
2. Eat as much ………. you can.
3. I am taller ……you are.
4. Women live longer ……..men.
5. He plays football much better…………I do.
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6. Maniema Province is not as big………….Kinshasa.

7. My shirt is almost the same color ………yours.

1.2 PRONOUNS
Pronoun is word which is used instead of a noun or phrase. It is a word that replaces
a noun for referring to a person or thing that has been mentioned earlier. The word
‘pronoun’ derives from Latin ‘pro’ meaning for and ‘nomen’ meaning name.

Note that there are several types of pronouns:

NOMINATIVE ACCUSATIVE POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE REFLEXIVE
ADJECTIVE PRONOUN PRONOUN
I ME MY MINE MYSELF
YOU YOU YOUR YOURS YOURSELF
HE HIM HIS HIS HIMSELF
SHE HER HER HERS HERSELF
IT IT ITS IT ITSELF
ONE ONE ONE’S ONE’S ONESELF
WE US OUR OURS OURSELVES
YOU YOU YOUR YOURS YOURSELVES
THEY THEM THEIR THEIRS THEMSELVES
1.2.1 PERSONAL AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
Examples.
The notebook belongs: to me, to you, to him, to her, to us, to you, to them (personal)
It is mine, it is yours, it is his, it is hers, it is ours, it is yours, it is theirs (possessive)
 This is your pen, mine is on the table.
 This doesn’t look like my book; it must be yours.
 Tell him not to forget his ticket; she mustn’t forget hers.
 He has a blue car; hers is pink.
 They live in a big house; theirs is small.
1.2.2 REFLEXIVE OR EMPHATIC PRONOUN
Examples.
 I sometimes talk to myself.
 You took the pen yourself.
 He cooks his meal himself.
 We watch ourselves in the mirror.
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 You sometimes decide yourselves.

 They sometimes talk to themselves.
1.2.3 THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
 They represent two or more persons or things interactive. They are each
other (2 persons) one another (more than two persons).
 e.g
 We help each other with my friend
 In order to win the match, players must cooperate one another.

1.2.4 THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN

Points out a person or thing.

Singular Plural

Near This (one) These (ones)

Far That (one) Those (ones)

Examples.
 This English course is very easy to learn. (adjective – near the speaker)
 That pen is not yours. (adjective – some distance from the speaker)
 These watches must be sold. (adjective – plural of this)
 Those students are intelligent (adjective – plural of that)
 This is your English course (Pronoun)
 That belongs to your Headmaster. (Pronoun)

1.2.5 THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

Helps to ask question. They are who? Whom? Which? Where? Whose? Why? Etc.

Examples.
 Who said you were going to fail the statistical course.
 Who is the youngest student among you?
 What type of final exam do you suggest?
 Which car do you like? A sport, a family or a utility car?
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 Which one is your girl friend? A tall, a short or a brown one?

1.2.6 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN

What is a Relative Clause?

A relative clause is a phrase that adds information to a sentence. All relative
clauses describe a noun, and they begin with one of these relative pronouns or
relative adverbs.

Relative Pronouns

Who (to describe people – subject)

The woman who works in the bank is my neighbour.

Whom (to describe people – object)

My cousins, one of whom is a doctor, live in England.

Whose (to describe possession)

The man whose car was stolen went to the police station.

That (to describe things – defining relative clauses) I’m

selling the computer that I bought in the U.S.
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Which (to describe things – non-defining relative clauses)

I’m selling this computer, which has a 250-GB hard drive, for $500.

Relative Adverbs

When (to describe times)

My favourite season is fall, when all the leaves change colour.

Where (to describe places)

I visited the neighbourhood where I grew up why
(to give a reason)
Do you know the reason why the stores are closed today?

Relative Clauses = Better Sentences in English

Here is an example of some English sentences without relative clauses:

 Yesterday I met a man. He works in the circus.

 I bought a cell phone. It has internet access.
 There’s the restaurant. I ate at that restaurant last night.

These sentences are correct, but they are very short and simple. You can use
relative clauses to make your sentences in English sound more fluent and natural:

 Yesterday I met a man who works in the circus.

 I bought a cell phone that has internet access.
 There’s the restaurant where I ate last night.

Examples
 The teenager (to whom) I talked to said he was sorry about what happened.
 The University (from which) I graduated was one of the best institutions in America.
 The exam (in which) most students failed is known.
 The radio station (which/that) I listen to is the BBC (British Broadcasting
Corporation).
 The house (which/that) was sold was not good.
 The woman- she lives next door- is a doctor.
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 The woman who/that lives next door is a doctor.

 We know a lot of people- they live in the country.
 We know a lot of people who/that live in the country.
 Where is the cheese? - it was in the fridge.
 Where is the cheese which/that was in the fridge?
 The bag- it is on the desk- it belongs to the teacher.
 The bag which/that is on the desk belongs to the teacher.
 Tom is talking to a woman – do you know her?
 Do you know the woman who(m)/that Tom is talking to?
 We saw some people- their car had broken down.
 We saw some people whose car had broken down.
Note.
 We use who or that in the relative clause when we are talking about people.
 When we are talking about things, we use that or which.
 We use whose in the relative clauses instead of his/her/their.
Practice exercises
1. Make one sentence from the two. Use who/that/which
1. A girl was injured in the accident. She is now in hospital.
2. A waitress served us. She was impolite and impatient.
3. A building was destroyed in the fire. It has now been rebuilt.
4. Some people were arrested. They have now been released.
5. A bus goes to the airport. It runs every four hour.
2. Complete each sentence using who/whom/whose/where.
1. What’s the name of the man ……………. car you borrowed?
2. A cemetery is place …………………people are buried.
3. A pacifist is a person …………………..believes that wars are wrong.
4. An orphan is a child …………………..parents are dead.
5. The place …………………….we spent our holidays was really beautiful.
6. This school is only for children ……………….first language is not English.
7. The woman with …………………….he fell in love left him after him after a month.

1.2.7 THE NUMERICAL PRONOUN

Cite a number either cardinal (one, two, three, four, etc.) or ordinal (first, second,
third, fourth, etc)
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Section two: MATHEMATICS

2.1 INTEGER EXPONENTS

A compact method of writing 5.5.5.5 is 54 . The expression 54 is written in exponential

( )
3
2x 2x 2 x 2 x
notion. Similarly we can write ∙ ∙ = ,
3 3 3 3
and ( x +2 y )( x +2 y )( x +2 y ) ( x +2 y ) as ( x +2 y )4.
Exponential notion can be used to express the product of any expression that is used
repeatedly as a factor.
Definition of Natural Number Exponents

If b is an real number and n is any natural number, then b =b⏟

n
∙ b ∙ b ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙ b
n factors of b

In the expressionb n,b is the base, n is the exponent, and b nis the nth power
of b

EX1: Evaluate powers

Evaluate each of the following powers

()
3
2 4 4 1
a. 3 b. (−5 ) c.−5 d.
2

Solution
a. 32=3 ∙ 3=9
b. (−5 ) 4=(−5 ) (−5 ) (−5 ) (−5 )=625
c. −5 4 = −¿ ( 5 ∙5 ∙ 5 ∙5 ) =−625

()
3
1 1 1 1 1
d. =¿ . . =
2 2 2 2 8

Remark
Notice the difference between (−5 ) 4=625 and −5 4=−625 . The parentheses in
(−5¿¿ 4)¿indicates that the base is −5; however, the expression −5 4 means −(5) 4.
This time the base is5.
Consider the sequence:
4
5 =625
3
5 =125
2
5 =25
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1
5 =5
0
5 =?
−1
5 =?
−2
5 =?
Notice that each power divided by the base 5 yields the power in the row below it.
For example, 625 ÷ 5=125 and 125 ÷ 5=25 . To continue this pattern, the powers 50 ,
−1 −2
5 , and 5 must be defined as
0
5 =3÷ 5=1
−1 1 1
5 =1÷ 5= = 1
5 5
−2 1 1 1 1
5 = ÷5= ∙ = 2
5 5 5 5
These observations suggest the following definitions.
Definition of b 0
For any nonzero real number b , b 0=1
Any nonzero real number raised to the zero power equals 1.
0
For example, 7 =1
1 =1
2
0
() 0
(−3 )0 =1 π 0=1 ( a 2=1 ) =1

Definition of b−n
if b ≠ 0 and n is any natural number, b−n=¿ 1/b n and 1/b−1=b n
This definition says that a factor is raised to a negative power, then that factor can be
raised to a positive power by moving the factor from the numerator to the dominator
or vice versa. For example,
−2 1
−2 1 1 1 3 5 7 7
3 = = , −3 =4 =64 , −1 = 2 =
3
2
9 4 7 5 25
Restriction agreement
The expression 0 0 , 0n where n is a negative integer, and x /0 are all undefined
expressions. Therefore, all values of valuables in this text have been restricted to
0 −3
x y
avoid any of these undefined expressions. For example in the expression: it
z−4
should be assumed that x ≠ 0 , y ≠ 0 ,∧z ≠ 4, whether or not these restrictions are
specifically stated.
The associative property of multiplication can be used to simplify expressions of the
type b n ∙ bn where m and n are integers. For example,
 13

n n
b ∙ b =( b ∙ b∙ b ) ∙ ( b ∙ b ) by definition
¿ b ∙ b ∙ b ∙b ∙ b associative property of multiplication
5
¿b
This process can also be applied if the integers are negative. For example,
−2 −3 1 1 1 1 −5
c ∙c = ∙ = = 5 =c
c∙c c ∙c∙c c ∙c∙c∙c∙c c
These examples suggest the following property of exponents.
Product Property of Exponential Expressions
If m and n are integers and b ≠ 0, then b n ∙ bm +n
The product property shows that multiplication of powers with like bases can be
accomplished by adding the exponents. For example, 2−2 ∙25 =2(−2 )+2=23
Remark: 25 ∙3 4 cannot be simplified using the product property because the bases are
not the same.
The definition of negative exponents are the product property can be used to
discover a quotient property for exponents.
m
b m −n m+ ( −n ) m−n
n
=b ∙ b =b =b
b
Quotient Property of Exponential Expressions
If m and n are integers and b ≠ 0, then b m /bn=¿ bm−n ¿

The quotient property demonstrates that division of powers with like bases can be
accomplished by subtracting the exponents. For example,
3 3
5 3−1 2 y 3− (−1 ) 4
1
=5 =5 =25 and −1 = y =y
5 y
The definition of exponents and the product property can be used to simplify powers
2
raised to powers. For example, ( 43 ) = ( 4 3 )( 4 3 )=46 =4 3∙ 2. The power property is a
generalization of the above result
2.2 QUADRATIC EQUATION

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about algebraic equations of degree two and their solutions. For the
formula used to find solutions to such equations, see Quadratic formula. For
functions defined by polynomials of degree two, see Quadratic function.
 14

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
x=
2a

The quadratic formula for the roots of the general quadratic equation

In algebra, a quadratic equation (from the Latin quadratus for "square") is any
equation that can be rearranged in standard form as

2
a x +bx +c=0

where x represents an unknown, and a, b, and c represent known numbers, where a

≠ 0. If a = 0, then the equation is linear, not quadratic, as there is no term. The
numbers a, b, and c are the coefficients of the equation and may be distinguished by
calling them, respectively, the quadratic coefficient, the linear coefficient and the
constant or free term.[1]

The values of x that satisfy the equation are called solutions of the equation, and
roots or zeros of the expression on its left-hand side. A quadratic equation has at
most two solutions. If there is only one solution, one says that it is a double root. If all
the coefficients are real numbers, there are either two real solutions, or a single real
double root, or two complex solutions. A quadratic equation always has two roots, if
complex roots are included and a double root is counted for two. A quadratic
equation can be factored into an equivalent equation

ax +bx +c=a(x−r)(x−s)=0

where r and s are the solutions for x. Completing the square on a quadratic equation
in standard form results in the quadratic formula, which expresses the solutions in
terms of a, b, and c. Solutions to problems that can be expressed in terms of
quadratic equations were known as early as 2000 BC.

Because the quadratic equation involves only one unknown, it is called "univariate".
The quadratic equation contains only powers of x that are non-negative integers, and
therefore it is a polynomial equation. In particular, it is a second-degree polynomial
equation, since the greatest power is two.
 15

SOLVING THE QUADRATIC EQUASTION

A quadratic equation with real or complex coefficients has two solutions, called roots.
These two solutions may or may not be distinct, and they may or may not be real.

Factoring by inspection

It may be possible to express a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 as a product (px +

q)(rx + s) = 0. In some cases, it is possible, by simple inspection, to determine values
of p, q, r, and s that make the two forms equivalent to one another. If the quadratic
equation is written in the second form, then the "Zero Factor Property" states that the
quadratic equation is satisfied if px + q = 0 or rx + s = 0. Solving these two linear
equations provides the roots of the quadratic.

For most students, factoring by inspection is the first method of solving quadratic
equations to which they are exposed.[2]:202–207 If one is given a quadratic equation in
the form x2 + bx + c = 0, the sought factorization has the form (x + q)(x + s), and one
has to find two numbers q and s that add up to b and whose product is c (this is
sometimes called "Vieta's rule"[3] and is related to Vieta's formulas). As an example,
x2 + 5x + 6 factors as (x + 3)(x + 2). The more general case where a does not equal 1
can require a considerable effort in trial and error guess-and-check, assuming that it
can be factored at all by inspection.

Except for special cases such as where b = 0 or c = 0, factoring by inspection only

works for quadratic equations that have rational roots. This means that the great
majority of quadratic equations that arise in practical applications cannot be solved
by factoring by inspection.[2]:207

Completing the square

The process of completing the square makes use of the algebraic identity

x2 + 2hx + h2 =(x + h) 2,
 16

which represents a well-defined algorithm that can be used to solve any quadratic
equation.[2]:207 Starting with a quadratic equation in standard form, ax2 + bx + c = 0

1. Divide each side by a, the coefficient of the squared term.

2. Subtract the constant term c/a from both sides.
3. Add the square of one-half of b/a, the coefficient of x, to both sides. This
"completes the square", converting the left side into a perfect square.
4. Write the left side as a square and simplify the right side if necessary.
5. Produce two linear equations by equating the square root of the left side with
the positive and negative square roots of the right side.
6. Solve each of the two linear equations.

We illustrate use of this algorithm by solving 2x2 + 4x − 4 = 0

1. x2 + 2x − 2 = 0
2. x2 + 2x = 2
3. x2 + 2x + 1 = 2+1
4. (x + 1) 2 = 3
5. x +1=± √ 3
6. x=−1 ± √ 3

The plus–minus symbol "±" indicates that both x = −1 + √ 3 and x = −1 − √ 3 are

solutions of the quadratic equation.

Quadratic formula and its derivation

Completing the square can be used to derive a general formula for solving quadratic
equations, called the quadratic formula.[5] The mathematical proof will now be briefly
summarized.[6] It can easily be seen, by polynomial expansion, that the following
equation is equivalent to the quadratic equation:

( )
2 2
b b −4 ac
x+ = 2
2a 4a

Taking the square root of both sides, and isolating x, gives:

 17

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
x=
2a

Some sources, particularly older ones, use alternative parameterizations of the

quadratic equation such as ax2 + 2bx + c = 0 or ax2 − 2bx + c = 0 ,[7] where b has a
magnitude one half of the more common one, possibly with opposite sign. These
result in slightly different forms for the solution, but are otherwise equivalent.

A number of alternative derivations can be found in the literature. These proofs are
simpler than the standard completing the square method, represent interesting
applications of other frequently used techniques in algebra, or offer insight into other
areas of mathematics.

A lesser known quadratic formula, as used in Muller's method provides the same
roots via the equation

2c
x=
−b ± √ b2−4 ac

This can be deduced from the standard quadratic formula by Vieta's formulas, which
assert that the product of the roots is c/a.

One property of this form is that it yields one valid root when a = 0, while the other
root contains division by zero, because when a = 0, the quadratic equation becomes
a linear equation, which has one root. By contrast, in this case, the more common
formula has a division by zero for one root and an indeterminate form 0/0 for the
other root. On the other hand, when c = 0, the more common formula yields two
correct roots whereas this form yields the zero root and an indeterminate form 0/0.

Reduced quadratic equation

It is sometimes convenient to reduce a quadratic equation so that its leading

coefficient is one. This is done by dividing both sides by a, which is always possible
since a is non-zero. This produces the reduced quadratic equation:[8]

2
x + px +q=0
 18

where p = b/a and q = c/a. This monic polynomial equation has the same solutions as
the original.

The quadratic formula for the solutions of the reduced quadratic equation, written in
terms of its coefficients, is:

1 ❑
x= (−p ± √ p −4 p )
2
2

or equivalently:

−p
x= ± √ ¿ ¿.
2
Discriminant

In the quadratic formula, the expression underneath the square root sign is called the
discriminant of the quadratic equation, and is often represented using an upper case
D or an upper case Greek delta:[9]

2
∆=b −4 ac

A quadratic equation with real coefficients can have either one or two distinct real
roots, or two distinct complex roots. In this case the discriminant determines the
number and nature of the roots. There are three cases:

 If the discriminant is positive, then there are two distinct roots

−b+ √ ∆ −b−√ ∆
and ,
2a 2a
both of which are real numbers. For quadratic equations with rational coefficients, if
the discriminant is a square number, then the roots are rational—in other cases they
may be quadratic irrationals.

 If the discriminant is zero, then there is exactly one real root

−b
,
2a
sometimes called a repeated or double root.
 19

 If the discriminant is negative, then there are no real roots. Rather, there are
two distinct (non-real) complex roots

−b √ ∆ −b √ ∆
+i and −i
2a 2a 2a 2a
which are complex conjugates of each other. In these expressions i is the
imaginary unit.

Thus the roots are distinct if and only if the discriminant is non-zero, and the roots are
real if and only if the discriminant is non-negative.

Summary

 Quadratic Equation in Standard Form: ax2 + bx + c = 0

 Quadratic Equations can be factored
 Quadratic Formula: x = −b ± √(b2 − 4ac) 2a
 When the Discriminant (b2−4ac) is:
o positive, there are 2 real solutions
o zero, there is one real solution

negative, there are 2 complex solutions

EXERCISE

Solve the following quadratic equations:

20
 21

SECTION THREE : COMPUTING (INTERNET)

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The drastic developments and breakthroughs in this information era have been the
ability to disseminate, integrate, and communicate information as fast and wide as
possible. Today regional bounders and time zones are almost meaningless when it
comes to information exchange. All this has been facilitated by the development and
accessibility of the internet.
This chapter discusses the development of the internet, its uses, and how it has
revolutionized the communication sectors that the world seems a small virtual village.
Through this information, superhighway, it has been possible for almost all sectors to
turn electronic and constitute the e-sector that includes e-mails, e-business, e-
institutions, and many others. All this has been greatly attributed to the development
of the internet.
3.2 Development of the Internet
The internet was conceived during the early 1960s as a solution to a pending cold
war problem. The big question by then was, how could the United State Government
successfully communicate after a major attack? Any centralized communication
networks would have been useless since there were the primary targets in any
attack.
These prompted scientists too think of a communication network that could operate
without any centralized control and that the network should be able to operate even
after parts of it were damaged or destroyed.
One major principle suggested was that of coming up with a network whereby any
computer connection on the internet could easily send and receive messages from
one destination to another without relying on all of the computers. Therefore, even if
the other computer connection were missing this could not hinder messages
reaching their destinations, as long as the destinations were available.
In 1968, the first network was set up in Great Britain and shortly after, the United
States government sponsored a project known as Advanced Research Project
Agency (ARPA) that eventually developed ARPANET. This project ARPANET
connected four mainframe super computers with a high-speed transmission lines for
data transfers on its network to enable researchers’ access any of these super-
computers.
 22

In the early 1970s ARPANET’s Network Control Protocol (NCP) a standard that used
packet switching by then, developed into a more sophisticated standard known as
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). This Transmission
Standard TCP enabled TCP enabled messages to be broken down into smaller
“packets” sent across the network and when it reached the destination, it was
reassembled into the original message before it could be opened. The IP (Internet
Protocol) part of this standard was responsible for all the addressing of the messages
to the various nodes (terminal op point in network)
It enabled messages to be transmitted across various networks using multiple
communication standards.
Originally, ARPANET was designed to enable scientists and researchers enjoy long
distance computing, but as time went by, they started using it for sending and
receiving personal mails and news articles. By then, they had started owning
personal user accounts and addresses for electronic mails thus the start of the
electronic Post Office.
The internet that was originally developed as a means of only transferring files has
grown to be a very useful tool that can accomplish the following roles:
· File transfer using the FTP protocol
· Electronic message transfer in form of emails and instant messages on
various protocols
· Medium of news exchange through Usenet newsgroups and
· Document presentation and storage media (web) using HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol) in HTML Hyper Text Mark- up Language).

The internet has not been to accomplish these roles but it does continue to facilitate
and enable other roles as they are developed for the internet.
3.3 File Transfer Over the Internet
With the development of the internet, it was now possible to communicate easily
across regions. This further enabled the exchange of the information and ideas
between the sparsely distributed scientists. This information exchange was facilitated
by FTP (File Transfer Protocol) a command line protocol that enables the easier
transmission of files on computers over the Internet.
The FTP protocol is one of those application protocols that are commonly used to
download files from ETP sites/servers. FTP uses the TCP/IP protocol to transfer
 23

information over the internet. Before accessing and downloading a file from a
location, one has to log-on that particular server and this is accomplished by use of
another application protocol known as Telnet. Telnet is an application protocol that is
used to logon, to remote servers including the FTP, anonymous FTP it is possible to
access other public servers that are not protected.
connection to remote computer sites: a terminal emulation program that allows
computer users to connect interactively to a server and access remote sites, e.g.
on the Internet

Today, FTP is widely used to transfer large files from one server to another most
specially in the transfer of web files by clients from their computers to their ISP’s
servers, which host them on the Internet. Thus it is also possible to use FTP and
manage files by perform simple tasks like delete, copy, rename and move on a
remote server as if it were on your computer.
3.4 Electronic Messaging
Electronic messaging can be traced as far back during the days of ARNAPET when
scientist using the facility started sending personal mails outside their research work.
This was later picked on as a mainstream use of the Internet and electronic
messaging that came to be known as e-mail started.
E-mails are electronic messages sent over a communication network and unlike
document files; these are more personal i.e. they are directed o specific individuals.
An e-mail message is composed or generated and then sent to a specific location
where it is downloaded for viewing.
Originally, e-mail or sms (instant messages) were transmitted over networks by the
use of POP (Post Office Protocol) protocol probably derived from analogous of post
office. With the arrival of internet, there was a need for transferring these messages
not only a network but also a consonant work.
This resulted into the development of SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) a
protocol that could transfer files over the internet. Although this protocol was suitable
for transferring messages over the internet, it had limitations in that it could not cue
properly messages on the receiver’s side a function that POP did very well.
Therefore SMTP was used in the transfer while POP was used in the receiving of
these messages.
 24

Today most of the software applications used for e-mail use another protocol IAMP
instead of POP3 PROTOCOl. Therefore, email applications use SMTP over TCP/IP
to send and receive messages of internet and POP3 (newer version of POP) or IMAP
to download and save the received message on mail servers. The arrival of ESMTP
(Extended Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) it is now possible to deliver large
multimedia files as e-mails.
3.5.1 E-mail Message Addresses
Emails can be compared to the normal post office mails that are sent to specific
addresses. Usually when a person communicate a message through the usual post
office he/she sends say a post card that contains the message being communicated,
the address of the recipient and the address of the sender.
Similarly, email messages are sent electronically with the messages being
communicated, the address of the receiver, and the address of the sender. However,
unlike of the post office where the address refers to the post office box number with
emails, the electronic mail address is used. Email addresses are personal
connections to the internet that can be used to send receive electronic messages.
Each email address on the internet is unique in lettering from the rest.
Typical email account/address consists of a user name, a server name separated by
@ sign. The user name could be a person’s name, word or just letters and numbers.
This depends on the system being used. For example an email account (address) on
a LAN could be you user name John whereas in an international setting the server
name and country initials may be a prerequisite.
Normally email account takes up the general form of [email protected]
initials of site category. For example an email addresses such the one below:
[email protected]
indicate that a user name mapenzi at a server known as yahoo, which is a
commercial site (.com) category. Alternatively, email addresses like
[email protected] indicates that a user name is at a server known idsoft which is a
company (.co) in Uganda (.ug)
Whether it is a POP3 or IMAP email address, it has various advantages associated
with them in comparison to conversional post office or telephone message
· With an email address, on can send any size of message at just the cost of a
local call.
 25

· Email messages can be sent at any time of the day and the results are almost
instantaneous because messages can reach their destinations in less than a
minute anywhere in the Globe.
· It is also a lot more convenient and cheaper to communicate using instant
messages (which are always on line) over the internet than the local post
office mail service.

Whatever notation, an email address may take on it is identified either as an offline

account or as an online account.
3.5.2 Offline email addresses
An offline account is that email address usually provided by the Internet Service
Provider (ISP) and frequently uses the POP3 protocol. Mils received on offline
account are first hosted on the ISP’s server before being downloaded on the actual
receiving computer’s inbox. These email accounts are always available as long as
your subscription with the service provides is valid. One major disadvantage with
these types of accounts is that they cannot be accessed from anywhere since they
are only configurated on access on your computer. This makes them resemble fixed
phone line that are connected to a stationery wall socket although on the other hand
for security reasons this might be an advantage since nobody can have access to the
mail box without proper computer security details.
A major feature with offline account is that these email addresses use email software
system configured to manage the mails to and from a service provider. These
applications include packages like lotus domino, lotus cc: mail server, Eudora pro,
quick mail office, Microsoft outlook, Pegasus, Tumpike and many others.
The choice of an email application will usually depend on several individual factors
like affordability, system requirements and suitability of the application to the
individual.
3.5.3 Online email addresses
An online email address uses the IAMP protocol used on the internet. Therefore, this
also exist on the internet can be accessed from any computer connected on the
internet, so far these email accounts have existed as free accounts offered by
several companies.
Common side that currently offer free email addresses include:
· http://www.yahoo.com
 26

· http://www.hotmail.com
· http://www.excite.com

In addition to these addresses being free, you also get benefit like
· Free information about any opportunities and upcoming event in a field of your
interest from all over the world (If you indicate to be informed about such)
· The opportunity to have access to your email address from any computer in
the world so long as it is connected to the internet, which makes them
resemble mobile phone numbers
· You get to know a lot more about things you would have never known? This is
because your address is constantly being updated with interesting topics sent
to you as mails.

Like the saying goes “free things are never free” probably it is so, because whenerver
you retrieve or send an email message it carries with it additional advertising
information. Probably, the main advantage of these free addresses to the hosts is
that they act the media of advertising and the users to get to know about what is
available. Although this may be irritating if official document appear to customers with
foreign adverts. Therefore, these types of “free emails” are not recommended for
business transactions.
Usually in most cases several informative messages are sent to these free emails yet
they are almost meaningless to the recipient. In such cases, they are regarded as
junk mails or simply spam.
3.5.4 Spam emails
Spam emails are described as unsolicited bulk mails sent to a recipient email
address. The major description of spam mail is that the recipient email addressee
does not request for it and it is sent in bulk i.e. to several other recipients. Senders of
spam use list servers to send the same message to several email addresses.
Technically, an electronic message is spam if it meets the following conditions:
· If the recipient personal identity and context are irrelevant because the
message is equal applicable to many other potential recipients and that
· The recipient has not verifiably granted deliberate, explicit, and still revocable
permission for it to be sent.
 27

Currently spam is illegal and has been banned in several countries. Most ISPs use
anti-Spam applications like spamhaus’ to block the unsolicited mails in which case
they return to the sender as bounced emails.
3.5.5 Bounced emails
Emails may bounce due to several reasons like non-existence server or miss-spelled
mail address. Generally email message will bounce if it does not reach its destination
and this is classified as a specific type of bouncing.
· Soft bounce
· Hard bounce
3.5.6 Hard bounce
A hard bounce is classified as a type of an email bouncing after it fails to locate the
destination server. Normally, when an email message is sent to an email address,
the sending server tries to locate the receiving server if it is found then it delivers the
email to the receiving server. The receiving server checks the email to determine if it
will be able to receive it. It first checks if the server address corresponds and then
checks the email to determine if the originating address of the message is not spam.
If these entire checks permit it to accept the message then the receiving server will
accept the message and search for the username and then deliver the email.
Therefore if the delivering server fails to locate the destination server or if it locates
the destination server and it rejects the email probably, it suspected Spam then this
email is sent back as a hard bounced email.
3.5.7 Soft Bounce
According to the previous description of message acceptance, if the receiving server
fails to locate the actual recipient of the email for example the username was
misspelled or is non existing then it will reject the email and send it back to the
sender’s email address and this is what is known as a soft bounce.
For every message that bounces, it is sent back to the sender’s email address with a
notice as to why it was never delivered. Therefore, the sender’s email address should
always be indicated for every message that is sent out.
3.5.8 Instant Messaging and Chat-rooms language
Apart from email the Interne has, various interesting features that it facilitates among
these are the chat rooms (Instant messages). In a chat room, people across the
World login on a special site (chat room) and start contributing views about a
particular topic or interact with other specific persons and begin asking questions
 28

about themselves or exchange views between themselves. In such situations, there

is n way of telling how serious or lightly a comment or expression that has been
received can be taken. This is because both the sender and the receiver do not see
each other’s facial expressions and therefore it is hard to understand what the mood
of the other person is implying. Due to this, various characters and words were
designed to represent particular feelings and actions of the message sender. These
characters are known as emotions (emotion icons) and acronyms (abbreviations of
short sentences), are used to express one’s emotions and reduce on the typing
works.
The tables bellow show the most common of these though the list is bigger;
EMOTION MEANING
:-t Angry
:’-( Crying
:-( Frown
<g> Grin
:-) Smiles
:-P Sticking your tongue out
:-O Surprise
8-) Wearing glasses
:-I Who cares?
;-) Wink

Typical acronyms
EMOTION MEANING
BBIAF Be Back in a few minutes
BRB Be right back
BCNU Be seeing you
BTW By the way
FTF Face to face
FWIW For what is worth
FYI For your information
FOAF Friend of a friend
HAND Have a nice day
 29

IHNI I have no idea

IMHO In my humble position
LOL Laughing out loud
OBTW Oh, by the way
ROTFL Rolling on the floor laughing
CUL8R See you later
WRT With respect to

In addition to using acronym one can also type words to reveal the expression of
temper, for example:
· When words are typed in upper case letters, it implies that the words are being
emphasized as speaking out with seriousness.
· If words are bolded then this indicates that the send with anger. Therefore,
words uppercase and bold are typical of a person who is bitter.
· Words in lowercase letters imply that the sender is calm and talking normally
like a conversation. (This is the most recommended way of writing over the
net).

3.6 World Wide Web

Although the United States Government developed the internet, it lost its control due
to vast growth in size of the internet. This came about because there were several
networks that connected to the internet daily and these could function either as a
closed network on their own or as an integrated part of the entire network known as
internet (the principle to which it was developed). Due to this expansion, AARPANET
became just a small network in a much wider network which led to its official expire in
1989. It should be noted that the Internet consists of various sub networks, which are
each owned, controlled, and financed individually. It is up to the individual
organization or a particular body responsible for the sub network to decide whether to
have it running or not.
Today the internet has grown so rampantly that, by January 1999, there were over 43
million web sites running on the internet around the world. A web site is the collection
of the various documents or pages at a particular node. These documents in most
cases have links to each other and other related pages. The first page on a web site
 30

is known as a home page from where you can access all the other pages of the site.
Analogously a home page, which contains all the links to other pages, can be
compared to a table of contents page in a book and a web site is just like the entire
book.
The web began in the late 1980s as a European project that proposed a system of
using documents that had links to other related documents on several computers.
These links could guide one from one computer to another using facility of the
internet. This created a virtual “web” of connections. In most cases, the word
“Internet” and “World Wide Web” (www or web) are used synonymously yet they do
not actually refer to the same thing.
The internet consists of the physical hardware (cables, dishes, and computers)
connections of the global network that is also known as the network of networks
using various means of data transfer known as protocols. Yet the world-wide-web
(web) is one of those services facilitated by the internet. Other services facilitated by
the internet are electronic mail messaging, file transfer usually FTP and newsgroup
discussion using UseNet. In addition, the web, which is the largest service of the
Internet, is a collection of documents Interlinked to one another by URL’s (Uniform
Resource Locators). The Interlinked documents are accessed over the Internet by
application interfaces known as web browser. Therefore, the Web refers to the data
and information that is made available over the global network.
3.6.1 Web Browsers

Although the Internet was originally developed for scientific and military purposes,
various academicians soon picked interest in it, since it offered easier means of
transferring research papers, ideas and ails from one destination to another, which
made the Internet, grow even bigger. It was at this time that the business community
discovered a very big market potential of their products and services worldwide. They
soon discovered that it was the easiest way of availing product information,
advertising, and providing customer support intentionally. Again, the Internet grew
even much bigger.
By then accessing data on the Internet required one to be conversant with the many
commands and text interfaces, which were the platform of the easier web browsers
(programs used to interface between the web and humans), this was too
cumbersome to many individuals.
 31

3.6.2 The Gopher Protocol

The command driven interface was replaced by an easier to use protocol known as
Gopher. The Gopher protocol was designed in 1991 by Paul Linder and Mark
McCahill to act as a distributed search and retrieval protocol used over the Internet.
This protocol used a menu system that was a direct pointer to the source document
on a Gopher server hence an easier means of accessing information over the
Internet.
The Gopher protocol, which was free software eventually declined in popularity as
HTTP protocol emerged when the owners of Gopher decided to charge a license fee.
It was further discovered that HTTP was easier to use that Gopher and that Gopher
server had a security exposure that made it incompatible with the current browsers.
Today, Gopher is more of vintage item than a mainstream Internet browser.
3.6.3 The HTTP protocol

In 1993, Marc Andreessen (a student by then) developed a new web browser called
Mosaic. This browser that enabled users to access the Internet via graphical user
interface integrated the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), URL (Uniform Resource
Locators), and HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) data access standards, which
were developed by Tim Berners-Lee. This user-friendly web browser soon became
very popular among Internet. The user only had to point-and-click, a process that
was much easier than typing commands in their rights syntax or accessing menus in
Gopher.
3.6.4 Accessing Web Information

The World Wide Web is a network designed around the architecture of a client-server
(see computer networks). When we are surfing the Internet using a web browser, we
are the clients and the computers that have the information are the servers called
web servers. In order to be able send and receive web pages with each other, the
client and server use a language called Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is for
this reason that most web document addresses begin with the letters “http”.
All the documents and web sites on the internet have unique Internet addresses
associated with them known as IP (Internet Protocol) address. To access a web page
you have to specify its IP address in the browsers address bar. Most of web pages
contain links known as hyperlinks to other related documents. Theses hyperlinks are
 32

the ones that contain the Internet addresses to those specific documents. In most
cases, these Internet addresses contained within web pages are referred to as URLs
(Uniform Resource Locators). Therefore, to access any site on the internet, you must
know its URL. A typical URL will always consist of four parts.
1. The first part refers to the protocol that is being used when accessing HTTP
server. This type of control is so far the most widely used.
· HTTP: (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is used when accessing HTTP
server. This type of protocol is so far the most widely used.
· FTP: (File Transfer Protocol) is used to download files from FTP
servers list documents as files, which a user selects and downloads
before opening for the information in the document.
· News : This protocol is mainly used to access Internet new sites
especially the Usenet news groups that has several specific discussion
forums on various topics
· Gopher : This was a protocol, which was previously used to access
documents as menus over the Internet. Today it has been superseded
by document as hyperlinks.
2. The second part of the URL specifies the type of location of the document.
This specifies whether it is located as a web therefore has the “www”
characters or as an ftp hence has the ftp characters.
3. The third part describes the site name or domain name that is usually a name
of the organisation or persons responsible. This could be names like NASA,
Microsoft, or any other name.
4. The fourth part is usually initials that describe the type off site. These initials
normally have designation like;

Designation implication
.com For commercial site
.edu For education related institutions
.gov For government sites
.mil For military related sites
.org NGOs or other non-profit organizations
.co.ug A company in Uganda
 33

Generally, URLs take on the general form as indicated below.

http://www. Domain Name. Site Designation also,

ftp://ftp.servername. com for the ftp servers
Typical examples of URLs include:
§ http://www.yahoo.com.
§ http://www.microsoft.com.
§ ftp:/ftp.microsoft.com.
§ ftp://seds.ipl.arizona.edu/.

3.7 Search Engines

A Search engine is one of the application software that is capable of locating
information over the Web in seconds. This is very useful when the actual URL to the
required information is not available or when there is completely no idea as to where
such information can be obtained. It is also very useful if a variety of ideas is needed
on that particular subject for comparison.

Search engines work by looking on each available web page for the topic (word or
phrase) that is entered and instructed to search. When a search engine finds the
corresponding topic from various web pages, it rearranges the web sites listing those
with the most count of such phrase at the top of the list.
 34

Section three: PHYSICS

1. Introduction
In the early stages of scientific development, “physics” mainly consisted of
mechanics and astronomy. In ancient times CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS of Alexandria
(*87) explained the motions of the sun, the moon, and the five planets known at his
time. He stated that the planets and the sun orbit the Earth in the order Mercury,
Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. This purely phenomenological model could
predict the positions of the planets accurately
enough for naked-eye observations. Researchers like NIKOLAUS KOPERNIKUS
(1473-1543), TYCHO BRAHE (1546-1601) and JOHANNES KEPLER (1571-1630)
described the movement of celestial bodies by mathematical expressions, which
were based on observations and a universal hypothesis (model). GALILEO GALILEI
(1564-1642) formulated the laws of free fall of bodies and other laws of motion. His
“discorsi" on the heliocentric conception of the world encountered fierce opposition at
those times. After the renaissance a fast development started, linked among others
with the names CHRISTIAAN HUYGENS (1629-1695), ISAAC NEWTON (1643-
1727), ROBERT HOOKE (1635-1703) and LEONHARD EULER (1707-1783). Not
only the motion of material points was investigated, but the observations were
extended to bodies having a spatial dimension. With HOOKE’s work on elastic steel
springs, the first material law was formulated. A general theory of the strength of
materials and structures was developed by mathematicians like JAKOB BERNOULLI
(1654-1705) and engineers like CHARLES AUGUSTIN COULOMB (1736-1806) and
CLAUDE LOUIS MARIE HENRI NAVIER (1785-1836), who introduced new
intellectual concepts like stress and strain. The achievements in continuum
mechanics coincided with the fast development in mathematics: differential calculus
has one of its major applications in mechanics, variational principles are used in
analytical mechanics.

SYMBOLS IN MECHANIC

FOUR FUNDAMENTAL GEOMETRIC CONCEPTS

 35

2. The space in which we live,although boundless and unlimited in extent, may be

thought of as divided into parts. A physical solid occupies a limited portion of space.
The portion of space occupied by a physical solid is called a geometric solid.
3. A geometric solid has length, breadth, and thickness. It may also be divided into
parts. The boundary of a solid is called a surface.
4. A surface is no part of a solid. It has length and breadth, but no thickness. It may
also be divided into parts. The boundary of a surface is called a line.
5. A line is no part of a surface. It has length only. It may also be divided into parts.
The boundary or extremity of a line is called a point. A point is no part of a line. It has
neither length, nor breadth, nor thickness. It cannot be divided into parts. It is position
only.
THE FOUR CONCEPTS IN REVERSE ORDER
7. If a point is allowed to move in space, the path in which it moves will be a line. A
piece of fine wire, or a line drawn on paper with a sharp pencil, represents
approximately a geometric line. This, however fine it may be, has some thickness
and is not therefore an ideal, or geometric, line.
8. If a line is allowed to move in space, its path in general will be a surface.
INTRODUCTION 3
9. If a surface is allowed to move in space, its path in
general will be a geometric solid.
10. A solid has threefold extent and so is said to have three dimensions; a surface
has twofold extent and is said to have two dimensions ; a line has one fold extent or
one dimension ; a point has no extent and has therefore no dimensions.
11. The following may be used as working definitions of these four fundamental
concepts:
A geometric solid is a limited portion of space.
A surface is that which bounds a solid or separates it from an adjoining solid or from
the surrounding space.
A line is that which has length only.
A point is position only.
 36

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Alexander L.G (2000). Longman English Grammar practice. Longman House. Burnt
Mill: Harlow.
 Howard Sargeant. (2007). Basic English Grammar for
English Language Learners Book 2. Saddleback
Educational Publishing, Ltd Singapore
 J. Merker,(2007) Du trinome du second degré à la theorie de Galois, Presss
universitaires de Franche-comte (ISBN 2848672056)
 Murphy,R. (2005) .English Grammar in Use. Cambridge: C. U. P.3rd Ed.
 Washington, Allyn J. (2000). Basic Techniccal Mathematics with Calculus,
Seventh Edition. Addison Westley Longman, inc. ISBN 978-0-201-35666-3