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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam

B.Sc. Computer Science

SEMESTER I
Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware
(Core)

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
SYLLABUS
Module I
Introduction to Computers: Generations of Computer (I-V),
Classification of Computers: Analog, Digital and Hybrid
Computers, Micro, Mini, Mainframe, Super Computers, Servers,
Laptop and Block Diagram of a Computer, Functions of the
Different Units: Input unit, Output unit, Memory unit, CPU
(ALU+CU). Booting Process- POST, BIOS, clock speed, memory
speed, memory capacity.

Module II
Introduction to Computer Hardware, DC regulated power
supply- Block Diagram, Concepts of Switch Mode Power supply,
Inverters, UPS and their applications. Basic Components of CPU,
Mother Board.

Module III:
Expansion Slots- ISA, EISA, MCA, VESA, PCI local bus, Processor,
Connectors, CMOS memory, SMPS, Serial and Parallel Ports,
USB, BIOS chip, Steps for assembling a PC.

Module IV:
Input Devices: Keyboard, Point and draw devices: mouse,
joystick, track ball, light pen, Data Scanning devices: image
scanner, OCR, OMR, MICR, Bar code reader, Voice Recognition
Device: Microphone, Output Devices: Monitor- CRT displays,
Non-CRT displays, TFT: LED, LCD, Plasma. Printer, Impact and
non-impact, Character, line and Page Printers.

Module V:
Memory: Primary Memory, RAM- SRAM, DRAM, ROM, PROM,
EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory, Secondary memory: Hard
Disk: Structure of a hard disk, how data is stored in a hard disk,
concept of tracks, sectors, clusters, cylinders, CD-R, RW, DVD-
RW, Blue-ray disk, HVD, PC memory Units: SIMM, DIMM, RIMM.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Book of study
1. Pradeep Sinha and Priti Sinha - Computer Fundamentals,
Fourth Edition- 2007, BPB Publications
2. B. RAM, “Computer Fundamentals: Architecture and
Organization”, New age international (P) Limited.

Reference
1. Balagurusamy - Fundamentals of Computer, First Edition-
2009, McGraw-Hill
2. Anita Goel - Computer Fundamentals, First Edition-2010,
Pearson.
3. Peter Norton, “Introduction to Computers”, McGraw Hill

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam

Module I

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Commonly
Operated
Machine
Particularly
Used for
Technical and
Educational
Research
COMPUTER is an advanced electronic device that takes raw
data as an input from the user and processes it under the control
of a set of instructions (called program), produces a result
(output), and saves it for future use.

Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a

necessity for everyone to know about computers. A computer is
an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores
data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in
a required format.

Functionalities of a Computer
All digital computer carries out the following five functions −
 Takes data as input.
 Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as
required.
 Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Generates the output.
 Controls all the above four steps.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed
Computer is a very fast device. It is capable of performing
calculation of very large amount of data. The computer has units
of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as
compared to man who will spend many months to perform the
same task.

Accuracy
In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. The
calculations are 100% error free. Computers perform all jobs
with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

Storage Capability
Memory is a very important characteristic of computers. A
computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
It can store large amount of data. It can store any type of data
such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence
Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness, and lack of concentration. It can work continuously
without any error and boredom. It can perform repeated tasks
with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility
A computer is a very versatile machine. A computer is very
flexible in performing the jobs to be done. This machine can be
used to solve the problems related to various fields. At one
instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the
very next moment it may be playing a card game.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Reliability
A computer is a reliable machine. Modern electronic
components have long lives. Computers are designed to make
maintenance easy.

Automation
Computer is an automatic machine. Automation is the ability to
perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives
a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory,
then the program and instruction can control the program
execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

The use of computers for data processing in an organization
leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the
process. As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when
required, the problem of maintenance of large number of paper
files gets reduced. Though the initial investment for installing a
computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost of each of its
transaction.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No IQ
A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any
task. Each instruction has to be given to the computer. A
computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency
It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully
dependent on humans.

Environment
The operating environment of the computer should be dust free
and suitable.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
No Feeling
Computers have no feelings or emotions. It cannot make
judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike humans.

APPLICATIONS
The application of computers in various fields are as follows.

Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy,
reliability, or versatility which has made it an integrated part in
all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking
Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −

 Online accounting facility, which includes checking
current balance, making deposits and overdrafts,
checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are
making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with
the help of computers. Insurance companies, finance houses,
and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients
with information showing −
 Procedure to continue with policies
 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus

Education
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the
education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system
known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of
learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of
number of computer students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational
institutions can use a computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a
student and analysis is carried out on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −
 Advertising − With computers, advertising
professionals create art and graphics, write and revise
copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of
selling more products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made
possible through the use of computerized catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs,
and dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to keep the
record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT
scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which
computers are used.
 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data
and identify the cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the
reports are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − these are used to check
the patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to
check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in
performing surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that
provides creation and modification of images. Some of the fields
are −
 Structural Engineering − requires stress and strain
analysis for design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes,
etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design,
implementation, and improvement of integrated
systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in
planning towns, designing buildings, determining a
range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles,
weapons, etc. Military also employs computerized control
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are −
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture,
or speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly
by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this
category are −
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some
major fields in this category are −
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a
computer is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was
used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software,
which together make up an entire computer system.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
There are five computer generations known till date. Each
generation has been viewed in detail along with their time
period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate
dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are
normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers.

Sl.No Generation & Description
First Generation
1 The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum
tube based.
Second Generation
2 The period of second generation: 1959-1965.
Transistor based.
Third Generation
3 The period of third generation: 1965-1971.
Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation
4 The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI
microprocessor based.
Fifth Generation
5 The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI
microprocessor based.

First Generation
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
The main features of the first generation are:
 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of AC
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Some computers of this generation were −
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

Second Generation
The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this
generation, transistors were used that were cheaper, consumed
less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than
the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this
generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory
and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices.

In this generation, assembly language and high-level

programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The
computers used batch processing and multiprogramming
operating system.

The main features of second generation are −

 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation
computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation
computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were −
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
 UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation
The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The
computers of third generation used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in
place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors,
and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.

The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made

computers smaller in size, reliable, and efficient. In this
generation remote processing, time-sharing,
multiprogramming operating system were used. High-level
languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC,
ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of third generation are −

 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Costly
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were −
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316
Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980.
Computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000
transistors and other circuit elements with their associated

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.

Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact,

reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to Personal
Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real
time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the
high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this
generation.

The main features of fourth generation are −

 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were −

 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth
generation, VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in
computer science, which interprets the means and method of
making computers think like human beings. All the high-level
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
generation.

AI includes −
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life
situations
 Natural language understanding and generation

The main features of fifth generation are −

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at
cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are −

 Desktop
 Laptop
 Notebook
 Ultrabook
 Chromebook

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be broadly classified by their Architecture and
computing capability is shown in figure.

Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the
continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic devices to model the
problem being solved. Analog computers were widely used in
scientific and industrial applications. Analog computers can
have a very wide range of complexity.

Digital Computer
By the invention of semiconductors, electrical, mechanical, or
hydraulic devices were replaced less power devices made by
semiconductors. The size of the systems were gradually
reduced. The computers what we see today are digital
computers.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit features of both
analog computers and digital computers. The digital component
normally serves as the controller and provides logical and
numerical operations. The analog component often serves as a
solver of differential equations and other mathematically
complex equations.

The first desktop hybrid computing system was the Hycomp

250, released by Packard Bell in 1961. Another early example
was the HYDAC 2400, an integrated hybrid computer released
by EAI in 1963.

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and

computing power.
S.No. Type Specifications
It is a single user computer
PC (Personal
1 system having moderately
Computer)
powerful microprocessor
It is also a single user computer
system, similar to personal
2 Workstation
computer has more powerful
microprocessor.
It is a multi-user computer
system, capable of supporting
3 Mini Computer
hundreds of users
simultaneously.
It is a multi-user computer
system, capable of supporting
hundreds of users
4 Main Frame
simultaneously. Software
technology is different from
minicomputer.
It is an extremely fast computer,
which can execute hundreds of
5 Supercomputer
millions of instructions per
second.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer
designed for an individual user. PCs are based on the
microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put
an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers
for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for
running spreadsheet and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing
games and surfing the Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user

systems, these systems are normally linked together to form a
network. In terms of power, now-a-days high-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems,
Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications
(CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and
other such types of applications which require a moderate
amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution

graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support,
and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of
workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk
drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and

Windows NT. Like PC, workstations are also single-user
computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a
local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-
alone systems.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up
to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer
capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of users
simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs
concurrently and supports many simultaneous execution of
programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently
available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense
amount of mathematical calculations (number crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations,

(animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g.
in petrochemical prospecting).

Servers
A server is a computer or a computer program that provides
services to other computer programs (and their users) in the
same or other computers. The computer that a server program
runs in is also referred to as a server. That machine may be a
dedicated server or used for other purposes as well.

Servers are often categorized in terms of their purpose.

Web server: serves requested HTML pages or files.

Application server: provides the business logic for an

application program.

Proxy server: acts as an intermediary between an endpoint

device, such as a computer, and another server from which a
user or client is requesting a service.
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Mail server: receives incoming e-mail from local users (people
within the same domain) and remote senders and forwards
outgoing e-mail for delivery.

Virtual server: running on a shared server that is configured in

such a way that it seems to each user that they have complete
control of a server.

File server: responsible for the central storage and

management of data files so that other computers on the same
network can access them.

Policy server: provides authorization services and facilitates

tracking and control of files.

Laptop
A laptop computer, sometimes called a notebook computer by
manufacturers. It is a battery or AC-powered personal computer
generally smaller than a briefcase that can easily be transported
and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as on
airplanes, in libraries, temporary offices, and at meetings. A
laptop typically weighs less than 5 pounds and is 3 inches or less
in thickness.

Laptop computers generally cost more than desktop computers

with the same capabilities because they are more difficult to
design and manufacture.

Laptops usually come with displays that use thin-screen

technology. Laptops use several different approaches for
integrating a mouse into the keyboard, including the touch pad,
the trackball, and the pointing stick. A serial port also allows a
regular mouse to be attached. The PC Card is insertable
hardware for adding a modem or network interface card to a
laptop. CD-ROM and digital versatile disc drives may be built-in
or attachable.

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics.

They can solve highly complicated problems quickly and
accurately.

Input Unit
Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve
any problem. Therefore we need to input the data and
instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one
or more input devices. Keyboard is the one of the most
commonly used input device. Other commonly used input
devices are the mouse, floppy disk drive, magnetic tape, etc. All
the input devices perform the following functions.

 Accept the data and instructions from the outside world.

• Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
• Supply the converted data to the computer system for
further processing.

Storage Unit
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions
that are entered through the input unit, before they are
processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before
these are sent to the output devices. It also saves the data for the
later use. The various storage devices of a computer system are
divided into two categories. Primary Storage and Secondary
Storage.

Output Unit
The output unit of a computer provides the information and
results of a computation to outside world. Printers, Visual
Display Unit (VDU) are the commonly used output devices.
Other commonly used output devices are floppy disk drive, hard
disk drive, and magnetic tape drive.

Central Processing Unit:

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known
as the Central Processing Unit (CPU).The CPU is like brain
performs the following functions:
• It performs all calculations.
• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all units of the computer.

Arithmetic & Logical Unit

All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) of the computer. It also does comparison and takes
decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc. and does logic
operations namely, >, <, =, ! etc.

Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers

the data from storage unit to ALU once the computations are
done, the results are transferred to the storage unit by the
control unit and then it is send to the output unit for displaying
results.

Control Unit
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
It controls all other units in the computer. The control unit (CU)
instructs the input unit, where to store the data after receiving
it from the user. It controls the flow of data and instructions
from the storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results
from the ALU to the storage unit. The control unit is generally
referred as the central nervous system of the computer that
control and synchronizes its working.

BOOTING PROCESS
Booting is a startup sequence that starts the operating system
of a computer when it is turned on. A boot sequence is the
initial set of operations that the computer performs when it is
switched on. Every computer has a boot sequence. The average
computer doesn’t understand the boot sequence but is
important to know for customizing and troubleshooting your
computer.

Boot Loader
Computers powered by the central processing unit can only
execute code found in the systems memory. Modern operating
systems and application program code and data are stored on
nonvolatile memories or mass storage devices. When a
computer is first powered on, it must initially rely only on the
code and data stored in nonvolatile portions of the systems
memory. At boot time, the operating system is not really loaded
and the computer’s hardware cannot perform many complex
systems actions.

The program that starts the “chain reaction” which ends with
the entire operating system being loaded is known as the boot
loader (or bootstrap loader). The term creatively came from
early designers imagining that before a computer “runs” it must
have its “boots strapped”. The boot loader’s only job is to load
other software for the operating system to start.

Multiple-stage boot loaders are used, in which several small

programs of increasing complexity sequentially call one after
the other, until the last of them loads the operating system.
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam

Boot Devices
The boot device is the device from which the operating system
is loaded. A modern PC BIOS (Basic Input/output System)
supports booting from various devices. These include the local
hard disk drive, optical drive, floppy drive, a network interface
card, and a USB device. Typically, the BIOS will allow the user to
configure a boot order. If the boot order is set to:
1. CD Drive
2. Hard Disk Drive
3. Network

Then the BIOS will try to boot from the CD drive first, and if that
fails then it will try to boot from the hard disk drive, and if that
fails then it will try to boot from the network, and if that fails
then it won’t boot at all.

Boot Sequence
There is a standard boot sequence that all personal computers
use. First, the CPU runs an instruction in memory for the BIOS.
That instruction contains a jump instruction that transfers to
the BIOS start-up program. This program runs a power-on self-
test (POST) to check that devices the computer will rely on are
functioning properly. Then, the BIOS goes through the
configured boot sequence until it finds a device that is bootable.

Once BIOS has found a bootable device, BIOS loads the boot
sector and transfers execution to the boot sector. If the boot
device is a hard drive, it will be a master boot record (MBR).
The MBR code checks the partition table for an active partition.
If one is found, the MBR code loads that partition’s boot sector
and executes it. The boot sector is often operating system
specific, however in most operating systems its main function is
to load and execute the operating system kernel, which
continues startup.
If there is no active partition or the active partition’s boot sector
is invalid, the MBR may load a secondary boot loader which will

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
select a partition and load its boot sector, which usually loads
the corresponding operating system kernel.

CLOCK SPEED
In a computer, clock speed refers to the number of pulses per
second generated by an oscillator that sets the tempo for the
processor. Clock speed is usually measured in MHz
(megahertz, or millions of pulses per second) or GHz
(gigahertz, or billions of pulses per second). Today's personal
computers run at a clock speed in the hundreds of megahertz
and some exceed one gigahertz.

Clock speed is one measure of computer "power," but it is not

always directly proportional to the performance level.

Some processors execute only one instruction per clock pulse.

More advanced processors can perform more than one
instruction per clock pulse. The latter type of processor will
work faster at a given clock speed than the former type.

Similarly, a computer with a 32-bit bus will work faster at a

given clock speed than a computer with a 16-bit bus. For these
reasons, there is no simplistic, universal relation among clock
speed, "bus speed," and millions of instructions per second
(MIPS).

Excessive clock speed can be detrimental to the operation of a

computer. As the clock speed in a computer rises without
upgrades in any of the other components, a point will be reached
beyond which a further increase in frequency will render the
processor unstable. Some computer users deliberately increase
the clock speed, hoping this alone will result in a proportional
improvement in performance, and are disappointed when
things don't work out that way.

MEMORY SPEED
The speed of the memory will determine the rate at which the
CPU can process data. The higher the clock rating on the
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
memory, the faster the system is able to read and write
information from the memory. All memory is rated at a specific
clock rate in megahertz that the memory interface talks to the
CPU with.

All the versions of DDR memory are referred to by the clock

rating. Memory manufacturers are starting to refer to the
bandwidth of the memory.

Memory types can be listed in two ways. The first method lists
the memory by its overall clock speed and the version of DDR
that is used. For instance, you may see mention of 1600MHz
DDR3 or DDR3-1600 which essentially is just the type and the
speed combined.

Latency
For memory there is another factor that impacts the
performance, latency. This is the amount of time (or clock
cycles) it takes the memory to respond to a command request.
Most computer BIOS and memory manufacturers list this rating.

With each generation of memory, the number of cycles for

command processing is increasing. For instance, DDR3
generally runs between 7 and 10 cycles. Newer DDR4 tends to
run at nearly twice that with latency running between 12 and
18. Even though there are higher latency with the newer
memory, other factors such as higher clock speeds and improve
technologies generally do not make them slower.

Lower the latency the faster the memory is to respond to

commands. Faster clock speed memory with slightly higher may
be a bit slower to respond but offer a great amount of memory
bandwidth which can offer better performance.

MEMORY CAPACITY OF LATEST MOTHERBOARDS

A motherboard (sometimes alternatively known as the main
board, system board, planar board or logic board) is a printed
circuit board (PCB) found in many modern computers which
Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]
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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
holds many of the crucial components of the system, such as the
central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides
connectors for other peripherals.

Motherboard specifically refers to a PCB with expansion

capability. The term main board is applied to devices with a
single board and no additional expansions or capability. In
modern terms this would include controlling boards in
televisions, washing machines and other embedded systems.
Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory to initialize
the system and load an operating system from some external
peripheral device. Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM
PC used ROM chips, mounted in sockets on the motherboard. At
power-up, the central processor would load its program counter
with the address of the boot ROM and start executing ROM
instructions. These instructions displayed system information
on the screen, ran memory checks, and then loaded an operating
system from an external or peripheral device (disk drive). If
none was available, then the computer would perform tasks
from other memory stores or display an error message,
depending on the model and design of the computer and version
of the BIOS.

Most modern motherboard designs use BIOS, stored in an

EEPROM chip soldered or socketed to the motherboard, to
bootstrap an operating system.

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Model Questions
Part A: Answer in One or Two Sentences
1. Define computer.
2. What is VLSI?
3. What is a hybrid computer?
4. What is a super computer?
5. What is a policy server?
6. What is the use of CU?
7. Define what is booting?
8. Mention any two boot devices.
9. What is latency?
10. Compare GHz and MHz
11. How computer is applicable in engineering design?
12. Compare SSI, LSI and VLSI.
13. Compare mainframe and super computer.
14. What are the operations performed by ALU?
15. What are multi stage boot loaders?
16. What is PCB?
17. What will determine the speed of memory?
18. Write note on MBR?
19. What do you mean by boot sequence?
20. Explain shortly about boot loader.

Part B: Short Essay Type Questions

1. What are functionalities of a computer?
2. What are disadvantages of a computer?
3. Compare 1st and 2nd generations of computers?
4. Distinguish between analog and digital computer.
5. Write note on different types of servers.
6. Write short note on CPU.
7. Explain clock speed.
8. Describe what is POST?
9. What is a notebook computer?
10. Compare what is laptop and tablet.

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CS1CRT01 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware (Core)MG University, Kottayam
Part C: Long Essay Type Questions
1. What are the advantages of computers?
2. Describe briefly the applications of computer?
3. Write note on generations of computer?
4. Classify digital computers according to the speed and
computing power.
5. Draw block diagram of a computer and explain each blocks.
6. Describe the sub units of CPU and its operations in detail.
7. Explain the running generation of computer in details

Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof. in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Thodupuzha. [email protected]

 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -1- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

Module I High Speed

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS Computer is a very fast device. It is capable of
performing calculation of very large amount of
Commonly data. The computer has units of speed in
Operated
microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
Machine
picosecond.
Particularly
Used for It can perform millions of calculations in a few
Technical and seconds as compared to man who will spend
Educational many months to perform the same task.
Research
Accuracy
COMPUTER is an advanced electronic device In addition to being very fast, computers are
that takes raw data as an input from the user very accurate. The calculations are 100% error
and processes it under the control of a set of free. Computers perform all jobs with 100%
instructions (called program), produces a accuracy provided that the input is correct.
result (output), and saves it for future use.
Storage Capability
Today’s world is an information-rich world and Memory is a very important characteristic of
it has become a necessity for everyone to computers. A computer has much more
know about computers. A computer is an storage capacity than human beings.
electronic data processing device, which It can store large amount of data. It can store
accepts and stores data input, processes the any type of data such as images, videos, text,
data input, and generates the output in a audio, etc.
required format.
Diligence
Functionalities of a Computer Unlike human beings, a computer is free from
monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration. It can work continuously
without any error and boredom. It can perform
repeated tasks with the same speed and
accuracy.

All digital computer carries out the following Versatility

five functions − A computer is a very versatile machine. A
 Takes data as input. computer is very flexible in performing the
 Stores the data/instructions in its memory jobs to be done. This machine can be used to
and uses them as required. solve the problems related to various fields. At
 Processes the data and converts it into one instance, it may be solving a complex
useful information. scientific problem and the very next moment it
 Generates the output. may be playing a card game.
 Controls all the above four steps.
Reliability
ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS A computer is a reliable machine. Modern
electronic components have long lives.
Following are certain advantages of Computers are designed to make maintenance
computers. easy.

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 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -2- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

Automation Business
Computer is an automatic machine. A computer has high speed of calculation,
Automation is the ability to perform a given diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility
task automatically. Once the computer which has made it an integrated part in all
receives a program i.e., the program is stored business organizations.
in the computer memory, then the program
and instruction can control the program Computer is used in business organizations for
execution without human interaction. −
 Payroll calculations
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost  Budgeting
The use of computers for data processing in an  Sales analysis
organization leads to reduction in paper work  Financial forecasting
and results in speeding up the process. As data  Managing employee database
in electronic files can be retrieved as and when  Maintenance of stocks, etc.
required, the problem of maintenance of large
number of paper files gets reduced. Though Banking
the initial investment for installing a computer Today, banking is almost totally dependent on
is high, it substantially reduces the cost of each computers.
of its transaction.
Banks provide the following facilities −
DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS  Online accounting facility, which
Following are certain disadvantages of includes checking current balance,
computers. making deposits and overdrafts,
checking interest charges, shares, and
No IQ trustee records.
A computer is a machine that has no  ATM machines which are completely
intelligence to perform any task. Each automated are making it even easier for
instruction has to be given to the computer. A customers to deal with banks.
computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Insurance
Dependency Insurance companies are keeping all records
It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it up-to-date with the help of computers.
is fully dependent on humans. Insurance companies, finance houses, and
stock broking firms are widely using
Environment computers for their concerns.
The operating environment of the computer
should be dust free and suitable. Insurance companies are maintaining a
No Feeling database of all clients with information
Computers have no feelings or emotions. It showing −
cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste,  Procedure to continue with policies
experience, and knowledge unlike humans.  Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
APPLICATIONS  Maturity date
The application of computers in various fields  Interests due
are as follows.  Survival benefits
 Bonus

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 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -3- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

Education  Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can

The computer helps in providing a lot of be done and the reports are prepared
facilities in the education system. by computer.
 The computer provides a tool in the  Patient Monitoring System − these
education system known as CBE are used to check the patient's signs for
(Computer Based Education). abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest,
 CBE involves control, delivery, and ECG, etc.
evaluation of learning.  Pharma Information System −
 Computer education is rapidly Computer is used to check drug labels,
increasing the graph of number of expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
computer students.  Surgery − Nowadays, computers are
 There are a number of methods in also used in performing surgery.
which educational institutions can use a
computer to educate the students. Engineering Design
 It is used to prepare a database about Computers are widely used for engineering
performance of a student and analysis purpose.
is carried out on this basis. One of the major areas is CAD (Computer
Aided Design) that provides creation and
Marketing modification of images. Some of the fields are
In marketing, uses of the computer are −
following −  Structural Engineering − requires
 Advertising − With computers, stress and strain analysis for design of
advertising professionals create art and ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
graphics, write and revise copy, and  Industrial Engineering − Computers
print and disseminate ads with the goal deal with design, implementation, and
of selling more products. improvement of integrated systems of
 Home Shopping − Home shopping people, materials, and equipment.
has been made possible through the  Architectural Engineering −
use of computerized catalogues that Computers help in planning towns,
provide access to product information designing buildings, determining a
and permit direct entry of orders to be range of buildings on a site using both
filled by the customers. 2D and 3D drawings.

Healthcare Military
Computers have become an important part in Computers are largely used in defense.
hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military
being used in hospitals to keep the record of also employs computerized control systems.
patients and medicines. It is also used in Some military areas where a computer has
scanning and diagnosing different diseases. been used are −
ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are  Missile Control
also done by computerized machines.  Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
Following are some major fields of health care  Smart Weapons
in which computers are used.
 Diagnostic System − Computers are Communication
used to collect data and identify the Communication is a way to convey a message,
cause of illness. an idea, a picture, or speech that is received
and understood clearly and correctly by the

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 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -4- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

person for whom it is meant. Some main areas

in this category are −
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in
government services. Some major fields in this
category are −
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

Prepared by Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Muttom, Thodupuzha
 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -1- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS  Generated a lot of heat

Generation in computer terminology is a  Slow input and output devices
change in technology a computer is/was being  Huge size
used. Initially, the generation term was used to  Need of AC
distinguish between varying hardware  Non-portable
technologies. Nowadays, generation includes  Consumed a lot of electricity
both hardware and software, which together
make up an entire computer system. Some computers of this generation were −
 ENIAC
There are five computer generations known till  EDVAC
date. Each generation has been viewed in  UNIVAC
detail along with their time period and  IBM-701
characteristics. In the following table,  IBM-650
approximate dates against each generation
has been mentioned, which are normally Second Generation
accepted. The period of second generation was from
1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were
Following are the main five generations of used that were cheaper, consumed less power,
computers. more compact in size, more reliable and faster
than the first generation machines made of
Sl. vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic
Generation & Description
No cores were used as the primary memory and
First Generation magnetic tape and magnetic disks as
1 The period of first generation: 1946- secondary storage devices.
1959. Vacuum tube based.
Second Generation In this generation, assembly language and
2 The period of second generation: high-level programming languages like
1959-1965. Transistor based. FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers
Third Generation used batch processing and multiprogramming
3 The period of third generation: 1965- operating system.
1971. Integrated Circuit based.
Fourth Generation The main features of second generation are −
The period of fourth generation:  Use of transistors
4  Reliable in comparison to first generation
1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor
based. computers
Fifth Generation  Smaller size as compared to first
5 The period of fifth generation: 1980- generation computers
onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.  Generated less heat as compared to first
generation computers
First Generation  Consumed less electricity as compared to
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. first generation computers
Vacuum tube based.  Faster than first generation computers
The main features of the first generation are:  Still very costly
 Vacuum tube technology  AC required
 Unreliable  Supported machine and assembly
 Supported machine language only languages
 Very costly
Some computers of this generation were −

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 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -2- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

 IBM 1620 it possible to have microcomputers of fourth

 IBM 7094 generation.
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600 Fourth generation computers became more
 UNIVAC 1108 powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As
a result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC)
Third Generation revolution. In this generation, time sharing,
The period of third generation was from 1965- real time networks, distributed operating
1971. The computers of third generation used system were used. All the high-level languages
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this
A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and generation.
capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The main features of fourth generation are −
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This  VLSI technology used
development made computers smaller in size,  Very cheap
reliable, and efficient. In this generation  Portable and reliable
remote processing, time-sharing,  Use of PCs
multiprogramming operating system were  Very small size
used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO  Pipeline processing
IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68  No AC required
etc.) were used during this generation.  Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of
The main features of third generation are − networks
 IC used  Computers became easily available
 More reliable in comparison to previous
two generations Some computers of this generation were −
 Smaller size  DEC 10
 Generated less heat  STAR 1000
 Faster  PDP 11
 Lesser maintenance  CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 Costly  CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity Fifth Generation
 Supported high-level language The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date.
Some computers of this generation were − In the fifth generation, VLSI technology
 IBM-360 series became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
 Honeywell-6000 series technology, resulting in the production of
 PDP (Personal Data Processor) microprocessor chips having ten million
 IBM-370/168 electronic components.
 TDC-316
This generation is based on parallel processing
Fourth Generation hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
The period of fourth generation was from software. AI is an emerging branch in
1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation computer science, which interprets the means
used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) and method of making computers think like
circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 human beings. All the high-level languages
transistors and other circuit elements with like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
their associated circuits on a single chip made generation.

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 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -3- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

AI includes −
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make
decisions in real-life situations
 Natural language understanding and
generation

The main features of fifth generation are −

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language
processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor
technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with
multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact
computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are −

 Desktop
 Laptop
 Notebook
 Ultrabook
 Chromebook

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 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -1- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS The first desktop hybrid computing system

Computers can be broadly classified by their was the Hycomp 250, released by Packard Bell
Architecture and computing capability is in 1961. Another early example was the
shown in figure. HYDAC 2400, an integrated hybrid computer
released by EAI in 1963.

Computers can be broadly classified by their

speed and computing power.

SL.
Type Specifications
No.
It is a single user
computer system
PC (Personal
1 having moderately
Computer)
powerful
microprocessor
It is also a single
user computer
system, similar to
Analog Computer 2 Workstation
personal computer
An analog computer is a form of computer
has more powerful
that uses the continuously changeable aspects
microprocessor.
of physical phenomena such as electrical,
It is a multi-user
mechanical, or hydraulic devices to model the
computer system,
problem being solved. Analog computers were
capable of
widely used in scientific and industrial 3 Mini Computer
supporting
applications. Analog computers can have a
hundreds of users
very wide range of complexity.
simultaneously.
It is a multi-user
Digital Computer
computer system,
By the invention of semiconductors, electrical,
capable of
mechanical, or hydraulic devices were replaced
supporting
less power devices made by semiconductors.
hundreds of users
The size of the systems were gradually 4 Main Frame
simultaneously.
reduced. The computers what we see today are
Software
digital computers.
technology is
different from
Hybrid Computer
minicomputer.
Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit
features of both analog computers and digital It is an extremely
computers. The digital component normally fast computer,
serves as the controller and provides logical which can execute
and numerical operations. The analog 5 Supercomputer hundreds of
component often serves as a solver of millions of
differential equations and other instructions per
mathematically complex equations. second.

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 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -2- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

PC (Personal Computer) Minicomputer

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively It is a midsize multi-processing system capable
inexpensive computer designed for an of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.
individual user. PCs are based on the Mainframe
microprocessor technology that enables Mainframe is very large in size and is an
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one expensive computer capable of supporting
chip. Businesses use personal computers for hundreds or even thousands of users
word processing, accounting, desktop simultaneously. Mainframe executes many
publishing, and for running spreadsheet and programs concurrently and supports many
database management applications. At home, simultaneous execution of programs.
the most popular use for personal computers
is playing games and surfing the Internet. Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest
Although personal computers are designed as computers currently available.
single-user systems, these systems are Supercomputers are very expensive and are
normally linked together to form a network. In employed for specialized applications that
terms of power, now-a-days high-end models require immense amount of mathematical
of the Macintosh and PC offer the same calculations (number crunching).
computing power and graphics capability as
low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, For example, weather forecasting, scientific
Hewlett-Packard, and Dell. simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid
dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
Workstation electronic design, and analysis of geological
Workstation is a computer used for data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop
publishing, software development, and other Servers
such types of applications which require a A server is a computer or a computer program
moderate amount of computing power and that provides services to other computer
relatively high quality graphics capabilities. programs (and their users) in the same or
other computers. The computer that a server
Workstations generally come with a large, program runs in is also referred to as a server.
high-resolution graphics screen, large amount That machine may be a dedicated server
of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a or used for other purposes as well.
graphical user interface. Most workstations
also have mass storage device such as a disk Servers are often categorized in terms of their
drive, but a special type of workstation, called purpose.
diskless workstation, comes without a disk
drive. Web server: serves requested HTML pages or
files.
Common operating systems for workstations
are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Application server: provides the business
workstations are also single-user computers logic for an application program.
like PC but are typically linked together to form
a local-area network, although they can also Proxy server: acts as an intermediary between
be used as stand-alone systems. an endpoint device, such as a computer, and
another server from which a user or client is
requesting a service.

Prepared by Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Muttom, Thodupuzha
 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -3- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

Mail server: receives incoming e-mail from

local users (people within the same domain)
and remote senders and forwards outgoing e-
mail for delivery.

Virtual server: running on a shared server that

is configured in such a way that it seems to
each user that they have complete control of a
server.

File server: responsible for the central storage

and management of data files so that other
computers on the same network can access
them.

Policy server: provides authorization services

and facilitates tracking and control of files.

Laptop
A laptop computer, sometimes called a
notebook computer by manufacturers. It is a
battery or AC-powered personal computer
generally smaller than a briefcase that can
easily be transported and conveniently used in
temporary spaces such as on airplanes, in
libraries, temporary offices, and at meetings. A
laptop typically weighs less than 5 pounds and
is 3 inches or less in thickness.

Laptop computers generally cost more than

desktop computers with the same capabilities
because they are more difficult to design and
manufacture.

Laptops usually come with displays that use

thin-screen technology. Laptops use several
different approaches for integrating a mouse
into the keyboard, including the touch pad, the
trackball, and the pointing stick. A serial port
also allows a regular mouse to be attached.
The PC Card is insertable hardware for adding
a modem or network interface card to a
laptop. CD-ROM and digital versatile disc
drives may be built-in or attachable.

Prepared by Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Muttom, Thodupuzha
 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -1- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER Output Unit

The output unit of a computer provides the
information and results of a computation to
outside world. Printers, Visual Display Unit
(VDU) are the commonly used output devices.
Other commonly used output devices are
floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, and
magnetic tape drive.

Central Processing Unit:

The control unit and ALU of the computer are
together known as the Central Processing Unit
A computer can process data, pictures, sound
(CPU).The CPU is like brain performs the
and graphics. They can solve highly
following functions:
complicated problems quickly and accurately.
• It performs all calculations.
• It takes all decisions.
Input Unit
• It controls all units of the computer.
Computers need to receive data and
instruction in order to solve any problem.
Arithmetic & Logical Unit
Therefore we need to input the data and
All calculations are performed in the
instructions into the computers. The input unit
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It
consists of one or more input devices.
also does comparison and takes decision. The
ALU can perform basic operations such as
Keyboard is the one of the most commonly
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
used input device. Other commonly used input
etc. and does logic operations namely, >, <, =,
devices are the mouse, floppy disk drive,
! etc.
magnetic tape, etc. All the input devices
perform the following functions.
Whenever calculations are required, the
control unit transfers the data from storage
 Accept the data and instructions from the
unit to ALU once the computations are done,
outside world.
the results are transferred to the storage unit
• Convert it to a form that the computer can
by the control unit and then it is send to the
understand.
output unit for displaying results.
• Supply the converted data to the computer
system for further processing.
Control Unit
It controls all other units in the computer. The
Storage Unit
control unit (CU) instructs the input unit, where
The storage unit of the computer holds data
to store the data after receiving it from the
and instructions that are entered through the
user. It controls the flow of data and
input unit, before they are processed. It
instructions from the storage unit to ALU. It
preserves the intermediate and final results
also controls the flow of results from the ALU
before these are sent to the output devices. It
to the storage unit. The control unit is
also saves the data for the later use. The
generally referred as the central nervous
various storage devices of a computer system
system of the computer that control and
are divided into two categories. Primary
synchronizes it’s working.
Storage and Secondary Storage.

Prepared by Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Muttom, Thodupuzha
 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -1- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

BOOTING PROCESS device. Typically, the BIOS will allow the user to
Booting is a startup sequence that starts the configure a boot order. If the boot order is set
operating system of a computer when it is to:
turned on. A boot sequence is the initial set of 1. CD Drive
operations that the computer performs when 2. Hard Disk Drive
it is switched on. Every computer has a boot 3. Network
sequence. The average computer doesn’t
understand the boot sequence but is Then the BIOS will try to boot from the CD
important to know for customizing and drive first, and if that fails then it will try to boot
troubleshooting your computer. from the hard disk drive, and if that fails then
it will try to boot from the network, and if that
Boot Loader fails then it won’t boot at all.
Computers powered by the central processing
unit can only execute code found in the Boot Sequence
systems memory. Modern operating systems There is a standard boot sequence that all
and application program code and data are personal computers use. First, the CPU runs an
stored on nonvolatile memories or mass instruction in memory for the BIOS. That
storage devices. When a computer is first instruction contains a jump instruction that
powered on, it must initially rely only on the transfers to the BIOS start-up program. This
code and data stored in nonvolatile portions program runs a power-on self-test (POST) to
of the systems memory. At boot time, the check that devices the computer will rely on
operating system is not really loaded and the are functioning properly. Then, the BIOS goes
computer’s hardware cannot perform many through the configured boot sequence until it
complex systems actions. finds a device that is bootable.

The program that starts the “chain reaction” Once BIOS has found a bootable device, BIOS
which ends with the entire operating system loads the boot sector and transfers execution
being loaded is known as the boot loader (or to the boot sector. If the boot device is a hard
bootstrap loader). The term creatively came drive, it will be a master boot record (MBR).
from early designers imagining that before a The MBR code checks the partition table for an
computer “runs” it must have its “boots active partition. If one is found, the MBR code
strapped”. The boot loader’s only job is to load loads that partition’s boot sector and executes
other software for the operating system to it. The boot sector is often operating system
start. specific, however in most operating systems its
main function is to load and execute the
Multiple-stage boot loaders are used, in operating system kernel, which continues
which several small programs of increasing startup.
complexity sequentially call one after the
other, until the last of them loads the If there is no active partition or the active
operating system. partition’s boot sector is invalid, the MBR may
load a secondary boot loader which will select
Boot Devices a partition and load its boot sector, which
The boot device is the device from which the usually loads the corresponding operating
operating system is loaded. A modern PC BIOS system kernel.
(Basic Input/output System) supports
booting from various devices. These include CLOCK SPEED
the local hard disk drive, optical drive, floppy In a computer, clock speed refers to the
drive, a network interface card, and a USB number of pulses per second generated by an

Prepared by Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Muttom, Thodupuzha
 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -2- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

oscillator that sets the tempo for the All the versions of DDR memory are referred to
processor. Clock speed is usually measured in by the clock rating. Memory manufacturers are
MHz (megahertz, or millions of pulses per starting to refer to the bandwidth of the
second) or GHz (gigahertz, or billions of memory.
pulses per second). Today's personal
computers run at a clock speed in the Memory types can be listed in two ways. The
hundreds of megahertz and some exceed one first method lists the memory by its overall
gigahertz. clock speed and the version of DDR that is
used. For instance, you may see mention of
Clock speed is one measure of computer 1600MHz DDR3 or DDR3-1600 which
"power," but it is not always directly essentially is just the type and the speed
proportional to the performance level. combined.

Some processors execute only one instruction Latency

per clock pulse. More advanced processors For memory there is another factor that
can perform more than one instruction per impacts the performance, latency. This is the
clock pulse. The latter type of processor will amount of time (or clock cycles) it takes the
work faster at a given clock speed than the memory to respond to a command request.
former type. Most computer BIOS and memory
manufacturers list this rating.
Similarly, a computer with a 32-bit bus will
work faster at a given clock speed than a With each generation of memory, the number
computer with a 16-bit bus. For these reasons, of cycles for command processing is
there is no simplistic, universal relation among increasing. For instance, DDR3 generally runs
clock speed, "bus speed," and millions of between 7 and 10 cycles. Newer DDR4 tends
instructions per second (MIPS). to run at nearly twice that with latency running
between 12 and 18. Even though there are
Excessive clock speed can be detrimental to higher latency with the newer memory, other
the operation of a computer. As the clock factors such as higher clock speeds and
speed in a computer rises without upgrades in improve technologies generally do not make
any of the other components, a point will be them slower.
reached beyond which a further increase in
frequency will render the processor unstable. Lower the latency the faster the memory is to
Some computer users deliberately increase the respond to commands. Faster clock speed
clock speed, hoping this alone will result in a memory with slightly higher may be a bit
proportional improvement in performance, slower to respond but offer a great amount of
and are disappointed when things don't work memory bandwidth which can offer better
out that way. performance.

MEMORY SPEED MEMORY CAPACITY OF LATEST

The speed of the memory will determine the MOTHERBOARDS
rate at which the CPU can process data. The A motherboard (sometimes alternatively
higher the clock rating on the memory, the known as the main board, system board,
faster the system is able to read and write planar board or logic board) is a printed circuit
information from the memory. All memory is board (PCB) found in many modern computers
rated at a specific clock rate in megahertz that which holds many of the crucial components
the memory interface talks to the CPU with. of the system, such as the central processing

Prepared by Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Muttom, Thodupuzha
 Computer Fundamentals and Basics of PC Hardware -3- B.Sc. Computer Science, MG University, Kottayam

unit (CPU) and memory, and provides

connectors for other peripherals.

Motherboard specifically refers to a PCB with

expansion capability. The term main board is
applied to devices with a single board and no
additional expansions or capability. In modern
terms this would include controlling boards in
televisions, washing machines and other
embedded systems.

Motherboards contain some non-volatile

memory to initialize the system and load an
operating system from some external
peripheral device. Microcomputers such as the
Apple II and IBM PC used ROM chips, mounted
in sockets on the motherboard.

At power-up, the central processor would load

its program counter with the address of the
boot ROM and start executing ROM
instructions. These instructions displayed
system information on the screen, ran memory
checks, and then loaded an operating system
from an external or peripheral device (disk
drive). If none was available, then the
computer would perform tasks from other
memory stores or display an error message,
depending on the model and design of the
computer and version of the BIOS.

Most modern motherboard designs use BIOS,

stored in an EEPROM chip soldered or
socketed to the motherboard, to bootstrap an
operating system.

Prepared by Eugin Lopez. F, Asst. Prof in Computer, CAS, IHRD, Muttom, Thodupuzha