🎯 Basic JavaScript

1. What are the different data types in JavaScript?

JavaScript has 8 data types:

📌 Primitive Data Types (Immutable & stored by

value):

1.​String – Represents text

2.​Number – Any numeric value (integer or float)
3.​Boolean – true or false
4.​Undefined – A variable declared but not assigned
a value.
5.​Null – Represents intentional absence of value
6.​Symbol – A unique, immutable value (used for
object keys)
7.​BigInt – For large integers beyond Number limit

📌 Non-Primitive Data Type (Mutable & stored by

reference):

8.​Object – Used to store collections of data​

(Includes arrays, functions, dates, etc.)​
Tip: Use typeof to check a data type

2. What is the difference between var, let, and

const?

Feature var let const

Scope Function-sco Block-scoped Block-scoped

ped

Reassignable ✅ Yes ✅ Yes ❌ No

Redeclarable ✅ Yes ❌ No ❌ No
Hoisted ✅ (but ✅ (not ✅ (not
undefined) initialized) initialized)

1
3. What is hoisting in JavaScript?

👉 Hoisting is JavaScript's default behavior of

moving declarations to the top of the current scope
during compilation.

Example:
console.log(x); // undefined
var x = 5;
Only declarations are hoisted, not
initializations.

4. Explain the difference between == and ===.

●​ == (loose equality): compares values after type

conversion.​

●​ === (strict equality): compares values and

types, no conversion.

Example:
'5' == 5 // true
'5' === 5 // false

5. What are truthy and falsy values?

●​ Truthy: Values that evaluate to true in a

boolean context.​

●​ Falsy: Values that evaluate to false. Only 7

falsy values:

(false, 0, "", null, undefined, NaN,

document.all)

Everything else is truthy (e.g., "0", [], {}).

2
6. What is the difference between null and undefined?

Feature undefined null

Meaning Variable Explicitly set

declared but not to "no value"
assigned

Type undefined object (legacy

bug)

Set by JavaScript Developer

engine

7. What is a closure in JavaScript?

👉 A closure is a function that remembers variables

from its outer scope even after the outer function
has finished executing.

Example:

function outer() {
let count = 0;
return function inner() {
count++;
return count;
};
}

const counter = outer();

console.log(counter()); // 1
console.log(counter()); // 2

3
8. Explain scope (global vs local vs block).

●​ Global Scope: Variables declared outside any

function.​

●​ Function (Local) Scope: Variables declared inside

a function.​

●​ Block Scope: Variables declared using let or

const inside {}.

Example:

if (true) {
let x = 10; // block scope
var y = 20; // function/global scope
}
console.log(y); // 20
// console.log(x); // Error

9. What is the event loop in JavaScript?

👉 The event loop handles asynchronous operations

like callbacks, promises, and events.

Process:

1.​Executes synchronous code.​

2.​ Moves async tasks to the callback queue or

microtask queue.​

3.​Pushes them to the call stack when it's empty.

This allows JavaScript to be non-blocking despite

being single-threaded.

4
10. What is a callback function?

👉 A callback is a function passed as an argument to

another function, to be called later, usually after
an asynchronous operation.

Example:

function greet(name, callback) {

console.log("Hello " + name);
callback();
}
function sayBye() {
console.log("Goodbye!");
}
greet("John", sayBye);

🎯 Functions and Objects

1. What is the difference between function
declaration and function expression?
●​ Function Declaration​
​ Defined with the function keyword and
hoisted.​
​ function greet() {
​ ​ console.log("Hello");
}

●​ Function Expression​
​ Stored in a variable. Not hoisted.​
​ const greet = function() {
​ ​ console.log("Hello");
};
greet();

5
2. What is a higher-order function?

👉 A function that:
●​ Takes another function as an argument, or
●​ Returns another function.

Examples: map(), filter(), reduce(), etc.

function double(x) {
return x * 2;
}
function apply(fn, value) {
return fn(value); // higher-order
}
apply(double, 5); // 10

3. What is the difference between map(), forEach(),

filter(), and reduce()?

Method Purpose Returns Mutates

Original?

map() Transforms New array ❌ No

each item

forEach() Loops undefined ❌ No

through
items

filter() Keeps items New filtered ❌ No

that pass a array
test

reduce() Reduces Single ❌ No

array to a result
single value

Example:
const nums = [1, 2, 3, 4];
nums.map(x => x * 2); // [2, 4, 6, 8]
6
 nums.filter(x => x > 2); // [3, 4]
nums.reduce((a, b) => a + b); // 10
nums.forEach(x => console.log(x)); // 1 2 3
4

4. What is the difference between call(), apply(),

and bind()?

Method Purpose Parameters Executes

Function?

call() Calls a Arguments ✅ Yes

function passed
with a given individually
this

apply() Same as Arguments ✅ Yes

call() but passed as
takes array
arguments as
an array

bind() Returns a Arguments ❌ No

new function passed
with bound individually
this

Example:
function sayHello() {
console.log(this.name);
}

const user = { name: "John" };

sayHello.call(user); // John
sayHello.apply(user); // John
const boundHello = sayHello.bind(user);
boundHello(); // John

7
5. What is this keyword in JavaScript?

👉 this refers to the object that is calling the

function.

Behavior in different contexts:

●​ Global scope (non-strict): this is the window

object.
●​ Inside a method: this refers to the object.
●​ In arrow functions: this is taken from the
surrounding (lexical) scope.
●​ Inside a constructor: this is the newly created
object.

Example:

const obj = {
name: "John",
greet() {
console.log(this.name); // John
}
};
obj.greet();

6. Explain prototypal inheritance.

👉 JavaScript uses prototypes to allow objects to

inherit features from other objects.

●​ Every object has an internal [[Prototype]]

(accessed using __proto__ or
Object.getPrototypeOf()).
●​ Objects can share methods via the prototype
chain.

Example:

const parent = { sayHello() {

console.log("Hello!");
}

8
 };
const child = Object.create(parent);
child.sayHello(); // Inherited from parent

7. What is JSON and how is it used in JavaScript?

👉 JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is a lightweight

data format used to store and transfer data.

●​ Used in APIs, localStorage, and config files.

Converting:
const obj = { name: "John" };
const jsonStr = JSON.stringify(obj); // to
JSON string

const backToObj = JSON.parse(jsonStr); //

back to JS object

8. What is the difference between a shallow and deep

copy?

Copy Type Description Example Tools

Shallow Copy Copies only the Object.assign(),

first level of spread ...
data

Deep Copy Copies nested JSON.parse(JSON.

objects/arrays stringify(obj)),
completely structuredClone(
)

// Shallow copy
const original = { a: 1, b: { c: 2 } };
const shallow = { ...original };
shallow.b.c = 99; // Also changes original.b.c

9
// Deep copy
const deep = JSON.parse(JSON.stringify(original));
deep.b.c = 200; // Does not affect original

9. What is the difference between Object.freeze() and

Object.seal()?

Object.freeze()

❌
●​ Makes the entire object immutable.
●​ You cannot add, remove, or modify any
properties.
●​ Properties become non-writable and
non-configurable.

Object.seal()

✅
❌
●​ You can modify existing properties.
●​ You cannot add or delete properties.
●​ Properties become non-configurable, but still
writable.

🎯 Asynchronous JavaScript
1.​What are Promises? How do they work?

👉 A Promise is an object that represents the

eventual result (or failure) of an asynchronous
operation.

Example:
const promise = new Promise((resolve,
reject) => {
setTimeout(() => {
resolve("Done!");
}, 1000);
});

10
 promise.then((result) =>
console.log(result)); // "Done!"

●​ You create a promise with new Promise((resolve,

reject) => {})
●​ You handle the result using .then() for success,
.catch() for error.

2. What is async/await? How is it different from

Promises?

👉 async/await is syntax sugar over Promises that

makes asynchronous code look and behave more like
synchronous code.

Example:
async function fetchData() {
const result = await
fetch("https://api.example.com");
const data = await result.json();
console.log(data);
}

Difference from Promises:

Feature Promise Async/Await

Style .then()/.catch() try/catch, more

readable
Error handling .catch() try/catch block
Chaining Chain methods Use await in
sequence

11
3. What are the different states of a Promise?

👉 A Promise has 3 states:

1.​Pending – initial state, not resolved or
rejected.
2.​Fulfilled – operation completed successfully
(resolve was called).
3.​Rejected – operation failed (reject was called).

Example:

const promise = new Promise((resolve,

reject)
=> {
// pending
resolve("Success"); // fulfilled
// reject("Error"); // rejected
});

4. What is the difference between synchronous and

asynchronous code?

Synchronous Code Asynchronous Code

Runs line by line Doesn’t block next lines

Slower if tasks take time Non-blocking, faster
execution
Example: Example:
Simple math setTimeout(), fetch

Example:
// Synchronous
console.log("1");
console.log("2");

// Asynchronous
console.log("1");
setTimeout(() => console.log("2"), 1000);
console.log("3"); // Output: 1, 3, 2
12
5. What is callback hell and how can it be avoided?
👉 Callback Hell happens when many asynchronous
functions are nested inside each other, making code
hard to read and maintain.

Example:
//callback hell
doTask1(() => {
doTask2(() => {
doTask3(() => {
console.log("All done!");
});
});
});

✅
How to avoid it:

✅
●​ Use Promises

✅
●​ Use async/await
●​ Use named functions instead of inline
callbacks

🎯 ES6+ Concepts
1. What are template literals?

👉 Template literals are strings wrapped in backticks

( `` ) that allow embedded expressions using ${}.

Example:
const name = "John";
const greeting = `Hello, ${name}!`;
console.log(greeting); // Hello, John!

They also support multi-line strings without needing

\n.

13
2. What are arrow functions and how are they
different from regular functions?

👉 Arrow functions are a shorter syntax for writing

functions, introduced in ES6.

Example:
const add = (a, b) => a + b;

Key Differences:

Feature Arrow Function Regular Function

this behavior Lexically bound Dynamically

(no own this) scoped

Syntax Concise Verbose

Usage as ❌ Not allowed ✅ Allowed

constructor

3. What are rest and spread operators?

Both use ... but for different purposes:

Rest operator: gathers items into an array

​
function sum(...numbers) {
return numbers.reduce((a, b) => a + b);
}

Spread operator: expands arrays or objects​

​
​ const arr = [1, 2, 3];
const copy = [...arr]; //[1, 2, 3]

const obj1 = { a:1 };

14
 const obj2 = { ...obj1, b:2 }; //{ a:1, b:2
}

4. What is destructuring in JavaScript?

👉 Destructuring allows you to unpack values from

arrays or objects into variables.

Examples:
const arr = [1, 2];
const [a, b] = arr; // a = 1, b = 2
const obj = { name: "Ganesh", age: 25 };
const { name, age } = obj;

5. What are default parameters?

👉 Allows function parameters to have default values

if not provided.

Example:
function greet(name = "Guest") {
console.log(`Hello, ${name}`);
}
greet(); // Hello, Guest
greet("John"); // Hello, John

6. What are modules in JavaScript (import/export)?

👉 Modules let you break your code into reusable

pieces using export and import.

In math.js:
export const add = (a, b) => a + b;

In main.js:
import { add } from './math.js';
console.log(add(2, 3)); // 5

●​ export — makes variables/functions available

outside the file.

15
 ✅
●​ import — brings them into another file.​
Used in both frontend (ES6) and backend
(Node.js with ESM or require in CommonJS).

16