CAIE-IGCSE-Computer Science - Theory 22/04/25, 08:02

ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE

COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Yushika for personal use only.

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2 142
2 71 Remainder: 0

1. Data Representation 2
2
2
35
17
8
Remainder:
Remainder:
Remainder:
1
1
1
2 4 Remainder: 0
2 2 Remainder: 0
1.1. Number Systems 2 1
0
Remainder:
Remainder:
0
1

Binary System Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
divided by the previous value of the current number and
Base 2 number system 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
It has two possible values only (0 and 1) number
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
MSB (Most Significant Bit) it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )

Denary System Converting Hexadecimal to Binary

Base 10 number system Separate each value from each other and convert them
Has values from 0 to 9 to denary
Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) All the binary values to be merged together
e.g.
Base 16 number system
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, Denary : 2 1 15 13
which is F Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101

Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value

0000 0 0 Final Answer: 0010000111111101
0001 1 1
0010 2 2
0011 3 3 Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
0100 4 4
0101 5 5
0110 6 6 Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
0111 7 7 right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
1000 8 8
1001 9 9 until it reaches 4
1010 A 10 For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
1011 B 11
1100 C 12 and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
1101 D 13 hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
1110 E 14
1111 F 15 A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
1.2. Number Conversions order to get the final answer

Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
Converting Binary to Denary When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101

Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101
power of the number of values from the right starting
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
like this:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

Converting Hexadecimal to Denary

As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from
left to right Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the convert the final answer to denary
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 +
4 + 2 = 238

Converting Denary to Binary

Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a

table like follows:

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Converting Denary to Hexadecimal Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:

1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
hexadecimal as explained above removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
1.3. Binary Calculations direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
Binary values are not added the way denary values are marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two
because it doesn’t exist in binary. Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)
Points to Note: Two’s complement is a method used to represent
negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
0+0=0 Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
1+0/0+1=1 range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement
Overflow Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one
from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit the third position from the right.
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the Now, switch every value to the left of the first one
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in
called overflow. our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough complement of itself.
space to store the answer to the addition done in the
previous part.
Converting negative values to two complement
Steps to add Two Values (With Example) Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
Convert the binary value to two’s complement
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 Make the MSB 1, if not already
0
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
left-hand side to match them).
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
2. Add the values as follows with the points given from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
above e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the:
Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 -128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70

Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,

we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit 1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
overflow. Examples:

iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that
Logical Shifts uniquely identifies a device on a network)
Assembly languages and machine code
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left Memory Dumps
or the right Debugging (method to find errors in a program)
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory
being emptied is going to become 0 location of the error)
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses
Explanation with Example

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Memory Dumps
ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
when trying to trace errors. The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
to a printer or monitor. multiple languages and more data.
To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages) character set, a collection of characters and the
corresponding binary codes that represent them.
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
Sound
less error-prone than binary.
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
values and is prone to errors.
form, it is sampled
The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
1.5. Text, Sound and Images where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
ASCII
How is Sound Recorded
The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control set time intervals
codes The value is converted to digital form
Uppercase and lowercase characters have di!erent ASCII Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
values series of binary digits
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. A series of readings gives an approximate representation
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1) of the sound wave
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
follows: Sampling Resolution:

0 is at 48 The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling

A is at 65 resolution (aka bit depth)
a is at 97 Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored
ASCII uses one byte to store the value about the amplitude of the sound.
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a store the data.
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.
Sampling Rate

The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken

per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound
Unicode as fewer estimations will be done between samples.

Images

Bitmap Images

Bitmap images are made up of pixels

A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
binary numbers

Colour Depth

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The number of bits representing each colour is called the The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
colour depth. (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256) (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done then multiply the result by two.)
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1
being black) 1.7. File Types
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file
when storing an image.
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)

Image Resolution Storage of music files

A communications protocol that allows electronic
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that musical instruments to interact with each other
make up an image; for example, an image could contain Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
4096 × 3072 pixels. Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
than those with a higher resolution. The first byte is the status byte – which informs the
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having MIDI device what function to perform
a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
as being pixelated. (operates on 16 di!erent channels)
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as Examples of MIDI commands:
compared to low-resolution ones. Note on/o!: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
1.6. Measurement of the Size of (loudness of music)
It needs a lot of memory storage
Computer Memories
MP3
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
8 bits is a byte It uses technology known as Audio Compression to
4 bits is a nibble convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
Byte is used to measure memory size This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
Done using file compression algorithms, which use
IECB System (Most Common) Perceptual Music Shaping
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
Name of memory size No. of Bytes Equivalent Denary Value properly
1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes
Certain sounds are removed without a!ecting the
1 mebibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes quality, too much
1 tebibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes CD files are converted using File Compression Software
1 pebibyte (1PiB) 250 1 125 899 906 842 624 bytes
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
compression algorithm
Conventional System
MP4
Name of memory size No. of Bytes Equivalent Denary Value
1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes
1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes than just sound
1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015 1 000 000 000 000 000 bytes
Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored
Videos could be streamed without losing any real
Calculation of File Size discernible quality

Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)

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JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file

sizes 2. Data Transmission
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of
pixels per centimetre
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file 2.1. Types and Methods of Data
size is reduced Transmission
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor
between 5 and 15
Data Packets

1.8. Lossless and Lossy File Packet Structure -

Header
Compression Contains the IP address of the sender and the
receiver
Lossless File Compression The sequence number of the packet
Size of the packet
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed Payload
again when the file is uncompressed. Contains the actual data
Important for files where the loss of data would be Trailer
disastrous (spreadsheet) Includes a method of identifying the end of the
An algorithm is used to compress data packet
No data is lost Error-Checking methods
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are
Run-Length Encoding then sent independently from start to end and
reassembled at the receiver’s computer.
It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data
(e.g. repeated colours in an image) Advantages Disadvantages
There is no need to create a single line of
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first communication Packets may be lost

value represents the number of identical data items (e.g. Possible to overcome failed or busy nodes More prone to errors in real-time streaming
Delay at the receiver while the packets are
High data transmission speed
characters), and the second value represents the code of being re-ordered
Easy to expand package usage
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04
98 02 99 05 100.”
Data Transmission
RLE is only e!ective where there is a long run of
Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
repeated units/bits
computer to printer)
One di#culty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05
line)
100 where 255 now indicates that the next character/set
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
of characters is approaching
time over a single wire
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
Lossy File Compression
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.
The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is Transmission
compressed
Reduces file quality
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
reduced.

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Serial Parallel
Better for longer distances (Telephone Lines) Better for short distances (Internal circuits)
Cheaper Option Expensive (More hardware required)
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks
Used when the size of data transmitted is
Used when speed is necessary
would be used.
small
Slower Option Faster than Serial
Easier to synchronise as there's only one Di!cult to synchronise due to skew between
data stream. bits.

2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
USB consists of:
Four-wire shielded cable
Two wires are used for power and earth
Two wires are used in data transmission

Advantages Disadvantages Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
Automatically detected Transmission rate is less than 120 MB/sec
Only fit one way, prevents incorrect
and columns
connections Maximum cable length is about 5 metres
Di"erent data transmission rates
Backwards compatible Checksum
Industry-standard

Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender

2.3. Methods of Error Detection would calculate the checksum value using a specific
algorithm.
Parity Checks Once the data has been sent, The receiver would
calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte and the same algorithm used before.
Two Types - The receiver would then compare the value received and
Even - Even number of 1-bits the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits request is made to re-send the data.
Example (Even Parity) -
Echo Check
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number data back to the sender for verification.
of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even. The sender would compare the received and original
Limitations with Parity Checks data for errors.
Two bits may change during transmission; therefore The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
error is not found occurred when sending the data or sending the data
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, back for verification.
the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified
Check Digits
Parity Blocks
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
the code.
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
6372 typed as 6379
8432 typed as 842

Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)

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Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and
user received the data Logic Unit (ALU)
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the the memory, processor and input/output devices
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent calculations
again. System Clock: The system clock is used to produce
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined timing signals on the control bus
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout, Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
the data will be sent again to the receiver. types.

Address bus – unidirectional

2.4. Encryption Data Bus – bi-directional
Control Bus – bi-directional
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to
other attackers. be processed, which are fetched by the CPU

The following registers also exist in the architecture:

Plaintext and Ciphertext
REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION
Plaintext is the original data that is being sent CIR Current instruction register
Stores the instruction the CPU is currently
decoding or executing
Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption MAR Memory address register Stores the Address of the instruction, copy it,
and sends it to MDR
MDR Memory data register Stores the Data from the address received from
the MAR and sends data to CIR
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption Stores the address of the next instruction to be
PC Program counter fetched from memory
ACC Accumulator During calculations, data is temporarily held in it
Symmetric Encryption:
It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting
the data.
Asymmetric Encryption:
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
available to the user.
The receiver would have the private key, and they
would send the public key to the sender. The sender
can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data can be decrypted using the private key.

The Fetch-Execute Cycle

3. Hardware
1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be
fetched
3.1. Computer Architecture & Von 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
Neumann Architecture 3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
temporarily
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern 5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to
computer systems the next instruction to be fetched
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
The CPU consists of the following architecture:
Stored Program Concept

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Instructions are stored in the main memory But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down
Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by the system performance as the communication between
the processor each core increases, and so do the data cables between
Programs can be moved to and from the main memory each. Which in turn reduces the potential system
performance.
Memory Concept You might have heard about quad and dual cores as well
as septa and octa cores as they are becoming
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each increasingly common.
partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.

MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT 3.3. Input Devices

10101010 01010110

Two-dimensional Scanners:
Instruction Set:
An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU Used to input hard-copy documents
can process, and the commands are machine code The image is converted into an electronic form, which
can be stored in the computer
3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock The document is placed on a glass panel
A bright light illuminates the document
System’s Clock A scan head moves across the document until the
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the The lens focuses on the document image
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled
mean that the computer's performance is increased, device (CCD), which consists of several integrated
however. circuits
The software produces a digital image in the
Overclocking electronic form
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed converts scanned documents into a text file format
for. If the original document was a photo/image, then the
It leads to multiple issues. scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG

Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer Three-dimensional Scanners

would frequently crash and become unstable)
3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU
dimensional image
Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
Length of Data Buses
magnetic, white light)
The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
The wider the data buses, the better the performance of
Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
the computer
model
Cache Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:

Cache memory is located within the CPU itself

-- allows faster access to the CPU
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to
be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
performance

Cores

The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
performance

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Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by
represent the passport pages wireless connection
Text can be stored in ASCII format Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and digital signal
stored as jpeg image Slow method
The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital Prone to errors
camera and compared to using face recognition software
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between Pointing devices
eyes, width of nose)
Mouse/trackball
Barcode readers/scanners Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of
varying thicknesses Microphones
The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique
Used to input sound to a computer
series of lines
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
vibrates, producing an electric signal
using guard bars
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
digital values and stored in a computer
The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
Light is reflected o! the barcode; dark areas reflect
digital
little light, which allows the bars to be read
Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells) Touchscreens
The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
Capacitive (medium cost tech)
Quick Response (QR) Codes Made up of many layers of glass
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
Another type of barcode is the QR codes
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric
Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
current changes
background
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
determined by an on-board microprocessor
Advantages of QR codes:
Infra-red heat (expensive)
No need for the user to write down the website
Use glass as the screen material
address
Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
QR codes can store website addresses
Infra-red optical (expensive)
QR Codes are easier to use as they can be read by
Uses glass as screen material
phone cameras
Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Digital Cameras Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
touched
It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the Resistive (inexpensive)
shutter speed, focuses the image, etc. The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens glass
onto a light sensitive cell When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
The cell is made up of pixels bottom layer complete a circuit
The number of pixels determines the size of the file Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
microprocessor to determine where the screen was
Keyboards touched

Sensors

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Inkjet Printers
Devices that read or measure physical properties
Data needs to be converted to digital Used to print one-o! pictures and documents
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical Data from the document sent to the printer driver
values into digital The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
Sensors and their purposes: Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that available
converts sound to electric pulses. Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's memory (printer bu!er)
acceleration or deceleration and motion. A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. available in the paper tray
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
gas in the environment. four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
the air or any sample. Repeated until the bu!er is empty
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, processor (request for more data to be sent)
it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the
detector. Laser Printers
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat
Used to print flyers, high quality
emitted by any object.
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas
produce text and images
level.
Prints the whole page in one go
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that
generate electric current based on light brightness. 1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in 2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the
magnetic field. drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it;
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water removing the positive charge leaves negatively
content wherever this sensor has been installed. charged areas which match the text/image
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. 3. The drum is then coated with positively charged
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects drum
around the sensor 4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
Temperature - These sensors measure the 5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
temperature of the environment. produce a copy of the page
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of 6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.) rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from
Control of Street Lighting
the drum, ready to print on the next page
The light sensor sends data to the ADC
3D Printers
The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor
Microprocessor samples data every minute Used for models of cars
If data from sensor < value stored in memory: Produce solid objects that work
Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic
Lamp switched on powder
A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
3.4. Output Devices
2D and 3D Cutters

3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction

3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood

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Actuators LCD Projectors

The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical Older technology than DLP
processes. A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
Used in many control applications involving sensors and This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
devices (ADC and DAC) coated mirrors; these reflect the light at di!erent
wavelengths
Loudspeakers/Headphones When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
These three di!erent lights pass through three LCD
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from
screens; these screens show the image to be projected
the loudspeaker
as millions of pixels in grayscale
Produced by voltage di!erences vibrating a cone in the
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
speaker at di!erent frequencies
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
LCD and LED Monitors Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
the screen
The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because:
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
has a yellow tint
LEDs improve the colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
LEDs consume very little power
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen, Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
which supplies the light source
3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
Light Projectors:

Two common types of light projectors: Primary vs. Secondary Storage

Digital Light Projector (DLP)
The CPU directly accesses primary storage
LCD Projector
RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples of
Projectors are used to project computer output onto
primary storage
larger screens/interactive whiteboards
The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
Digital Light Projectors (DLP) HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
examples of secondary storage
Uses millions of micromirrors
the number of micromirrors and the way they are Primary Memory:
arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of Random Access Memory (RAM)
the image
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
they are o!
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours

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RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and

access data that is actively being used or processed by
the user immediately.
Features of RAM
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
turned o!)
Used to store; data, files
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
the memory can be changed
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer
will operate
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above.
slow
The main advantages of virtual memory are
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
They can be larger than the physical memory
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
provided in the RAM.
new data
Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could
RAM is of two types:
be expensive
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM) The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
data.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Features of ROM
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
even when ROM is turned o!)
Used to store start-up instructions (basic
input/output systems)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) cannot be changed
Virtual memory
Secondary Storage:
When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
memory management; thus, the system has a high
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface
into the picture. of the disks (platter)
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these A number of read/write heads can access all of the
storages are discussed below) surfaces of the disk
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
store the data
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

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There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
same time (not like HDD) customer/client and cloud storage provider are di!erent
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons companies
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated
Non-volatile rewritable memory environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD: and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate
More reliable (no moving parts) as a single entity
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops) Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
Lower power consumption environments; some data resides in the private cloud,
Run much cooler than HDDs and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed
Very thin from a public cloud storage provider
Data access is faster than HDD
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)

O!-Line Storage:
CD/DVD Disks

Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the

surface of the disk.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge
3.6. Embedded System
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
capacity (two individual recording layers) A combination of hardware and software is designed to
carry out a specific set of tasks.
Blu-ray Disks Embedded systems may contain -
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations peripherals on one single chip
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
(stores up to five times more data than DVD) System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent ports, storage and memory
piracy and copyright infringement) Process of Embedded Devices -
Used as backup systems Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor
(ADC needed if the data is analogue)
USB Flash Memories
Data from the user interface is also sent to the
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files microprocessor
Small back-up devices for photo, music The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care which are the output
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
Cloud Storage: need a software update.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is Connecting the device to a computer and
stored on remote servers downloading the update
The same data is stored on more than one server in case Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data link
at any time. This is known as data redundancy.
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
The following are its types: systems

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Advantages Disadvantages
Small in size, therefore can easily fit into
devices Can be di!cult to upgrade IP address allocation:
Low cost to make The interface can be confusing sometimes The network allocates IP addresses.
Requires very little power Troubleshooting is a specialist’s job
Often thrown away as di!cult to upgrade Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.
Very fast reaction to changing input
and faults are harder to find
Dedicated to one task only Increased garbage as they are thrown away
Static IP addresses:
Can be controlled remotely Any computerised system is prone to attacks Assigned manually to a device.
Does not change over time.
Applications of Embedded devices Dynamic IP addresses:
GPS systems Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
Security Systems Configuration Protocol) server.
Vending Machines Changes periodically or when the device connects to
Washing Machines a di!erent network.
Oven IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
Microwave Widely used protocol.
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers
3.7. Network Hardware separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
Network Interface Card (NIC) IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4.
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers
connect to a network (such as the Internet). separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Media Access Control (MAC) Provides an extremely large number of unique
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion).
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six Di!erences between IPv4 and IPv6:
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6
manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device uses a 128-bit address.
serial number. Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3
billion addresses, whereas IPv6 o!ers around 340
These do not change and are primarily constant for every undecillion addresses.
device Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated
there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.
Administered MAC Address (LAA)
Routers
The only di!erence between the two types is that UAA is
made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the
opposite for LAA.

IP Addresses

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Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
Router functionality:
A router is a networking device that directs data
packets between di!erent networks.
It determines the most e#cient path for data
transmission.
Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
A router examines the destination IP address of
incoming data packets.
It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or
the next router on the path to the destination.
The router forwards the data packet to the
appropriate next hop.
Router's role in IP address assignment:
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
devices on a local network. Second Edition (Hodder Education)
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
predefined range to connected devices. Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
and simplifies network management. Security Management - Providing security features such
Connecting a local network to the Internet: as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
A router serves as the gateway between a local Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
network and the internet. drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and bu!ers
It connects the local network to an internet service File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting,
provider (ISP) network. Renaming, and many more functions
The router receives data packets from devices on the Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
local network and forwards them to the internet. with each of the processes
It also receives incoming data packets from the Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
internet and routes them to the appropriate devices users to customise their accounts individually.
on the local network.
Running of Applications
3.8. Operating Systems The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
through the bootstrap loader.
Operating Systems are designed to establish The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
communication between the user and the computer the location of the OS in the storage.
Functions of a typical operating system - BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
-managing files
– handling interrupts
– providing an interface
– managing peripherals and drivers
– managing memory
– managing multitasking
– providing a platform for running applications
– providing system security
– managing user accounts
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices

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Compiler
Interrupts
Translates a program written in a high-level language
Signal that causes the microprocessor to stop what it's into machine code
doing and service the task Used without compiler
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis Executable file of machine code produced
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt One high-level language translated into several machine
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it code instructions
Di!erent interrupts have di!erent levels of priority Used for general use
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process
Interpreter
continues
Executes a high-language program a statement at a time
3.9. Programming Languages, No executable file of machine code produced
One high-level language program statement may require
Translators and IDEs several machine code instructions to be executed.
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
Computers can only understand machine code; interpreter
therefore, translators are needed Used when the program is being developed
High-Level Languages Assembler
It is easier to read and understand as the language is Translates a low-level language program into machine
closer to human language. code
Easier to write in a shorter time Executable file of machine code produced
Easier to debug at the development stage One low-level language translated into one machine
Easier to maintain once in use code instructions
It can be used without an assembler
Low-Level Languages
Used for general use
Refer to machine code Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Binary instructions that the computer understands Translates a high-level Executes a high-level Translates a low-level
language program into language program one assembly language program
machine code. statement at a time. into machine code.
An executable file of machine No executable file of machine An executable file of machine
code is produced. code is produced. code is produced.
One high-level language One high-level language One low-level language
statement can be translated program statement may statement is usually
into several machine code require several machine code translated into one machine
instructions. instructions to be executed. code instruction.
Interpreted programs cannot
Compiled programs are run be run without the Assembled programs are
without the compiler. interpreter. used without the assembler.
A compiled program is An interpreter is often used An assembled program is
usually distributed for when a program is being usually distributed for
general use. developed. general use.

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Assembly Language
An IDE would usually have these features -
Few programmers use assembly language to - Code Editor
Make use of special hardware Translator
Write code that doesn’t take up much space Debugger
Write code that runs very quickly Error Reports
Assembly language must be translated into machine Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
code using an assembler to run. Auto-Documenter
Pretty Printing

3.10. Translators

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Application Software:

4. Software Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text

documents, including creating, editing, and formatting
text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and
4.1. Types of Software and Interrupts importing images.
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
Types of Software using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows,
with each cell identified using a unique combination of
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas,
programs and device drivers produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if"
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word calculations.
processor, etc. Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that
System Software: hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query
and report on data and add, delete, and modify records
these are a set of programs which control and manage in a table.
the operations of hardware Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
gives a platform for other software to run interface with sensors and allow a computer or
it is required to allow hardware and software to run microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
without problems control applications by comparing sensor data with
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
Application Software: from games to sophisticated software such as phone
banking. Common examples include video and music
allows a user to perform specific tasks using the streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
computer’s resources Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft O#ce) including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
user can execute the software when they require, and it applying filters and other enhancements, and creating
is mostly not automatic transitions between clips.
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows
Examples the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with
bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a
System Software: di!erent image, while vector graphics editors manipulate
lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as
Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
required.
code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
tasks without re-compilation.
Interrupts
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler
into a single program, allowing the use of separately
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either
written code modules in the final program.
from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
communicate with a computer's operating system,
temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:
without which a device like a printer would be unable to
work.
Operating system: Software that manages basic
computer functions such as input/output operations,
program loading and running, and security management,
making computers more user-friendly.
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
controls computer resources by carrying out specific
tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
management, and security.

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Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific protecting computers from malware.
intervals. They should be kept up to date and run in the
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or background to maintain their e!ectiveness.
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
the microprocessor's activities. loaded and compares possible viruses against a
Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer, database of known viruses.
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses
address the hardware problem. that are not yet on the database.
User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic
keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the deletion or for the user to decide.
system's operation. Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files constantly discovered.
needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes Full system scans should be carried out regularly to
accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to detect dormant viruses.
divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
the microprocessor to handle the issues. Disk Defragmentation Software

Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on

a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data
access time.
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
movements to find the data.
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
4.2. Utility Software become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
Computer users have access to utility programs as part files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing
of system software for faster data access and retrieval.
Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the The defragmentation process can free up previously
background without user input occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
Common utility programs include virus checkers,
defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools, Backup Software
file compression and management software, backup
software, security tools, and screensavers. Backup software is a utility software that helps create
and manage backup copies of data files and programs.
Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
drives are good practices, but operating system backup
utilities are also recommended.
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only
backup files if changes have been made to them.
There could be three file versions for total security: the
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
on cloud storage.

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Internet World Wide Web (WWW)
Uses transmission protocols such as TCP Collection of webpages and other
Security Software and IP (Internet Protocols) information on websites
Allows the user to communicate with other Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are written
users via chat, email, calling and more using Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML)
Security software is a utility software that manages Worldwide Collection of Interconnected
Networks and Devices
URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) are used
for the location of the web pages
access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities Web browsers can access web pages.

such as virus and spyware checkers.

It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)
prevent unauthorized access.
Security software uses encryption and decryption to URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The
ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a typical format of URLs is -
decryption key.
It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources protocol://website address/path/file name
and prevent malicious software from being installed.
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords The website address would contain -
to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access. domain host (www)
domain name (website name)
Screensavers domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
Screensavers display moving and still images on the
The path would usually become the file directory roots.
monitor screen after computer inactivity.
for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
The /computer-science is the file name
from 'phosphor burn'.
Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
HTTP and HTTPS
device and as a part of computer security systems.
They automatically log out of the user after a certain HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
period of inactivity. stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
virus scans and distributed computing applications. data.

Device Drivers Web Browsers

Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
It is software used to connect to the internet
understood by the hardware device they are associated
It translates the HTML code
with.
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
O!ers additional features like search history & ad
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
blockers
by the operating system.
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a Retrieval and Location of web pages
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial
number that allow the operating system to identify the The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
device. (DNS)
Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a IP is sent to the browser if it exists
computer simultaneously. The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

5. The Internet and Its Uses Cookies

Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer

5.1. The Internet and the World Wide They are used to track data about the users and autofill
Web forms or give suggestions accordingly
Types of Cookies -

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
Temporary cookies are stored in the RAM till Remembers the user’s login details so the
the browser is closed.
user doesn’t have to log in every time they
visit a website 5.3. Cyber Security
Stored on the hard disk on the computer
Doesn’t collect any information on the user until their expiry date or the user deletes
them
A good example is the virtual shopping
Brute Force Attack:
basket on e-commerce websites.
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the
5.2. Digital Currency di!erent combinations of letters, numbers and symbols.
E!ect:
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit
Form of payment to pay for goods and services
cards, passwords and more)
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
To remove risk:
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
Use stronger passwords with more characters and
Cryptocurrency was later introduced due to the problem
symbols
in centralised banking systems.
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of Data Interception:
transactions.
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a
Blockchain Network wireless transmission line
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
Blockchain Network internet connections illegally
Packet Sni#ng - Uses Packet sni!ers to examine
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent
computers where the transaction data is stored back to the attacker
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would E!ect:
be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be It can cause a computer to crash
changed without the consent of all the network Can delete or corrupt files/data
members To remove risk:
Install anti-virus software
How do blockchains work
Don’t use software from unknown sources
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
Be careful when opening emails from unknown
block would contain -
Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)
Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of
money and more An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm network
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block Usually temporary but may be damaging
in the chain An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
Accessing their emails
Accessing websites
Accessing online services

Hacking

The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point

to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)

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The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
E!ect: which redirects the user to fake websites
This leads to identity theft, gaining personal E!ect:
information The user gives out login details and other personal
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted details
To remove risk: To remove risk:
Firewalls Using anti-virus software
Strong passwords/ user IDs Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
Use of anti-hacking software Make sure that the green padlock is present in the
Di!erence between hacking and cracking URL bar
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Cracking is when someone edits a program code, Social Engineering
malicious
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
Malware giving out their details (For example - Spam calls
informing them that their account has been hacked)
Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the Keeping data safe from threats
intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
computer malfunction Access Levels - Having Di!erent levels of access for
Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until di!erent people (for example - Only doctors can have
a certain amount of money is paid access to patient’s data)
Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware
Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as attacks
legitimate software Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
user to the attacker biometrics and more)
Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method
Biometric Benefits Drawbacks
of the computer alone Methods
Most development methods are Intrusive as used to identify
Fingerprint very easy to use and require very criminals, Can’t be used if the finger
Phishing Scans low storage space to store the
biometric data. gets dirty or damaged (e.g. cuts)
With very high accuracy, it It is very intrusive, Takes longer to
Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user Retina Scan Impossible to replicate a person’s
retina
verify, Expensive to install and set
up
into giving out their information. Face Non-intrusive method, Relatively Can’t identify if there are any
Recognition cheaper changes in the lighting, change in
To remove risk: age or person’s age.
Voices can be recorded and used
Don’t open links from unknown receivers Voice Non-Intrusive method, verification is
for verification, but low accuracy
and illnesses such as colds or
Use anti-phishing tools Recognition done quickly and relatively cheaper coughs can a"ect a person’s voice,
making identification impossible.
Block pop-up ads
Have an up-to-date browser

Pharming

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

You should be able to describe the advantages and
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
authentication to prove who the user is scenario.
Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain Including scenarios from:
patches which improve device security
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong industry
spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and transport
the tone would also seem urgent agriculture
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the weather
tra#c between a network and the user’s computer gaming
Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the lighting
user’s computer and the web server. They are used for - science
Filtering Internet tra#c
Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential 6.2. Robotics
Blocking access to certain websites
Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy
Robotics is the branch of computer science that
server, keeping the web server safe.
combines robot design, construction and operation.
Acts as a firewall as well.
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
A robot may not injure a human through action or
user’s profile
inaction
SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
communicating with other users on the internet.
comes into conflict with Law 1
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with
6. Automated and Emerging either law 1 or 2.
Characteristics of a robot -
Technologies Ability to sense their surroundings
Have a degree of movement
Programmable
6.1. Automated Systems
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
Automated Systems are a combination of software and
CHARACTERISTICS
hardware designed to function without human
intervention. Types of Robots -
Process of Automated Systems Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the completely replace humans
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter interface, can supplement but can’t completely
(ADC) replace humans
The microprocessor processes the data and makes
the necessary decisions based on its program Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
The actions are then executed by the actuators Advantages Disadvantages
Robots can find it di!cult to do non-
(Motors, wheels and so on) Robots can work 24/7 standard tasks
Robots can work in hazardous conditions Robots can lead to higher unemployment
Risk of deskilling as robots replace humans
Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems They are less expensive in the long run in some task
Advantages Disadvantages They have high productivity and are more Expensive to install and maintain in the
Faster and Safer Expensive to set up and maintain consistent short run
Any changes can be identified quickly Any computerised systems are prone to attacks Robots have the risk of getting hacked.

Less Expensive in the long run Over-reliance on automated systems may cause
humans to lose skills
Higher Productivity and E!ciency 6.3. Artificial Intelligence

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AI is the branch of computer science that simulates

intelligent human behaviour.
Types of AI -
Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
human when doing one specific task
General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI -
Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
Ability to learn and adapt

Types of AI

Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human

knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
They have many applications, including chatbots,
diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
and so on

Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems

Advantages Disadvantages
High level of Expertise Setup and Maintenance costs are very high
High Accuracy and Consistent Can only rely on the information in the system
High response times Tend to give cold responses sometimes

Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines

are trained to learn from past experiences.

Di!erence Between AI and Machine Learning

AI Machine Learning
Representation of human intelligence in Machines are trained to make decisions
machines without being programmed to
The aim is to build machines that think like The aim is to make machines learn through
humans data acquisitions

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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