Building Ideas

Building Ideas
An Introduction to Architectural Theory

Jonathan A Hale
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Library' of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hale, Jonathan.
Building ideas: an introduction to architectural theory/Jonathan Hale.
p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-471-85194-9 (alk. paper)
1. Architecture-Philosophy. 1. Title.
NA2500 .H235 2000
nO'.1-dc21
99-052985
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0-471-85194-9
Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Wyvern 21 Ltd, Bristol
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Bookcraft (Bath) Ltd
This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sus-
tainable forestry, in which at least two trees are planted for each one used
for paper production.
Contents
Acknowledgements vii
Note on the Bibliography ix
INTRODUCTION Theoretical Practices 1
PART 1 The Question of Meaning in Architecture
9
Chapter 1 Architecture as Engineering -
The Technological Revolution 11
Chapter 2 Architecture as Art -
Aesthetics in Philosophy 47
PART 2 Models of Interpretation 91
Chapter 3 The Return of the Body -
Phenomenology in Architecture
93
Chapter 4 Systems of Communication -
Structuralism and Semiotics 131
Chapter 5 Politics and Architecture -
The Marxist Tradition 171
CONCLUSION Towards a Critical Henneneutics 213
Bibliography 225
Index 235
Acknowledgements
This book grew out of a seminar course I was lucky enough to teach
at Drexel University, Philadelphia, in the summer of 1996. I must ini-
tially thank Paul Hirshom for the opportunity to try out some of this
material, as well as a lively group of students for their input and inter-
est in the course. The research for the book began at the University of
Pennsylvania, under the somewhat formidable guidance of Joseph
Rykwert, Marco Frascari and David Leatherbarrow who together man-
aged to open up a rich historical background to many of the debates in
contemporary architecture. I am also indebted to the Thouron family
for their generous financial support, which allowed me the oppor-
tunity to undertake postgraduate study.
I must also thank my undergraduate teachers for their inspiration
and encouragement, particularly Patrick Hodgkinson, Michael Brawne
and Peter Smithson, without whom even thinking about architecture
might never have occurred to me. Ted Cullinan deserves a special men-
tion for providing me with the experience of enjoying the way build-
ings are put together, as well as the opportunity to combine practice
with teaching in a stimulating and supportive environment.
I would also like to record a vote of thanks to all those who have
influenced my thinking in various ways over the years, as well as those
who have made a specific contribution to the making of this book,
including Tim Anstey, Stephanie Baker, Mark Beedle, Tom Coward,
David Dernie, Mary Ann Duffy, Terrance Galvin, Bill Hutson, Neil
Leach, Christine Macy, Donald Wilson and, in particular, all my col-
leagues 'at the University of Nottingham.
I am indebted to Maggie Toy and everyone at Wiley's for their confi-
dence in the idea behind this book. Lastly, I must thank my parents and
also my wife, Jocelyn Dodd, for being there and for still being there,
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Note on the Bibliography
To assist in the use of this book as a set text for architectural theory
courses, a list of suggestions for further reading has been provided rel-
evant to themes covered in each chapter. The first two sections in each
list - described as "background" and "foreground" - relate to the
approximate division within each chapter between the philosophical
and the architectural material. Both sections typically refer to readily
accessible sources, either for reference or further reading on a topic of
particular interest. The third section includes suggestions for possible
seminar readings, which have been chosen to highlight key issues in
the debates surrounding each topiC. These are also selected from read-
ilyavailable sources, usually from anthologies of architectural theory or
commonly accessible journals.
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Introduction
Theoretical Practices
In "a chapter called "Demonstrations" in his book Monsters of
Architecture, the architectural theorist Marco Frascari describes the
relation of drawing to building as follows:
The traditional interpretation of this translation is that an architectural
. draWing is a graphic representation of an existing, or future building, The
present modern and post-modern condition of understanding ',' . these
translations is that buildings are representations of the drawings that
preceded them,l
A glance at the recent history of significant events in architecture
would confinn the importance of "things-other-than-buildings" in the
dissemination of architectural ideas. The Victorian rediscovery of
Greek polychrome decoration - upsetting centuries of scholarship
based on the assumption of a "white" architecture - is one such event
of historical importance which emerged from documentary sources,
rather than the fabric of the buildings themselves. More recently this
phenomenon has taken several surprising twists, not least due to the
growing impact of photographic representation. One of the most icon-
ic and characteristic of twentieth century buildings is the Barcelona
Pavilion designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Built in 1929 for the
International Exposition, the Pavilion was demolished in the following
I Marco Frascari, Monsters oJ Architecture: Anthropomorphism in Architectu.ral
Theory, Rowman and littlefield, Savage, MD, 1991, P 93 [emphasis added),
I..
2 Building Ideas
year along with the other temporary structures. From a set of black and
white photographs - some carefully retouched for effect - the build-
ing became known across the world through publications on modern
architecture. Nearly all subsequent commentary on this "touchstone"
of modernity was made by those who had never seen the building,
except in these much reproduced photographs.
A similar process has taken place in the spread of foreign influences
in America, such as Frank lloyd Wright's famous inspiration by the
architecture of Japan, after seeing the Ho-O-Den pavilion in Chicago at
the 1893 World's Fair. From the 1932 MOMA show called "The
International Style" to the same museum's 1988 exhibition on
"Deconstructivist Architecture" - both of which have had a huge
impact on the production of architecture in North America - the influ-
ence of other media on the transmission of architectural ideas can
often far outweigh that of the experience of the buildings themselves.
Whether in books, films or exhibitions, or as part of a general cultural
debate, architectural concepts exist on a plane distinct from their
embodiment in particular buildings. This is not to say that the two
realms can ever be separated from each other, merely that "built
objects" form just one component within a larger network of "archi-
tectural phenomena. "
. Daniel Libeskind'sdesign fortheJewish Museum in Berlin is a prime
example of the ,reputation of a building preceding its construction by
several years. So many publications have presented this project at var-
ious stages during its' 'completion that, like the Barcelona Pavilion, it
has taken on:a life of its oWIi through drawings and photographs. This
situation can lead. to a disenchantment with,the apparent transience of
our "media society", such as implied by Jean Baudrillard's book enti-
tled The Gulf War Did Not Take Place, where he suggested that the
"news event" had become more important than reality. A more pOSi-
tive understanding of this new fluency of ideas would accept that the
media event is also a valid component of reality. Likewise, in architec-
ture this idea is an important factor in our understanding, which is
always the result of a "collision" between imagination and experience.
The publication of polemical projects has also increased rapidly in
Introduction 3
recent years, in journals such as Architectural Design as well as the
many school-based periodicals. Peter Eisenman and Jacques Derrida's
collaboration entitled Chora L Works, and Ubeskind's facsimile set of
working documents from the V & A project, show how these presen-
tations have added to an earlier "currency", in which new ideas have
cirtulated in the form of "manifestoes" and theoretical statements. The
recent appearance of a whole series of anthologies containing reprints
of"theoretical writings has also served to increase awareness of the
wider influences affecting architecture. The crossover between
debates going on in other areas of cultural inquiry has begun to shift
architectural thinking towards the field of "cultural theory". The per-
sistent presence of architectural issues in a whole range of theoretical
debates - in fields such as anthropology, psycho-geography, film and
media studies - has even led to an interest in the occurrence of archi-
tectural ideas within the very structure of philosophy itself.
'The architectural theorist Mark Wigley has written at length on
this relationship, looking at the reliance on - and simultaneous denial of
- ,the role of architectural metaphors in the history of philosophical
thinking. The grand conceptual "edifice" built on "foundations" of truth
and certainty has been a common feature in the "construction" of many
philosophical systems and likeWise, in the present climate of inter-
disciplinary investigations, there is a marked preoccupation with philo-
sophical thinking in architecture. One of the consequences of this new
interest in the broader context of architectural theory is the further
blUrring of the distinction between "thinking" and "doing": This has led
to the notion of a "theoretical practice" that is both critical and con-
structive in its attitude towards reality. The common characteristic of all
these various strategies of practice is the belief in architecture as a
mode of cultural discourse. The role of theory in the present climate is
a long way from methodology, in that the point is not just about how
to make "better" buildings. In terms of the old adage that "society only
gets the architecture it deserves", the influence of architectural theory
rtlight impact rather upon society, and even help to create the condi-
tions within which a more critical architecture can flourish. The general
premise behind all of this reasoning - as well as the motivation for
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4 Building Ideas
writing this book - is a belief in the significance of architecture as a
means of communication, in addition to its ostensible function as
a provider of useful space. This distinction sets up the demand for a
"hermeneutics" of architecture which would outline the various strat-
egies that might be employed in its interpretation. As should become
clear from the opposition set out in Part 1 of this book, even this
notion has been the subject of much argument in recent years.
The overall structure of this book reflects the characteristics of our
times, in which a plurality of "world views" has come to replace a
single outlook. In another age (that perhaps never actually existed),
critical strategies might have been ordered according to a dominant
"master narrative". Whether theological, philosophical or - since the
enlightenment - SCientific, this idea of a prevailing doctrine has been
weakened in recent years. As philosophers of science have even begun
to question its all-encompassing claim to truth, alternative ways of
describing the world have again become valid in this new context. The
French philosopher ]ean-Franc;ois Lyotard in his book The Postmodern
Condition claimed its defining characteristic to be the collapse of
traditional master-narratives. Through the loss of religious consensus
and doubt about the completion of scientific knowledge, Lyotard sug-
gested that communication in society had become fragmented into
"language-games". There is nothing frivolous, however, implied by the
concept of "games", as it is meant to suggest systems of rules and con-
ventions that might apply to interpretation according to the particular
context of the enquiry.
Part 1 addresses this general dilemma over the question of interpre-
tation in architecture, by opposing two definitions based on different
attitudes to "meaning". The first considers architecture purely as engi-
neering, with no pretension to communicate, merely to construct use-
ful space. In its idealised form this approach attempts to sidestep the
question of meaning, with the input of the designer simply governed
by the formula "form follows function". That this can often conceal a
deeper agenda - such as the expression of a "machine-aesthetic" -
shows how this apparently neutral design process is still subject to
cultural forces. The dominant model of scientific rationality in the
Introduction 5
architectural production of the twentieth century is shown to result
from a particular ideology based on the myth of progress in the
philosophy of history. Chapter 2 sets out an opposing view, by pre-
senting architecture as a fine art - the emphasis now being on expres-
sion rather than functional considerations. This time, in its pure form,
the approach tends towards an "autonomous" practice, where the
designer takes the role of protagonist in a critical dialogue with the
conditions of society. The artist as entertainer, critic, or social con-
science are all potential models for the role of theorist or designer
using architectural ideas as a means of expression. The philosophical
background to this "critical" and expressive approach to architecture
is shown to be part of the wider debate concerning the importance of
aesthetic experience. Throughout the history of philosophy this theme
has resurfaced and has more recently been the site of the great "two
cultures" debate - the deterministic laws of science against the free
will of the creative artist.
The potential for architecture to act as a critical tool for communi-
cation and a means of opening up new experiences of space, is seen
as a function of how buildings are perceived and interpreted, and this
is the subject of the second part of this book. In this section, three dif-
ferent interpretive strategies are laid out, based on the three main
schools of thought within twentieth century philosophy. Each one is
shown to impact on the way we think about architecture, and each is
illustrated with a range of buildings to show their implications for
architectural practice. The themes overlap inasmuch as they can be
seen often within the same building, whether part of the design inten-
tion or merely possible interpretive strategies. This blurring of "cre-
ation" with the process of criticism is part of the agenda of this book,
to consider different ways of thinking about buildings, whether as
designers or interpreters.
. Chapters 3, 4 and 5 consider a range of interpretive models, from
the "subjective" to the "objective", depending on their philosophical
orientation. Chapter 3, on phenomenology, emphasises the first of
these characteristics, by focusing on the perceptual experience of the
individual person or subject. The difficulty of generalising from this
6 Building Ideas
basically subjective experience, in order to reach a level of shared
understanding and communication, is addressed in different ways in
Chapters 4 and 5, which look at other more objective factors that
might structure our experience. Both of these look at forces - beyond
the individual's control - that affect how we perceive things and ulti-
mately, how we communicate. Structuralism, in Chapter 4, considers
the deep structures of language and Chapter 5 looks at Marxism, the
"invisible" influence of ideology. All three themes offer possibilities as
conceptual frameworks for understanding architecture and the con-
clusion suggests their integration as part of a broader hermeneutic
project.
In order to use this book as an introduction to the exploration of
theoretical issues, I have included a list of further reading that should
serve to amplify the individual themes. Where possible these have
been drawn from the recently published anthologies of theoretical
texts, in order that this book should also serve as a kind of "road-map"
for further study.
Suggestions For Further Reading
Background
Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction, University of
Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1983.
Richard Kearney, Modern Movements in European Philosophy,
Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1986.
John Lechte, Fifty Key Contemporary Thinkers: From Structuralism
to Postmodernity, Routledge, London, 1994.
Foreground
Ulrich Conrads (ed.), Programmes and Manifestoes on 20th Century
Architecture, Lund Humphries, London, 1970.
Mark Gelernter, Sources of Architectural Form: A Critical History of
Western Design Theory, Manchester University Press, Manchester,
1995.
Introduction 7
K. Michael Hays (ed.), Architecture Theory Since 1968, MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1998.
Charles Jencks and Karl Kropf (eds), Theories and Manifestoes of
Contemporary Architecture, Academy Editions, London, 1997.
Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture: A Reader in Cultural
Theory, Routledge, London, 1997.
Kate Nesbitt (ed.), Theorising a New Agenda for Architecture: An
Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-1995, Princeton
Architectural Press, New York, 1996.
Joan Ockman (ed.), Architecture Culture 1943-1968: A Documentary
Anthology, RizzoIi, New York, 1993.
Readings
K. Michael Hays, "Introduction", in Architecture Theory Since 1968,
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, pp x-xv.
Alberto Perez-Gomez, "Introduction to Architecture and the Crisis of
Modern Science", in K. Michael Hays (ed.), Architecture Theory
Since 1968, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, pp 466-75.
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Part 1
The Question of Meaning in
Architecture
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Architecture as Engineering
The Technological Revolution
When the new headquarters building for Lloyds of London was com-
pleted in 1986 the public reaction was understandably confused.
Instead of the traditional image for a city institution of a classical tem-
ple standing for permanence and solidity, the insurers - not a profes-
sion famed for taking unnecessary risks - had chosen to erect them-
selves a gigantic piece of pulsating machinery. The a s ~ i a t i o n s were
clear for all to see: the._ex:posed structure like an oil rig with its spars
and platforms, the shiny metal stairs and toilet-pods all piled up like
freight containers and clipped on to the, outside, and the whole thing
capped off with a small army of rooftop cranes"': not there just to help
build it but there to help rebuild it too, when the components wear
out and new ones are swung in to take over. Despite the building's
improbable appearance, its architect, Sir Richard Rogers, presents his
ideas as the most logical response to the demand for flexibility - as he
himself has described in a book called Architecture: A Modern View:
If one can access and change short-life parts of a building,its total lifespan
can be extended. Uoyds is clearly divided into a long-life central zone
housing people and a short-life external zone containing technology.
I Richard Rogers, Architecture: A Modem View, Thames and Hudson, London, 1990,
p 53.
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12 Building Ideas
1 Richard Rogers Partnership - Lloyds Building, London, 1978-86. (Alistair
Gardner)
Architecture as Engineering 13
Since the Uoyds building was finished, Rogers has gone on to com-
plete a number of substantial projects in a similar idiom, from the spiky
steel and glass headquarters of Channel 4 in London (1994) to the
more curvaceous forms of the Strasbourg European Court of Human
Rights and the Bordeaux Law Courts (1995 and 1998). He is now
engaged on a new office building for the German car giants Daimler-
Benz, in the centre of Berlin. Rogers' former partner (and fellow reCip-
ient of a knighthood for his contribution to British architecture)
Norman Foster, has likewise assembled an impressive portfolio of sig-
nificant international commissions - not least of which, the Hong Kong
and Shanghai Bank headquarters - was completed in the same year as
Lloyds and embodies a similar range of architectural preoccupations.
Since then Foster has completed the Commerzbank in Frankfurt
(1997), the Hong Kong International Airport (1998) and most recently
the refurbishment of the Reichstag in Berlin, which became the seat of
the unified German government on its completion in 1999. In terms of
cultural facilities, Foster has also been extremely successful, with addi-
tions to the Royal Academy buildings in London (1991), the Carre d'Art
in Nimes, France (1993) and the Joslyn Art Museum in Omaha,
Nebraska (1994) and he is currently remodelling the courtyard and
Reading Room of the British Museum in London.
By any standards, what has become known as the British "high-tech"
tradition (though other such as Jean Nouvel in France and
Rafael Vifioly in the USA have enjoyed somewhat similar success) is a
powerful force in contemporary architecture and deserves a careful
and critical analysis - not least because its theoretical underpinnings
have a far wider influence on the production of buildings today beyond
those that proclaim their origins as explicitly as the examples men-
tioned above. To begin this analysis it will be necessary to carry out an
archaeological "excavation", in order to peel back the accumulated
layers of recent practice to uncover its conceptual "ground".
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14 Building Ideas
2 Foster and Partners - Renault Distribution Centre, SWindon, 1980-82.
(Alistair Gardner)
Twentieth Century Architecture - The Dominance of the
Machine
The first layer consists of the building that set the pattern for the cur-
rent love affair between the world's commercial and civic institutions
and the idea of the building as a machine - the Pompidou Centre in
Paris; completed in 1977. Designed by Richard Rogers and Renzo
Piano together with the engineer Ted Happold" the building respond-
ed to the demands of the competition brief for what we now refer to
as a "mediatheque", containing art galleries, temporary exhibitions,
library, cafes and a research centre for music and acoustics. The com-
petition drawings show not a building so much as a huge steel grid
structure hung with escalators and giant cinema-screens facing a plaza
- here the functions also seem to have migrated to the space outside,
along with the bones and guts of the building. In the competition
report the architects describe the structure as a "live centre of infor-
mation" connected to a network of other centres, such as universities
and town halls, across the country. With the plaza as a_gathering plac:e
and the f a ~ a d e as a display board, the building is conceived as a means
of engagement with information, rather than an object of contempla-
tion in its own right. With its moveable floors and vast clear-span
spaces, the whole thing was set up as a mechanical instrument for the
efficient execution of cultural exchange.
The subsequent popularity of the Pompidou Centre among visitors
to the French capital has much to do with its shock value as an archi-
tectural novelty, as well as its use as a viewing platform with a vista
over the city, rather than its designers' intention of providing a "neu-
tral" container for cultural activities. While in the public perception it
still stands out as a spectacular intervention in the otherwise rather
staid Parisian street scene, the building has not been so kindly received
in the circles of architectural and cultural criticism, as will become
clearer later in this discussion. The reasons for its lukewarm reception
in some quarters were partly due to the history of the ideas behind it
and the fact that as a concept it had been anticipated some years earli-
er in the work of the British Archigram group, in a series of unbuilt but
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3 Piano & Rogers - Pompidou Centre, Paris, 1971-77. (Alistair Gardner)
4 Piano & Rogers - Pompidou Centre, Paris, 1971-77. Oonarhan Hale)
well publicised projects. By the time Rogers' practice, Team 4, (with
Su Rogers and Norman and Wendy Foster) was established in the late
1960s the had set out what was to become a series
of uncannily prescient models for a high-technology, open-ended
architecture of infrastructure, to be imitated and also partly realised by
a variety of other architects over the subsequent years. Among the
most notable were Michael Webb's design for the Furniture
Manufacturers Association Headquarters of 1958 with its expressive
clustering of circulation and service towers; Cedric Price's Fun Palace
of 1961-64 with its throwaway collection of pods and escalators under
a membrane roof; and Warren Chalk's Capsule Tower of 1964 with its
crane-topped central mast supporting a vast array of anonymous living
"containers".
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18 Building Ideas
While many of these ideas are paralleled in the preoccupations of
the Japanese Metabolist group, who were working on similar possibil-
ities around the same time, the ideological assumptions behind this
group of projects are actually quite distinct. For the Japanese, con-
cerned with the acute problems of post-war overcrowding in city cen-
tres and the chronic pressures on land use in the country as a whole,
the possibilities of minimal living units piled up in tower blocks had a
necessary logic behind it. The British work, on the other hand, had a
much more playful air to it, premised as it was on issues like the desire
for sensory stimulation and the very 1960s preoccupation with the
pursuit of pleasure and a libertarian lifestyle. One project that neatly
summed up the group's concerns was the "Cushicle" or "Suitaloon"
device, again by Michael Webb, which provided a portable enclosure
for a single person with sufficient technological apparatus to produce
a totally self-contained environment. This highly seductive indulgence
in the imagery of the new space age technologies shows a neglect of
the need for architecture to support life in the public realm - although
the rhetoric of the group rarely addresses such traditional everyday
concerns. As the critic Reyner Banham, the great champion of the
machine aesthetic, remarked in a 1972 book on the group, Archigram
were "short on theory and long on draughtsmanship ...".2
That Banham should raise this paradox of a seemingly rational appli-
cation of the products of new technology - here being forced into
some highly irrational uses - highlights the conflicting forces at work
in the theoretical climate of the time. The same writer had raised a sim-
ilar concern about another of high-tech's obvious antecedents, the
British movement from the 1950s known 115 the New Brutalism. In
the subtitle of Banham's 1966 book called The New Brutalism: Ethic
or Aesthetic? lurks the lingering uncertainty about the real motivations
behind the barefaced display of raw concrete, water pipes and
electrical conduit boxes that soon became the trademark of what was
turning into a style. The mention of "style" in this context set alarm
2 Reyner Banham, quoted in Peter Cook (ed.) Archigram, Studio Vista, London, 1972,
p 5.
r
,
bells ringing in the circles of "rational" modernist architectural criti-
cism, particularly as the stated intentions of the movement's most out-
spoken advocates, Alison and Peter Smithson, were, revealingly, to be
"objective" about reality.
The Smithsons were part of a tight circle of architects and artists
based around the Architectural Association and the Institute of
Contemporary Arts in London in the 1950s and, through a series
of projects both built and unrealised, they also had a major influence
on the work of the Archigram group. The brick, steel and glass school
at Htmstanton in Norfolk (1949-54), the megastructural composition
of the Sheffield University competition of 1953 and the curvaceous
tibreglass form of the "House of the Future" of 1956 together contain
a range of highly influential ideas. The "brutal" expression of technol-
ogy and "truth to materials" and the metropolitan-scale infrastructures
and systems of movement were to become fundamental principles for
much of the architecture which followed, including the work of the
Team X (Team 10) group which the Smithsons were also responsible
for coordinating. The British architect James Stirling and the American
Louis Kahn, who were both invited participants at Team X confer-
ences around 1960, produced two other significant buildings which
also had a huge impact on the technology-driven architecture of
the subsequent decades. Stirling and Gowan's Leicester University
Engineering Building of 1959 and Louis Kahn's Richards Laboratories
at the University of Pennsylvania (1957-64) both displayed the dra-
matic articulation of functional and structural form characteristic of the
later Archigram work. In Kahn's case, his project even embodied the
"served" and "servant" spaces distinction that later became a key high-
tech principle, which was echoed in the Lloyds building's separation
of short-life and long-life elements.
In the Smithsons' later writings they appeared to accept the latent
paradox inherent in the architect's role as both engineer and artist, in
terms of the importance of_translating the "tools" that technology pro-
vides into a visual and spatial language. With a book entitled Without
Rhetoric: An Architectural Aesthetic published in 1973, theyacknowl-
edged the necessity of the architect's creative input into the process of
20 Building Ideas
5 Stirling and Gowan - Leicester University Engineering Buildings, Leicester,
1959-63. ( lei! Jackson)
design, beyond the simple application of technical solutions to the
straightforward problems of providing enclosure.
Champion of Technology - Buckminster Fuller -
In the 1950s, meanwhile, the air was still heavy with the promise of a
coming technological Utopia as the dreams of the pre-war modernists,
having been disrupted by the years of conflict, were now being revived
by the promise of a period of rapid reconstruction. The mood of opti-
mism in the immediate post-war years was perhaps best summed up by
the reaction in the world of architectural theory to the work of the
American architect, engineer and inventor, Richard Buckminster
6 Stirling and Gowan - Leicester University Engineering Buildings, Leicester,
1959-03. (Neil Jackson)
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22 Building Ideas
7 Louis I Kahn - Richards Medical Research Laboratories, University of
Pennsylvania, 1957-64. (Alistair Gardner)
I
8 Louis I Kahn - Richards Medical Research Buildings, University of,
I'l>nl1sylvania, 1957--64: Entrance level plan, (Redrawn by the author, after
Louis I Kahn)
Fuller. Probably the only architect to have an atomic particle named
after him ("Buckminsterfullerene", a molecule of carbon which has a
similar structure to his "geodesic dome"), Fuller is perhaps best known
for the dome he constructed for the 1967 Exposition in Montreal,
Canada, based on the geodesic principle and still standing today,
though without its originalPlexiglass covering. As a tireless innovator
of new materials and technologies Fuller had become famous for a
series of mass-production prototypes such as the "Dymaxion" series of
bathrooms, cars and ultimately houses, from the 1920s to the 1940s,
which found only limited practical application but significant theoret-
ical interest. One of Fuller's great apologists in this period of ferment
in the 1950s was the English critic Reyner Banham who took up his
technological cause and gave it an "academic" respectability. It was
largely through 'Banham's enthusiastic promotion that Fuller's ideas of
a technology-driven modern architecture fed into the work of the
Archigram group, although Banham was also concerned to establish
a sense of historical continuity between these new technological
24 Building Ideas
9 Murphy and Mackey - Geodesic Dome, St. Louis "Climatron", 1960.
(Neil Jackson)
innovations and the spirit of the pre-war architecture - now seen as in
need of reassessment.
From Banham's point of view the "white architecture" of the 1920s
and 1930s had failed to live up to the promise of the great rallying cry
of early modernism - Le Corbusier's famous claim from 1923 that a
house is a "machine for living in"3 - and he saw Fuller, finally, as the
herald of a true machine-age architecture. In Banham's best-known
book called Theory and Design in the First Machine Age (1960) he
compared Fuller's innovations in the Dymaxion House project from
the late 1920s to the allegedly "technically obsolete" architecture ofLe
Corbusier's Villa Savoye - designed and built around the same time and
3 Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture. translated by Frederick Etchells,
Architectural Press, London, 1946, pp 12-13.
acknowledged by most architectural critics as a classic example of the
New Architecture that modernists strove to achieve. The Dymaxion,
however, with its circular drum of living space suspended from a cen-
tral Duralumin mast housing all the mechanical services was, to
Banham, the true realisation of Le Corbusier's notion of the "mass-
production house". It was, for him, a pioneering example of the kind
of pure "technology transfer" as well as the "served and servant
spaces" arrangement that were to become basic principles of the
developing high-tech tradition. Like the later geodesic dome projects
which simplified the form of the Dymaxion house into a skeletal shel-
tering roof structure made of repeated modular components, Fuller's
ideas were presented as the inevitable outcome of the efficient use of
the latest new materials. He disparaged the seemingly trivial. pre-
occupations of architects like Le Corbusier and others who professed
to besearching for a rational and functional architecture while, to his
eyes, merely indulging in irrelevant stylistic manipulations more appro-
priate to the whims of the fashion industry: "We hear much of design-
ing from the 'inside out' among those who constitute what remains
of the architectural profession - that sometimes jolly, sometimes
sanctimonious, occasionally chi-ehi, and often pathetic organisation of
shelter tailors".4
With its lightweight, cheap and frame-and-skin construc-
tion the Dymaxion House concept actually grew out of the same obses-
sionwith the forms of yachts, ships and early aircraft that had inspired
Le Corbusier's radical thinking, even though this had leg to
The fact that Fuller was more interested in the prototype
than its mass-production possibilities is illustrated by his unwillingness
to launch into production for the military market after the war, when
orders for his Dymaxion-inspired "Wichita" house looked set to exceed
the first 60 000 units the factory was preparing to produce. Fuller's
hesitancy may partly have been due to the disastrous debut of his first
Dymaxion car, involved in a fatal accident at the gates of the 1933
4 R. Bilckminster Fuller; Nine Chains to the Moon, Southern illinois University Press,
Carbondale, 1938 & 1%3, P 9.
26 Building Ideas
Chicago World Exposition. The advanced aerodynamics and rear-
wheel steering of the car - ineffective at high speeds due to its loss of
contact with the ground - were directly inspired by the form of an
aeroplane fuselage, confirmed by the famous photograph of one of
Fuller's later prototypes of the car, parked on a runway next to his own
equaUy curious-looking aircraft, the amphibious Republic Seabee.
5
A
teUing example of Fuller's romantic desire to make use of aU the most
advanced technological possibilities - even where they are not neces-
sarily required or particularly appropriate - comes in his summary of
the goals of the Dymaxion project, made in 1983, the year of his death:
Since I was intent on developing a high-technology dwelling machine
that could be air-delivered to any remote, beautiful country site where
there might be no roadways or landing fields for airplanes, I decided to
try to develop an omni-medium transport vehicle to function in the sky,
on negotiable terrain, or on water - to be securely Iandable anywhere like
an eagle.
6
It is here that Fuller's debt to those first great machine-age poets and
romantics, the Italian Futurists, becomes apparent, in his echoing of
the infatuation they experienced when confronted with new techno-
logical possibilities. As the 1914 manifesto of the group makes clear,
while also betraying the provenance of some more recent high-tech
preoccupations:
We must invent and rebuild the Futurist city: it must be like an immense,
tumultuous, lively, noble work site, dynamic in all its parts; and the
Futurist house must be like an enormous machine. The lifts must not hide
like lonely worms in the stair wells; the stairs, become useless, must be
, done away witlY'and the lifts must climb like serpents of iron and glass up
'the-housefronts.
7
5 Reproduced in Martin Pawley, Buckminster Fuller, Trefoil Publications, London,
1990, p 81.
6 R. Buckminster Fuller, quoted in Martin Pawley, Buckminster Fuller, Trefoil
Publications, London, 1990, p 57.
7 Sant Elia/Marinetti, "Futurist Architecture", in Ulrich Conrads (ed.), Programmes and
Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Lund Humphries, London, 1970. p 36.
10 Brinkman and Van der Vlugt - Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam, 1927-29.
(Neil Jackson)
In contrast to Fuller's somewhat blind and detenninistic application
of new technologies in architecture, Le Corbusier was well ~ o f
the need to mediate between the "raw" engineering of the problems
of shelter and the shared. cultural expectations of a society in need of
reassurance amidst the uncertainties of historical change. For all the
latter's rhetoric on the beauty of the great ships, aeroplanes and auto-
mobiles in the opening chapters of Towards a New Architecture, he
also went on tQ discuss in equivalent detail the architecture of ancient
Greece, Rome and the Italian Renaissance. In the section entitled "The
Engineer's Aesthetic" he began by claiming that since engineers were
"active and useful, balanced and happy in their work", they would
SOon be monopolising the building process, since: "We no longer have
the money to erect historical souvenirs. At the same time, we have got
28 Building Ideas
11 Brinkman and Van der Vlugt - Van Nelle Factory, Rotterdam, 1927-29.
(Neil Jackson) .' ..'
to wash! Our engineers provide for these things and they will be our
builders. "8
At the same time he was also anxious to emphasise the unique con-
tribution that the architect must make to the resolution of the design
process, by recovering those abstract formal principles that had been
obscured by the stylistic preoccupations of the "academic" tradition. It
was precisely this tradition, enshrined in the institutionalised teaching
of architecture in France through the influence of the Ecole-des Beaux
Arts, that Reyner Banham had blamed for the apparent failure of the
early modernists to deliver on the promise of an authentically machine-
age architecture.
8 I.e COt'busier, Towards a New Architecture, translated by Frederick EtcheUs,
II'
12 Le Corbusier - Villa Savoye, Poissy, Paris, 1929-31. (Alistair Gardner)
This became the dominant theme of his influential book which was
higWighted earlier, and his discussion of the Villa Savoyelimade this
notion particularly explicit. By designing a building that metely looked
like it was nude of new materials and at the same time bore only a for-
mal resemblance to a modern ocean liner - without also possessing a
ship's functional rigour or technical sophistication -.Le,Corbusier had,
according to' Banham, lapsed back into the kind of traditional symbolic
language of metaphor 'and allusion that the engineer-designers like
Fuller,appeared to have left behind. What Banham fails to clarify in his
assessment of the pre-war architects' achievement is the distinction
between two clear lines of development in early modernism which
arose from two distinct sources - one from advances in technology and
the other from advances in art. Where Banham sees the latter as a dis-
traction from the former, claiming that the: "... theorists and design-
ers of the waning twenties cut themselves off not only from their own
historical beginnings, but also from their foothold in the world of tech-
nology"9, Le Corbusier presents the alternative view, that the first is
<) Reyner Banham, Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, Architectural Press,
London, 1%0, p 327.
I
I
30 Building Ideas
meaningless without the second and is' .. part of architecture's larger
responsibility to communicate. As he writes in the chapter on "The
Engineer's Aesthetic":
Finally, it will be a delight to talk of ARCHITECTIJRE after so many grain-
stores, workshops, machines and sky-scrapers. ARCHITECTIJRE is a thing
of art, a phenomenon of the emotions, lying outside questions of con-
struction and beyond them. The purpose of construction is TO MAKE
TIllNGS HOLD TOGETHER; of architecture TO MOVE US.
10
Art and Technology in the Origins of Modernism
Where Banham polarises the debate within modernism, between a
technology-inspired futurism that looks forward to a "golden age" and
a historically-inspired academicism that sees its golden age in the past,
Le Corbusier expresses an alternative possibility. His position relies on
a subtle distinction between a deterministic "machine-architecture"'
. "
that is supposed to .anse inevitably from the of new tech-
nologies, and a properly symbolic "machine-age-architecture" which
requires the input of the creative individual to express the aspirations
of the times and thereby takes account of other advances in human
knowledge, in addition to the scientific and the technological. These
would include the developments in painting, literature and music that
were going on at the time - @_of which contributed to a profoundly
new way of seeing and understanding the world in the early decades
of the twentieth century. This was a cultural phenomenon in ,which
architecture should rightly be partaking, as he mentions in a footnote
to the chapter quoted above. He also demonstrates this more explicit-
ly through his own experiments in painting, using many of the tech-
niques developed by the Cubist painters, Picasso and Braque, to
explore the perception of objects in space - inspired in part by Albert
Einstein's contemporary theories of relativity.
10 I.e Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, translated by Frederick Etchells,
Architectural Press, London, 1946, p 23.
A similar confusion as to the true nature of modernist architecture
arose from the title of the exhibition which introduced this intially
European phenomenon into the architectural scene in North America.
"The International Style: Architecture Since 1922", organised by Henry
Russell Hitchcock and the architect Philip Johnson at the Museum
of Modern Art, New York in 1932, suggested that, far from being a
"scientific method" of producing buildings according to the functional
and technical requirements of the brief, the new architecture was
actually as much a product of the creativity of the individual "artist" as
architecture always had been. TIlis conflicting interpretation of the
ideals of the Modern Movement had already become apparent in
the teaching programme of the Bauhaus - the school set up in
,
Germany as.a new model for education, to rival the Classical teaching
of the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, but with a technically based cur-
ricuhUll in place of the traditional historical one. Walter Gropius, who
directed the new school from its inception in 1919 through to 1928,
.had attempted to unify the industrial and the creative aspects of the
praCtice of design, through the teaching of architects, artists and sculp-
tors together in the techniques of craft production. Unfortunately, the
factional in-fighting between those brought in to teach in the "craft-
work" as opposed to the "artwork" sections of the course meant
that the school made little headway towards its stated objective of "the
creation of standard types for all practical commodities of everyday
use ...".11
The emphasis on standardisation for the mass-production market
had already caused a rift in the running of another, earlier, group to
which Walter Gropius was affiliated, the pre-World War 1 Deutsche
Werkbund, for whom he had designed an exhibition pavilion in 1914.
In the conference held in Cologne at the time of the exhibition the
opposition between the free will of the artist and the determinism of
industrial production was made particularly clear in a debate between
11 Walter Gropius, "Principles of Bauhaus Production", in Ulrich Conrads (ed.),
Programmes and Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Lund Humphries,
London, 1970, p 96.
,32 Building Ideas
two of the group's leading voices. Hennann Muthesius, who had
recently been in En"gland studying domestic architecture for the
Gennan government, set out a series of ten theses on the _aims of
the Werkbund programme, which were focused on the need for stan-
dardisation in design. For example:
1. Architecture, and with it the whole area of the Werkbund's activities,
is pressing towards standardisation, and only through standardisation can
it recover that universal significance which was characteristic of it in
times of harmonious culture.
In the second section he went on to claim that standardisation
was also the key to an improvement in aesthetic awareness, as it could
"... alone make possible the development of a universally valid, unfail-
ing good taste."12 In replying to this presentation, Henry van de Velde,
who was also director of the School of Applied Arts in Weimar that
later fonned the core of the Bauhaus, set out an alternative point of
view, even though he was as determined as anyone in the movement
at the time to promote such Modernist principles as "truth to materi-
als" and the "honesty" of construction:
1. So long as there are still artists in the Werkbund and so long as they
exercise some influence on its destiny, they will protest against every sug-
gestion for the establishment of a canon and for standardisation. By his
innermost essence-!he artist is a burning idealist, a free spontaneous cre-
ator. Of his own free w i l ~ he will never subordinate himself to a discipline
that imposes upon him Jtype, a canon. 13
The final layer in this archeological excavation of the building-as-
machine analogy in recent architecture explores this conflict between
12 Muthesius/van de Velde, "Werkbund These and Antitheses" in Ulrich Conrads (ed.).
Programmes and Manifestoes on 20th CentU1y Architecture, Lund Humphries,
London, 1970, p 28.
I ~ Muthesius/van de Velde, "Werkbund These and Antitheses" in Ulrich Conrads (ed.).
Programmes and Manifestoes on 20th Century Architectu.re, Lund Humphries,
London, 1970, p 29.
free will and determinism and reveals its origin in the notion that cul-
ture.has reached a climax in its historical development..The idea that
style had been superseded by functionality and that individual expres-
sion>no longer had a role in contemporary cultural activity was perhaps
most powerfully expressed by Adolf Loos in his 1908 essay entitled
Ornament and Crime. After a discussion of the relationship between
decoration and degeneracy - claiming tattoos and graffiti were both
signs of criminality - he went on to suggest how the true indication of
cultural advancement and sophistication was the enjoyment of plain,
undecorated surfaces. Objects should be free from the trappings of
historical style and the encumbrance of irrelevant ornament and he
presented this as the conclusion of a potted cultural history:
A country's culture can be .assessed by the extent to which its lavatory
walls are smeared. In the child this is a natural phenomenon: his first artis-
tic expression is to scribble erotic symbols on the walls. But what is
natural to the Papuan and the child is a symptom of degeneracy in the
modem adult. I have made the following discovery and I pass it on to
the world: The evolution of culture is synonymous with the removal
of ornament from utilitarian objects.
14
While Loos' own architecture indulges in the traditional qualities of
marble and stone, it would be the next generation of architects work-
ing in concrete, glass and steel who would eventually attempt to
generate a truly universal language of functional and utilitarian forms.
The reason these ideas took such firm root in an architectural con-
text in subsequent years has much to do with the philosophical revo-
lution that was underway even before the rise of industrial technology.
Even in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe the idea of
the universe operating as a mechanical device was gaining acceptance
in philosophical circles and this in turn stimulated a huge interest in
the practice of experimental science. It is this rich heritage of "scien-
tific" philosophy and speculation, together with the idea that history
14 Adolf Loos, "Ornament and Crime", in Ulrich Conrads, (ed.) Programmes and
Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Lund Humphries, London, 1970, p 19-20.
34 Building Ideas
might itself be operating as a mechanically developing process, that
forms the background to the rise of the machine age in architecture.
These ideas paved the way for the eventual assimilation of new tech-
nologies into architecture - resolving some of the "confusion" caused
by the innovations of the nineteenth century - and it is these ideas that
must be considered next in an effort to understand the background to
more recent architectural developments.
The Mechanical Universe - Vesalius, Copernicus and Bacon
The two philosophical sources for the dominance of the mechanistic
model in twentieth century architecture concern what were tradition-
ally two of the greatest mysteries of the pre-modem world, the first of
which is spatial and the second temporal. Probably since the dawn
of human consciousness the question of the spatial structure of the
physical universe and of the objects found within it has been a source
of considerable intrigue and speculation. Much of the world's mytho-
logical and religious thinking has addressed the persistent mysteries of
why things are the way they are and why they behave in the way they
do. By the same token, a similar amount of creative energy has been
expended on the question of why some things seem to change with the
passage of time while others perpetually appear the same. More recent-
ly, however, both science and philosophy have attempted to answer
both of these intriguing and fundamental questions by applying a simi-
lar model of the mechanistic system - first by considering the universe
and its contents as machines and the second by suggesting that history
itself follows a mechanical and directed evolution towards a goal.
The first two notable landmarks in the advance of this modem view
occured in 1543, when two men produced, completely independent-
ly of each other, two remarkably symmetrical innovations. The first,
the Italian astronomer Copernicus' book called On the Revolution of
the Planets, placed the sun, rather than the earth, at the centre of the
known universe and thus began a revolution in our understanding of
astronomy. The other was the product of a different style of research
_ looking "inwards" at the body instead of outwards at the heavens -
and concerned the physical structure and systems of human anatomy.
The Fabric of tbe Human Body was the work of Andreas Vesalius, the
Flemish physician and anatomist who distrusted the traditional under-
standing of the workings of the body due to its theoretical derivation
from dissections done on animals. In response to this neglect of a solid
basis in physical fact, Vesalius insisted, like Copernicus had done, on
gathering his own experimental evidence and dismissing all previous:,
notions born of superstition and speculation.
The most striking aspect ofVesalius' approach to the presentation of
his studies is the mechanical and systematic way in which the compo-
nents of the body are separated out for inspection. As the skin and the
muscles are stripped away almost violently, the organs and bones
which are revealed by this process are examined independently in iso-
lated illustrations. In spite of the difficulties of obtaining corpses for
dissection, his revolutionary methodology led to significant discoveries
as well as arousing opposition from the Church. It was the same
opposition to "heretical" new practices that Galileo was to encounter
just a few decades later, when he took up the principle of Copernicus'
new universe and confirmed it, to his cost, with his newly acqUired
telescope.
With the body as a system divided into its constituent components,
it wasn"t long before the forces that animated the resulting "assembly"
also began to yield to a similar kind of mechanical analysis. In 1628,
when William Harvey published his conclusions on the circulation of
the blood due to the pumping action of the heart, the notion of the
body as a mechanical contraption was beginning to take root in
philosophy. The English philosopher and Lord Chancellor Francis
Bacon set out in more formal terminology what he intended would
serve as the basis for a rigorous and systematic experimental science.
In the Novum Organum (1620) ("New Instrwnent; or, True
Directions Concerning the Interpretation of Nature") he established
the approach to scientific investigation that became the foundation of
modem technological advancement. Bacon was frustrated with the
pace of human progress which, to him, was being stifled by its respect
r
(
I
36 Building Ideas
for ancient wisdom. He proposed a new beginning which would start
from observation and build up from simple axioms towards more
abstract principles. He described this way of working, from the partic-
ular towards the general, as an "instrument" for the mind, just like a
tool works for the hand. He saw quite clearly the relationship between
knowledge and power and felt that nature's mysteries would yield
before his methods. He wanted, as he put it in his preface: "... to con-
quer, not an opponent in argument, but Nature herself in action: to
seek, in short, not elegant and probable conjectures, but certain and
demonstrable knowledge ... ".15
Bacon's ideas directly inspired what soon became a Widespread pre-
occupation with research in the sciences and led, in 1660, to the estab-
lishment in London of a group called the Royal SOCiety. The institution
was set up to support individuals in the pursuit of new knowledge
through the process of experiment and many famous figures, including
Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton, were involved in the society's piO-
neering activities. The fact that Christopher Wren was a founder mem-
ber and president, and that Hooke himself also designed several build-
ings, makes clear that the early growth of the "profession" of the archi-
tect was tied up with the beginnings of science. Even Francis Bacon's
work betrays a crossover of ideas, as his essay, Of Building, makes
clear. The application to useful purposes was his goal for new knowl-
edge, not merely the pleasure of discovery for itself. He extended this
principle to his thinking on architecture and came up with a now
familiar conclusion: "Houses are built to live in, and not to look on;
therefore, let use be preferred to uniformity, except where both may
be had.16
The Mechanical Mind - Rene Descartes
What Bacon had achieved for the growth of the sciences in England,
Rene Descartes achieved in France and his Discourse on Method and
15 Francis Bacon, Navum Organum, Open Court, Chicago, 1994, p 40.
16 Francis Bacon. Essays, J. M. Dent, London, 1994, p 114.
the Meditations, published in 1637 and 1641, grew out of a similar
reforming objective. Though he was, unlike Bacon, more of a "hands-
on" researcher, publishing a collection of works on optics, geometry
and meteors, it was his writing on philosophical principles that.,.
brought him the widest recognition and assured him of a place in the
history of ideas. The full title of the brief and clear summary of his
methods - which he wrote in French instead of Latin as a means to
popularise his message - was the "Discourse on the Method of Rightly
Conducting the Reason and Seeking Truth in the Sciences". Like
Bacon, he was intent on providing "instruments" for the mind, to assist
in its quest for a clear comprehension of the world, uncompromised
by tradition and received conventions. This process involved tran-
scending the body and the messy "confusion" of perceptual experi-
ence in order to avoid the "illusions" of the realm of the senses and
understand the reality behind mere appearance. His method was to
start by questioning his assumptions and reconstructing all knowledge
from a foundation of certainty:
Thus, as our senses deceive us at times, I was ready to suppose that noth-
ing was at all the way our senses represented them to be ... But I soon
noticed that while I thus wished to think everything false, it was neces-
sarily true that I who thought so, was something. Since this truth, I think
therefore I am, was so fum and assured that all the most extravagant sup-
positions of the sceptics were unable to shake it, I judged that I could
safely accept it as the first principle of the philosophy I was seeking.
17
It was this clear separation of the reasoning mind from the uncer-
tainties of the crude, "feeling" body that proVided Descartes with his
starting pOint for a whole new system of knowledge. The human
being, however, is divided in this system, like a pilot steering a ship,
and this results in a mechanical conception of the body which is
reduced to the level of an automaton. Although Descartes claimed that
only animals were in fact true machines, as they lacked any kind of
17 Rene Descartes, Discourse on Metbod, Bobbs-Merrill, New York, 1956, pp 20-21.
38 Building Ideas
consciousness and freedom of the will, the human body when acting
purely by instinct could also be viewed in this mechanistic way:
When a man in faUing thrusts out his hand ... he does that without his
reason counselling him so to act, but merely because the sight of the
impending fall penetrating to his brain drives the animal spirits into the
nerves in the manner necessary for this motion ... and as though it were
the working of a machine. 18
This "machine" model of the body was extended to the universe
which Descartes concluded could be reduced even further. His princi-
ple of mechanism proposed that alI phenomena could be explained as
the motion of "geometrical matter", where matter, according to his
definition is: "susceptible of every sort of division, shape and
motion".19 Descartes held back from publishing his work on astrono-
my, following Galileo's trial by the church inquisition, and it would
take another hundred years or more before the full implications of
"Cartesian duality" would be made clear for the body in the most
obvious terms. In 1745 and 1748 two books appeared in France that
addressed this particular issue. The first, Man the Machine, and the
second, Man the Plant, were written by Julian Offray de La Mettrie,
although early editions were anonymously published for fear of pro-
voking a hostile reaction.
The same crossover of ideas that happened in England between the
new rigour in science and the growing profession of architecture also
took off from Descartes' philosophy in France, through the equivalent
of the Royal Society. The French Academy was founded in 1635 and in
1666 it had spawned an Academy of Science. Claude Perrault, who was
one of the latter's founder members, was a physician and comparative
anatomist by training, although he also, like Robert Hooke, practised
architecture as well and built the east fa;:ade of the Louvre in Paris,
.8 Rene Descartes. The Philosophical Works of Descartes. translated by Elizabeth s.
Haldane and G. R. T. Ross. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1%7. v2. P 104.
19 Rene Descartes, quoted in Antbony Kenny. Descartes: A Study of his Philosophy,
Thoemmes Press. Bristol, 1997, P 203.
..
which was completed in 1680. His most memorable work was in archi-
tectural theory where he questioned the traditional understanding of
number, which had, since Vitruvius in the first century AD, been treat-
ed as God-given and of sacred significance. The dimensions of the body
were seen as the basis for a system of divinely proportional relation-
ships which, like those in music, would guarantee harmony and ensure
that a building would be "in tune" with the universe. This notion of
number as the secret to harmony had been revived during the
Renaissance but had never been codified and the conflicts that had
grown up between rival systems inspired Perrault to resolve the con-
fusion. In his Ordonnance for the Five Kinds of Columns, published
in 1683, he attempted to set out a once-and-for-all number system, by
averaging the dimensions put forward by others. In place of the
assumption that proportions were absolute and their recognition an
innate capacity of the mind, he reduced the whole question to arbi-
trary convention, based on learned, rather than any God-given stan-
dards. The effect of this shift from the divine to the "convenient" con-
tinued the revolution that Descartes had begun. By reducing mathe-
matics from theology to engineering, another "instrument" of compre-
hension had been created for the mind.
From this grounding in the techniques of spatial description and the
mechanistic explanation of natural phenomena came a whole torrent
of new "sciences" during the next hundred years. As Michel Foucault
has described in his book The Order of Things, the eighteenth century
sawan expansion in research and classification that went a long way
to fulfilling Francis Bacon's great vision. The sciences of botany, geol-
ogy and paleontology were all born in this period out of the same urge
to record and classify. By the end of the century even language and
history had begun to be seen as fair game for the sciences, and it is
history that proves to be decisive for the progress of the machine-
aesthetic in architecture.
40 Building Ideas
The Machine of History - From Vico to Hegel and
Viollet-Ie-Duc
The first landmark in the growth of history as a "scientific" discipline
was, ironically, the work of a thinker opposed to the tradition of
Cartesian rationality, the Neapolitan philosopher Giambattista Vico. He
published his Principles of a New Science of the Common Nature of
Peoples between 1725 and 1730 with the aims of establishing the value
of "poetic wisdom" - which will be considered in Chapter 2 - and at
the same time determining a pattern for the development of societies.
On the basis that human beings, and not nature, had created cultural
institutions and they should therefore be in an ideal position to under-
stand them, he suggested a cyclical system of historical change - from
birth to decay and ultimately to re-growth - to explain the discontinu-
ities in the world's great civilisations. It took almost a century before
this notional structure was codified into a comprehensive system,
which at the same time also established a kind of historical corollary
to Descartes' first principle of the self-conscious thinking mind. By
presenting Descartes' search for certainty as a historical objective,
G. W. F. Hegel in his Phenomenology of Spirit placed the reasoning
mind at the climax of history, as it reaches the stage of self-under-
standing through the medium of philosophy. The concept of "Spirit"
(or "mind" in some translations) is a force, like a "creator", that uses
the world as a vehicle to realise its ultimately philosophical objectives.
The objective of Spirit is, according to Hegel, to "know itself as Spirit",
as a free, reasoning being, able to understand its own capacities. This
awareness has been achieved by a process of historical development,
where philosophical insight has gradually grown from confused begin-
nings to culminate in Hegel's own system of thought. He set out the
historical stages through which Spirit passed - in this striving to
express itself and thereby come to "know itself" - and, like Vico, he
used a cyclical pattern to explain the progression of civilisations. He
set up the more abstract - and now famous - dialectical model of
thesis, antithesis and synthesis, to explain how the cycles of change in
society reflect the different stages of Spirit's developing self-
understanding. This historical method of conceiving and of describing
his philosophy produces by inlplication a philosophical conception of
hiStory. In his later writings on this subject, where he specifically
addresses this historical issue, he also proposes several other signifi-
cant new concepts.
Besides the influential notion of the "spirit of the age" (or Zeitgeist)
which grew out of his early philosophy, in the Phenomenology of
Spirit he also addressed religion and its pivotal role in the development
of both architecture and art. In the process of the Spirit's gradual
movement towards self-consciousness, religion is seen as an interme-
diate stage, beyond the primitive's blind struggle for physical survival
and prior to the "absolute" knowledge of philosophy and science.
Within this stage itself he suggests a division ofthree phases, beginning
with '"natural religion" and the worship of landscape features such as
mountains, trees and springs. The second is the "religion of art" which
belongs to a further phase of development, where societies like the
ancient Greeks made images of their Gods, as well as expressing their
theology through architecture and ritual. The third phase of religion
involves a transcending of the physical world and a movement away
from the expression of beliefs embodied in works of art. As Spirit
comes to understand itself in a much more abstract way, then religion
is believed to be contained in the revelations or "Word" of the Gods.
As a further stage in history, science and philosophy then take over,
the Spirit in Hegel's system then becomes "transparent" to itself. It no
longer needs the support of images to express its understanding, since
the tools of abstract thought have taken over in this role. Obviously, in
this system the importance of art is reduced, as Hegel claims it is
now irrelevant to the course of human progress. He is able to take
this "idealist" view by distinguishing between the form of a work of art
and its content, or idea, and thereby separating what is symbolised
from the medium of its expression. This is a persistent idea in the
field of aesthetics, which will come up again in Chapter 2, but which
is also important here. By means of this separation Hegel constructs
yet another history from within the category of art and based on
its various forms. In his lectures on aesthetics given in Berlin in
. I
42 Building Ideas
the 1820s Hegel set out in a hierarchical sequence his version of the
development of art. From architecture and sculpture, the two most
"physical" of media, developed the progressively more abstract disci-
plines of painting, music and poetry. Whereas the last is the least
reliant on sensory stimulation and is capable of expressing the most
complex ideas, the first is seen as rather basic and clumsy, and only
suitable for the notions of a more primitive culture.
Poetry in its turn must give way to science, as Hegel's relentless pro-
gression of reason moves on to explain the world. As the metaphors
and allusions give way to hard facts, the process of history is
announced as complete. This system consigns architecture to the
realm of the distant past and later art historians have had to respond to
this troublesome fact. In architecture specifically the reaction has
taken two different forms, with the split between engineering and art
as a consequence. The key figure in the rise of the architect as engineer
is Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, who, writing around 1860, took up
Hegel's challenge to the foundations of architecture. As the eclecticism
of the time and the debates about style threatened to confirm Hegel's
forecast of doom, Viollet set out the case for architecture's continued
importance as a technical, rather than an expressive, endeavour. While
the nineteenth century revivals of historical styles were partly brought
on by Hegel's periodising of history, the confusion that followed had
spurred Viollet's search for "timeless" principles, beyond the distrac-
tions of symbols and meanings. As he writes, on "Construction" from
his Dictionnaire Raisonne (anticipating Le Corbusier on the "engi-
neer's aesthetic"):
The last Romanesque builders, those who after so many attempts had
finaUy dismissed the semi-eircular arch, are not visionaries; they do not
speculate on the mystical meaning of a curve; they do not know if the
pointed arch is more religious than the semi-eircular arch; they build - a
more difficult task than idle dreaming. 20
20 E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Rational Building, translated by George Martin Huss, Macmillan,
New York, 1895, P 42.
......
Like other writers of his time he produced a "universal history" from
the origins of architecture in the "primitive hut", but whereas Hegel
had been interested in what buildings meant, Viollet simply concen-
trated on how they were built. With an emphasis on function and
economy of means, all previous architecture was presented as rational
- even classical Greek "ornament" was shown to derive from con-
struction. Whereas in his "Lectures" he followed a Hegelian chronolo-
gy, in the Dictionnaire he used a more anatomical method - dividing
up his subject into alphabetical sections, more easily, he maintained,
to study its parts:
... because this fonn obliges us, if we might thus say it, to dissect sepa-
rately in describing the functions performed, the use of each of the
diverse parts and of the modifications it has experienced.21
Throughout the history of architecture he saw a fundamental prin-
ciple, in the application of reason to the satisfaction of needs, and this
substantiated his case for architecture as a science and saved it from its
fate as a historical curiosity. It was this principle which he felt should
be applied in his own time, making use of new materials and advances
in technology. As he writes in the Lectures, again inspired by engi-
neering:
The constructors of locomotive engines did not take it into their heads to
copy a stage<oach team. Moreover we must consider that art is not riv-
eted to certain fonns, but that, like human thought, it can incessantly
dothe itself in new ones ... Let us endeavour to proceed thus logically;
let us frankly adopt the appliances afforded us by our own times, and
apply them without the intervention of traditions which have lost their
Vitality . . .22
21 E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, The Foundations ofArchitecture, translated by Barry Bergdoll and
. Kenneth D. Whitehead, George Braziller, New York, 1990, P 18.
22 E. E. Viollet-Ie-Duc, Lectures on Architecture, translated by Benjamin Bucknall, Dover,
New York, 1987, v2, P 64-5.
44 Building Ideas
This "renewal" of architecture, based on rational principles, was
part of the same search for certainty that Descartes had inaugurated
and, in response to Hegel's prognosis of the death of the architect as
artist, the engineer had now stepped forward to take over in this role.
This was only one aspect of the reaction to Hegel's challenge and
another whole tradition will be considered in the following chapter.
This will provide an alternative view of architecture and its status as a
symbolic activity, with a meaningful place in society within a quite
different philosophy of history - questioning the ideology of progress
that drives the engine of technological innovation.
Suggestions for further reading
Background
George Basalla, The Evolution of Technology, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1988.
Rene Descartes, Discourse on Method and The Meditations, trans-
lated by F. E. Sutcliffe, Penguin Books, London, 1968.
G. W. F. Hegel, Introductory Lectures on Aesthetics, translated by
Bernard Bosanquet, Penguin Books, London, 1993.
G. W. F. Hegel, Reason in History: A General Introduction to the
Philosophy ofHistory, translated by R. S. Hartman, Library of Liberal
Arts, New York, 1953.
Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilisation, Harcourt, Brace,
Jovanovich, New York, 1963.
Neil Postman, Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology,
Vintage Books, New York, 1993.
Peter Singer, Hegel, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1983.
Foreground
Reyner Banham, Theory and Design in the First Machine Age,
. Architectural Press, London, 1960.
Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, translated by Frederick
Etchells, Architectural Press, London, 1946.
Viollet-Ie-Duc, Lectures on Architecture, translated by Benjamin
Bucknall, Dover, New York, 1987.
Sant'Elia and Marinetti, "Futurist Architecture", in Ulrich Conrads (ed.),
Programmes and Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Lund
Humphries, London, 1970.
Muthesius and van de Velde, "Werkbund These and Antitheses", in
Ulrich Conrads (ed.), Programmes and Manifestoes on 20th
Century Architecture, Lund Humphries, London, 1970.
Richard Rogers, Architecture: A Modern View, Thames and Hudson,
London, 1990,
Readings
Theodor Adorno, "Functionalism Today", in Neil Leach (ed.),
Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997, pp 6-19.
Peter Buchanan, "Nostalgic Utopia", ArchitectsJournal, 4 September/
1985, pp 60-9.
Adolf Laos, "Ornament and Crime", in Ulrich Conrads (ed.),
~ r o g r a m m e s and Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture, Lund
Humphries, London, 1970, pp 19-24.
Martin Pawley, "Technology Transfer", Architectural Review, 9/1987,
pp 31-9.
..,.'
2
Architecture as Art
Aesthetics in Philosophy
The philosophy of history set out in Chapter 1 produced a powerful
myth of progress that caused a rift in the culture of architecture. From
the view that science will eventually explain all natural phenomena,
and new technologies will evolve to cater for all our needs, came the
reduction of the design of buildings to a sub-branch of engineering -
controlled not by individuals but by economic and physical forces.
This deterministic view of architecture, which submits design to a
"scientific" methodology was part of a general search for certainty
and respectability in the age of reason. From ideas like Viollet-le-Duc's
great prinCiple of the application of reason to the satisfaction of needs
grew the belief that good buildings would come about "automatically"
- providing the requirements were analysed correctly and the appro-
priate technologies and materials were chosen.
The critique of this "master-narrative" of enlightenment rationality
has recently become a major feature of the philosophy of post-
modernity. Historically, however, an alternative position can be
identified, which supports the status of architecture as a culturalr-llQt
_ I T I e ~ e l y a technical, activity. The distinction turns on the status of art
itself, in a society seemingly dominated by scientific rationality, and
involves a questioning of the view that science provides the only "true"
description of reality. Art was considered to be redundant in Hegel's
system of ideas, because it no longer seemed to contribute to the
...
48 Building Ideas
progression of human knowledge. Likewise, what later became known
as "positivism" in both the physical and social sciences - thanks to the
French philosopher Auguste Comte - claimed that progress was a
steady and linear development involving the gradual accumulation of
experimental data that would eventually account for all phenomena
within a single unified system. The book that has recently attacked this
notion of science and helped restore the case for art as a,n alternative
"language", or' means of describing the world, is The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions. First published in 1962, and written by Thomas
Kuhn, a professor of philosophy at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (M.LT.), the book describes clearly the growth of scientif-
ic knowledge, punctuated as it is by periodic upheavals when new
innovations are developed. Kuhn sets out an intriguing pattern which
appears to recur in the history of science, caused by the appearance of
experimental data which fail to fit within an established framework.
This framework for interpretation, or "paradigm" as Kuhn prefers to
call it, is what controls the scope of research being carried out in a
/
particular period as well as predicting the likely outcome of a range of
relevant experiments. This is what Kuhn refers to as the process of
normal science, which involves the gathering of experimental data in
support of a particular paradigm. Gradually this framework is' "filled in"
with the accumulation of detail, confirming and completing the piC-
ture that the paradigm describes in general outline. Any data that
falls outside these set parameters can either be ignored as inaccurate
or dismissed as irrelevant or, if sufficiently persistent and troublesome
for the previous paradigm, can begin to cause misgivings, leading to a
"crisis" in the scientific community. In response to this situation an
alternative paradigm will be put forward to explain the anomalous data
and thereby suggest new areas of research. Those major "paradigm
shifts", or revolutions, described in the book's title, happen relatively
rarely, such as in the Copernican restructuring of the universe or, more
recently, with Einsteinian relativity.
The idea of a shared community "language" which undergoes
dramatic and regular transformations provides another way of under-
standing the actual progress of experimental science, beyond the
...
Architecture as Art 49
cumulative model of the dominant positivist conception. What Kuhn's
description clearly highlights is the importance of the individual who,
in the free exercise of their will, can see beyond the dominant
digm. It is only by questioning received wisdom and the assumptions
of tradition that significant breakthroughs have been made which have
allowed the expansion of scientific knowledge. While this model bor-
rows from the world of art the idea of changes to our ways of seeing,
it also relies on the artist's critical instinct as a means to
accepted norms. This notion of the artist as a critic who steps outside
the dominant paradigm has also persisted in architecture, as suggested
in Chapter 1. To understand the influence of this view of the architect
as intuitive artist, it is worth taking a moment to consider the status of
art in philosophy - more specifically in aesthetics - both before and
after Hegel.
The Origin of Aesthetics - From Plato to Neo-Platonism
In Plato's famous dialogue, The Republic, written around 388 Be, the
status of art in society was subjected to keen philosophical scrutiny.
The problem with art for Plato is its reliance on representation - ,the
copying of objects in nature which are themselves copies of the uni-
versal, "ideal" forms. This notion of ideal models arises from Plato's
overall ontology, or "philosophy of being", which divides the world
into two distinct categories of experience, the "sensible" and the
"intelligible" realms. The sensible is the realm we experience, made
up of physical and changeable objects, where things are continually
in a state of "becoming", as in nature, either growing or decaying.
The intelligible realm, on the other hand, contains the "ideas" for the
objects in the world, a timeless collection of models which nature c;Ln
only imperfectly imitate, like the universal letters of the alphabet
which can be written down in a variety of ways. The higher realm of
forms is itself controlled by a set of geometric and numerical relation-
ships, a notion that Plato inherited from the Greek mathematician
Pythagoras. This universal prinCiple of an underlying mathematical or
i
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50 Building Ideas
musical harmony is something only the reasoning mind can eventually
come to appreciate. The goal for philosophy, according to Plato, was
to see beyond all earthly distractions, to leave behind the realm of the
senses and to contemplate the unchanging universals. In Book VII of
The Republic, in the allegory of the cave, Plato constructs an elaborate
illustration of this intellectual journey of the philosopher, from the
"shadow world" of appearances to the reality and light of true knowl-
edge. Like Hegel's later idealism which builds on similar philosophical
assumptions, Plato also has little time for the contribution of the indi- I
vidual artist. He would, as he describes in the final book of The
Republic, have banished all poets from his ideal well-ordered society,
ruled as it was by an enlightened dictatorship of educated "philoso- _-
pher-kings".
The underlying principles of order and mathematical harmony are
the ingredients of Plato's ultimately moralistic -brand of aesthetics,
which he goes on to describe as part of an ideal educational system:
And isn't it necessary for the young to be influenced by these qualities
everywhere, if they are to do what is truly theirs to do? And these quali-
ties may be seen in everything, in painting, and in ornament, in the mak-
ing of everything, clothes, buildings, pots ... and in the forms of liVing.
things. In all t h e ~ e , order or good form and its opposite have their places.
TItings without order, rhythm an<;l.llarmony go with ill words and ill feel
ings, but good order goes with.courage and self--control.
While Plato is willing to connect beauty to the moral sense of the -
true and the good - as though the cultivation of good taste would
ensure an individual's good behaviour - it is the beauty found in nature
more than the work of the mere artist which is the source for this
experience and sets the standards of "good design". Usefulness is one
factor significant to this quality, \vhich leads to an almost functionalist
principle of design:
Plato, The Republic, translated by I. A_ Richards, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1966, Book m(401), p 57.
...
And for .everything - for every sort of instrument, living being, or act -
doesn't the question "Is it good, beautiful, or right?" come down to the
use it is made for or naturally has?2
In the culture of Plato's Greece this appreciation of organic form also
inspired an artistic naturalism, particularly in the depiction of the
hum:tn figure in painting and sculpture. The attempt to express the
underlying perfection of the "universal" beneath the "particular"
betrays the desire t.0 improve on the "imperfect" versions of the ideal
that nature produces. However, all this is directed towards the knowl-
edge of the ideal forms, which only the intellect can ultimately appre-
. hend, concealed as they are beneath the surface of the sensible world.
Thus, art in Plato',s system is merely the means to an intellectual end,
which the philoso'pher must dispense with in the process of the search
for truth.
The..ambiguity of the role of art as an improvement of imperfect
nature is addressed by Aristotle, Plato's pupil and successor. In the
Platonic system nature provides .an "image" of the underlying forms
whereas art, as an image of nature, is even further removed from truth.
Aristotle's philosophy ends up reversing this arrangement, suggesting
that art can, by perfecting nature, lead us to the truth. For
Aristotle reality lies not in the realm of being - Plato' So- timeless realm of
forms - bilt in the empirical reality.of experience, of sensible objects
which grow and decay. By starting with the objects of sensory experi-
ence he developed an alternative brand of "normative" idealism. His
definition of "universals" was based on the averaging of "particulars": by
studying numerous individuals one could define the nature of the
"ideal". This study of the particular that Aristotle recominends becomes
important also for his philosophy of Though he wrote mostly of lit-
erature, includirig poetry and he recommends the arts as a
source of practical knowledge in the 'way that Plato never did. Where
Plato talked of abstract notions such as goodness and truth, Aristotle is
concerned with practical issues of emotion and behaviour. In The
2 Plato, The Republic, translated by I. A. Richards. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1966, Book X (601), P 178.
'.
Jill
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52 Building Ideas
Poetics he set out a lot of practical advice, covering the construction of
plots and dramatic characters for the theatre. Throughout he is con-
cerned with his potential to educate an audience through the actions of
the perfonners dealing with moral dilemmas. The experience of cathar-.
sis - the emotional release of shared experience - is described as a
major effect of tragic drama in the theatre. It is this ability of the audi-
ence to empathise with the characters' emotions that becomes the
standard for all art, whether musical or visual. This notion that art offers
a heightening of experience became a powerful force in later thinking
l
on aesthetics. As Aristotle writes in The Poetics, it allows an approach
to the universal beyond that provided by the "imperfect" individual:
As tragedy is an imitation of personages better than the ordinary man, we
should follow the example of good portrait-painters, who reproduce the
distinctive features of a man, and at the same time, without losing the
likeness, make him handsomer than he is.
3
When Aristotle writes of beauty in the more abstract sense, he cites
order and harmony as its fimdamental components. Like Plato, he
looks to nature for examples of these qualities, but he concentrates
on physical causes rather than metaphysical models. He proposed an
inner force to explain the fimctioning of living organisms, as well as
the cause-and-effect principle, which would influence later thinking in'
science. Where Plato tried to show the emergence of the particular
from the universal, Aristotle reversed this movement with his norma-
tive ideals. Similarly, in Plato, the artist seems trapped by the universals
and restricted to the imitation of the forms found in nature. In
Aristotle, however, the individual has some freedom to discover, like
the scientist, new ideals in the world. The opposition set up here
between the two views of the artist became part of a dichotomy
between two systems of thought. From Plato's idealism and the domi-
nance of the intellect came the Rationalist tradition of Descartes, Hegel
and others. On the other hand, from Aristotle came an emphasis on the
3 Aristotle, The Poetics, translated by I. Bywater, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
1984, 1454b, P 2327.
senses and the empirical philosophies of Locke, Berkeley and Hume.
Before approaching this debate and its consequences for aesthetics,
another figure must be considered as an early contributor to this field.
The Roman philosopher Plotinus, who lived in the third centui-y AD,
managed to resolve some of the contradictions between the two
philosophies set out above. In developing a complete system from
Plato's fragmented dialogues, he produced an influential aesthetic the-
ory as a component of his neo-Platonism. Beginning with Plato's divine
creator as the ultimate source of truth and beauty, Plotinus set up a
hierarchical system to explain the relationship between different
levels of being. These levels are described as emanations from the
"One" - the Absolute" source of the order of the world. From the One
comes the divine mind, which Plotinus called Nous, and from this
comes the Soul, both of the world and of individuals. The Soul, as for
Plato, controls or pilots the body, which is part of the final emanation
intothe physical world of objects. All levels partake of the divine order
of the One, and it is this order that the Soul comes to recognise in its
contemplation of beauty. Individual beauty is therefore a symbol of an
underlying cosmic harmony, which the Soul can perceive because of
its relationship with the One. This higher form of beauty is what the
individual soul aspires to, and the artist therefore has this goal in mind.
In nature this beauty is only imperfectly represented whereas the artist
can discover it more directly from within. It is here that Plotinus parts
company with Plato's thinking, as the artist is given a privileged role in
his system:
Still the arts are not to be slighted on the ground that they create by
imitation of natural. objects; for, to begin with, these natural objects
are themselves imitations; then, we must recognise that they give no bare
reproduction of the thing seen but go back to the Reason-Principles
[Ideas] from which nature itself derives, and furthermore, that much of
their work is all their own; they are holders of beauty and add where
nature is lacking.
4
1 Plotinus, Enneads, translated by Stephen MacKenna, Penguin Books, London, 1991,
V, viii, I, P 411.
1['
,
i
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I.
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54 Building Ideas
This notion of the artist having access to divine harmony became a
powerful notion for later thinking in aesthetics. Besides the question of
the status of art as a "unique" form of knowledge - the issue of
whether philosophy could ever replace aesthetic experience - it is.
here also where the later debate between the Classical and the
Romantic has its roots, in the arguments over the role of the artist. In
the Classical tradition the artist is constrained by historical precedent,
which acts as a repository of the timeless ideal forms. Romanticism, on
the other hand, holds the creative individual to be supreme, with the
artist as a "genius" inventing freely from within. Of course, within
both traditions art may still be seen as subservient to rationality, and it
is this question which forms the background to the debates going on
in aesthetics today. Before addressing these more contemporary issues
and their implications for the theory of architecture, there are two
other contributions. from the history of aesthetics which should be
briefly considered. The first is from the Renaissance and the revival of
Classical ideas and the second happens in the eighteenth century and
provides the background to the rise of Romanticism.
The Renaissance is so called due to the rebirth of Classical ideas,
whose influence spread rapidly thanks in part to the new technique of
printing text from moveable type.
5
After Gutenberg's famous Bible
appeared in 1456, aproliferation of printed books appeared during the
following hundred years. In addition to the new editions of Vitruvius'
ten books on architecture, written originally at the height of the
Roman Empire, in the first century AD, the writings of the ancient
philosophers were also subjected to reinterpretation. In both instances
an aesthetic doctrine was developed around the notion of a universal
harmony and in both the definition of beauty was based on intellectu-
al rather than physical qualities. This was evident in the commentary
on Plato's Symposium written by Marsilio Ficino in 1475, although it
was in a letter to his friend Cavalcanti that Ficino best sums up the
basic principles of the period's Platonic preoccupations:
S In fact moveable type had been used in China since the eleventh century AD. see
George Basalla, The Evolution oJ Technology, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1988, p 169-95.
The beauty of bodies does not consist in the shadow of materiality, but
in the clarity and gracefulness of form, not in the hidden bulk, but in a
kind of luminous harmony, not in an inert and stupid weight, but in a'
fitting number and measure. Light, gracefulness, proportion, number and
measure, which we apprehend by thought, vision and hearing.
6
The architects of the Renaissance tried to demonstrate these princi-
ples in the many depictions of the famous "Vitruvian" figure. With
arms extended in a "crucified" posture the body would usually be
shown inside a circle and a square. Leonardo da Vinci produced per-
haps the most memorable version, although Cesariano and Francesco
di Giorgio both used a similar illustration (see Figure 1 below). The link
was the notion of a set of timeless ordering principles, which Vitruvius
had maintained could be discovered in the architecture of the ancients.
As he described it himself, in the chapter on the layout of temples:
Therefore if it is agreed that number is found from the articulation of the
body, and that there is a correspondence of the fixed ratio of the separate
members to the general form of the body, it remains that we take
up those writers who, in planning the temples of the immortal gods
so ordained the parts of the work that, by the help of proportion and sym-
metry, their several and general distribution is rendered congruousJ
By the time the model of the Renaissance treatise was first imitated
in England, in the shape of Henry Wotton's book The Elements of
Architecture (1624), the harmonic correspondence between the body
and the cosmos had also appeared in the writings of the metaphysical
poets. George Herbert in particular, in his poem "Man", described an
identical fascination with harmony and proportion:
6 Marsilio Ficino, letter to Giovanni Cavalcanti, quoted in Albert Hofstadter and Richard
Kuhns (eds), Philosophies of Art and Beauty. University of Chicago Press. Chicago,
1%4. p 204.
7 Vitruvius, On Architecture, translated by Frank Granger, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge. 1983, Book III, Ch. I, P 165-7,
I,
56 Building Ideas
1 Leonardo da Vinci - "Vitruvian" figure, c. 1500.
.'
Man is all simmetry
Full of Proportions, one Limme to another,
And all to all the world besides:
Each Pan may call the furthest, Brother:
For Head with Foot hath private Amitie,
And both with Moones and Tides.
8
George Herbert died in 1633, the year that GaWeo was tried for heresy
by the Church and the same year that Descartes had abandoned his plans
for. an ambitious treatise entitled The World. The world was, however,
rapidly changing, with the rise of the new sciences mentioned in
Chapter 1. It was in response to these developments towards the end of
the seventeenth century that the philosophy of Plato was once again
reassessed. The signs of impending acceleration in the growth of tech-
nology, as well as the philosophical trend towards the construction of
"systems", was met in England by opposition from various Neoplatonic
philosophers - most notably, in the final decade of the century, by
Anthony Ashley Cooper, the third Earl of Shaftesbury. For Shaftesbury,
the .focus of aesthetic investigation was also directed towards the beau-
ty of nature, particularly the relationship set out in Plato's philosophy
between the true, the beautiful and the good. As he wrote in the first vol-
ume. of his Characteristics, published originally in 1711:.
For all beauty is truth. True features make the beauty of a face; and true
proportions the beauty of architecture; as true measures that of harmony
and music. In poetry, which is all fable, truth still is the perfection.
9
While this statement reiterates the Renaissance view of the divine
origins of underlying order, Shaftesbury is actually more concerned
with the effect of beauty on the mind of the observer. He considers the
contemplation of a beautiful object to be a creative act in its own right,
as the sensibility towards the quality of beauty is being "constructed"
H George Herbert, "Man", quoted in]oseph Rykwert, The Dancing Column: On Order
in Architecture, MIT Press, cambridge, MA, 1996, P v.
9 Shaftesbury, Characteristics, quoted in Albert Hofstadter and Richard Kuhns (eds),
Philosophies of Art and Beauty, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1964, p 241.
58 Building Ideas
by the individual's experience. It is this interest in the psychology of
beauty and the process of aesthetic experience that set the pattern for
the work on aesthetics within the British Empiricist tradition.
The Empiricists believed that knowledge derived directly from the
senses, that ideas were built up out of the sense-data of experience. This
contrasts with the view of the European Rationalists, like Descartes
who, as described in Chapter 1, thought sense experience unreliable
and began with the innate capacities of the disembodied intellect. It
was only later in the eighteenth century, in the work of the German
philosopher Immanuel Kant, that a resolution of these two positions
produced another significant advance in the history of aesthetic think-
ing. In the meantime the term "aesthetics" had been coined, in the writ-
ing of another German called Alexander Baumgarten. He derived the
word from the Greek Aisthesis, meaning sensory perception, betraying
the influence of the Empiricist preoccupation with knowledge based on
experience. In fact there was at this time a crossover between British
and German philosophy through the influence of Shaftesbury and his
successors, Hutcheson and Burke. Edmund Burke is perhaps most note-
worthy for his idea of the sublime, which he formulated in opposition
to the concept of the beautiful. He proposed these as two separate cat-
egories of aesthetic experience and he also described them in psycho-
logical terms. In all these developments the emphasis is shifting - from
the object to the subject of aesthetic experience. Instead of seeing art
as simply a means to an intellectual end, where beauty merely provides
an image of the underlying principles of order and perfection, the new
ideas suggested that art provided a unique form of "knowledge", a
realm of specifically sensory awareness which could not be obtained by
any other means.
The Aesthetics of "Genius" - From Kant to Nietzsche
It was Kant who perhaps most famously pursued this intriguing
insight, incorporating the notion of aesthetic judgement into his over-
all philosophical system. Kant's first two great critiques covering what
he called "pure" and "practical" reason dealt in turn with the problem
of knowledge and then with the question of morality. The aesthetic
function according to Kant was part of the general faculty of judge-
ment, which he t h ~ ~ described in his third critique as being the medi-
atonbetween the other two. This third work was itself divided into two
distinct sections, with the second half dealing with judgements based
on purpose, or "teleology". The first half, by contrast, dealt with the
opposite situation, where aesthetic judgements are made which are
independent of purpose. This was one of Kant's main principles in his
definition of the beautiful which he claims consists of a kind of "pur-
posiveness without purpose". 10 Nature again became the model for the
judgement of beauty in art, where the object is seen as having its own
inner purpose. This is as distinct from being a means to an end and
involves the independence of the artwork from any use by the observ-
er. These are just some of the tests as to the nature of the aesthetic,
which Kant attempted to establish as a kind of autonomous realm.
Another of his claims which exerted a long-lasting influence was the
idea that beautiful art was the product of inspired genius. He described
the .culmination of ideas already hinted at above, that art was essen-
tially about invention rather than the imitation of models. This suggests
the transcendence of traditional Classical principles and prepares the
wayfor the Romantic movement in the decades to follow:
We thus see that genius is a talent for producing that for which no defi-
nite rule can be given; it is not a mere aptitude for what can be learned
by a rule. Hence originality must be its first property. I I
The aesthetic idea that is the original product of the creative artist is
the key to art's claim that it provides a unique brand of knowledge.
While technical skills can be passed on and art can be discussed in
ordinary language, the artistic idea in itself can never be expressed in
any other way. It"is perhaps on this particular point that Kant's
10 Immanuel Kant, Critique of judgement, translated by J. H. Bernard, Hafner Press,
New York, 1951, 17, P 73.
II Immanuel Kant, Critique ofJudgement, translated by J. H. Bernard, Hafner Press,
New York, 1951, 46, P 150.
60 Building Ideas
thinking remains most distinct from Hegel, who just a decade or so
later developed his alternative views of art. Where Hegel had tried to
separate the aesthetic idea from the form of the art-object, as a means
of consigning artistic practice to its lowly place in his philosophy, Kant
and the Romantics after him had insisted on their inseparable unity
and established the alternative view of the continued relevance of
"aesthetic knowledge".
Where Hegel describes the history of philosophy as a continual
progress towards "absolute knowing", he downgrades the role of the
artist to that of a redundant supporting actor. Where art once had a
useful function in the primitive stages of cultural development, it was
then rendered obsolete by the superior precision of philosophical
thinking. TItis "scientific" view of the growth of knowledge, which
proposed that all life's mysteries would eventually be solved, ignores
the function of art as a mode of understanding and a necessary vehicle
for critical debate. This notion of art as a means of criticism - a way of
diverging from the dominant "paradigms" - is a vital legacy of the
Romantic revolution in early nineteenth century literature and art. The
Romantics attacked the notion of authority and the idea that one could
discover the true nature of things. They dismissed the possibility of
objective knowledge about the world and instead promoted individual
expression. Their frustration grew, to a large extent, from the current
dominance of scientific rationality which reduced the richness of expe-
rience to the dry descriptions of scientific formulae. Goethe's medita-
tions on the beauty of a dragonfly in the Leipzig Song Book provide a
perfect illustration of the poet's predicament:
... It flits and hovers, resting not -
Hush! On a willow bough it lights;
I have it in my fingers caught,
And now I seek its colours true,
And find a melancholy blue -
Such is thy lot, dissector of delightsPZ
12 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, from the Leipzig Song Book. quoted in Ernst Cassicer,
The Philosophy oJ the Enlightenment, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1951.
pp 344-5.
The target of Goethe's poem is the reductivist tendency of scientific
fact, the loss of the qualitative grasp of things that the work of art is
able to provide. We "murder to dissect", as Wordsworth wrote,
summing up the prevailing outlook, where the process of anatomical
dissection had become the paradigm for all forms of knowledge (see
Figure 2). By contrast, the nineteenth century saw a series of reactions
to this position, where philosophers attempted to support the claims
for the contribution of the creative artist. Arthur Schopenhauer,
responding to Hegel, proposed that the world was indeed driven by an
energising force - where this differed from Hegel's "spirit" was in the
"
manner of its highest expression, which according to Schopenhauer
was neither philosophy nor science. He in fact saw the work of art as
the highest expression of human consciousness, being more universal,
and hence more powerlul, than the fragmentary "dissections" of
rational concepts. Afellow German, Friedrich Nietzsche, writing in the
second half of the nineteenth century, produced a similarly powerful
critique of the dominance of logic and rationality. In his later work he
was to call for a "revaluation of all values", as they had been handed
down by tradition within the Western intellectual canon. The basis for
this call came from his suspicion of the dominance of science, which
he regarded as a form of illusion, as he did both philosophy and art.
In The Birth of Tragedy (1872), Nietzsche made a study of Greek
theatre and its origins in the "spirit of music". In the period prior to the
systematic philosophy which began with Socrates in the pages of Plato,
he detected a high point of cultural expression in the manner that Hegel
had done before him. In the best of Greek tragic drama he sensed the
resolution of contrary forces - the rational and emotional tendencies
symbolised by the deities Apollo and Dionysus. What happens with the
rise of philosophy is the separation of these two traditions, as the
Apollonian tendency dominates, with its emphasis on intelligibility:
Socrates is the archetype of the theoretical optimist who, in his faith in
the explicability of the nature of things, attributes the power of a panacea
to knowledge and science, and sees error as the embodiment of evil. 13
I; Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birtb oJ Tragedy, translated by Shaun WhiteSide, Penguin
Books, London, 1993, p 74.
62 Building Ideas
2 Andreas Vesalius - Dissected arm, woodcut from De Humani Corporis
Fabrica, 1543.
....
As part of this rationalising process, the beautiful was defined in
terms of the intelligible, with drama dismissed as irrational and
even dangerous for "susceptible souls". The limits of this "traditional"
philosophy were Nietzsche's real and abiding interest, and in this
he echoed the Romantics before him, as well as anticipating many
more recent debates. He was against the idea that science expressed
the truth about an "objective" world and he made a claim for the con-
tinued importance of the artist, when he questioned the very limits of
logic itself:
"
Might there be a realm of wisdom from which the logician is excluded?
Might art even be a necessary correlative and supplement to science?14
Aesthetics and Deconstruction - From Heidegger
to Derrida
This notion of the limits of science resurfaces again in the twentieth
century, in a debate on the status of art which is still influential in phi-
losophy today. The main protagonists in this debate are, again, two
German philosophers, Martin Heidegger and Ernst Cassirer, who rep-
resent two distinct traditions. Both philosophers wrote on the subject
of art as a form of knowledge, but their conclusions on the relationship
between art and philosophy differed widely. Heidegger's work has
proved to be the more influential, due in part to its breadth and scope,
as he set out to develop a new grounding for ontology - or philosophy
of being - and, like Nietzsche, he tried to deconstruct its long-held
traditions. He attempted to see beyond the limitations of language by
examining other forms of expression. His writings on poetry, tech-
nology and art suggest they all have a significant function: by revealing
the presence of truth in the world, they provide an insight into the
mystery of "Being". This Being is the great theme running throughout
14 Friedrich Nietzsche, Tbe Birth of Tragedy, translated by Shaun Whiteside, Penguin
Books, London, 1993, p 71.
64 Building Ideas
Heidegger's work and it is here that he departs from Cassirer and
shows his adherence to the philosophy of Hegel. Being is not an enti-
ty as such but an underlying force, like Hegel's Spirit, and it manifests
itself in the work of art much more distinctly than in everyday objects.
This idea that art "condenses" reality into a truer representation of
Being echoes Aristotle's view that the artist must idealise the individ-
ual, in order to attempt to produce an image of the universal from
the particular. When Heidegger discusses this, in the essay called The
Origin of the Work ofArt, written in the 1930s but not published until
1950, he describes it as a process of revealing a world that is implied
within the work itself. The famous example that he describes, of a van
Gogh painting of a peasant's shoes, provides an illustration of the kind
of truth that he felt a work of art was able to express. By suggesting a
larger context around or behind the particular object, such as the life
of the peasant farmer which can be inferred from the depiction of the
shoes, the work of art can reveal a world in an immediate and power-
ful way. Heidegger describes this in a lyrical language, bordering on
poetry itself, as he does in the example of the Greek temple which he
considers from a similar point of view. The temple, he says, depicts
nothing: it merely stands there in its "rock-deft valley", while at the
same time it implies a set of ritual activities and thereby conjures up a-
way of life.
The power of man-made objects to carry stories in this direct way
has many lessons for the designer of buildings, which we will return to
in the next chapter. The work of art, however, remains subordinate to
the work of language, which Heidegger continually comes back to in
all his analyses of forms of expression. It is here that he echoes Hegel
in the priority he gives to philosophy, with language supposedly being
the true medium of thought and, in Heidegger's system, the "house of
Being". It is language that acts for Heidegger as a repository of the his-
tory of Being, and he often uses etymology to uncover a word's hidden
primal meanings. In another sense language is primary, according to
Heidegger's scale of priorities, in that language exists as a system prior
to any individual's attempts to make use of it. This idea that "language
speaks man" - rather than man speaking language - reveals a deter-
ministic tendency in his thought tpat appears to limit individual free-
dom. This acquiescence to a kind of "historical destiny" proved to be
troubling for later critics, as did Heidegger's support for German
nationalism during the 1930s and beyond.
Where Heidegger's search for the "truth" of Being led him, like
Hegel, to favour poetry and language, Ernst Cassirer, on the other
hand, began from a different set of assumptions and this led him to
an alternative conclusion. Cassirer sidestepped the metaphysical
questions of Heidegger's philosophy of Being and instead took up the
problem of knowledge. It was this more than anything that caused
their difference of opinion which Heidegger expressed in a review of
Cassirer's work. By dealing with epistemology as distinct from ontol-
ogy, Cassirer was following in the footsteps of Kant, who, as we saw
earlier, had produced the three great critiques which each dealt with
one aspect of knowledge. Kant's critiques or enquiries into the "con-
ditions of possibility" under which we could know anything about the
world had produced the distinction between the real world and the
world which we know in our minds. The distinction turns on the fact
that what we know about the world is limited by the capacity of our
brains, which are structured in such a way as to "frame" our percep-
tions to fit into certain pre-given forms. As these perceptions depend
on schema like three-dimensional space and time, Kant made it clear
that our knowledge is restricted by these different categories or forms
of thought. Cassirer picked up on this principle to develop a theory of
knowledge, based on the variety of what he called "symbolic forms",
and in the process he modified the chronological sequence set out in
Hegel's history of aesthetics.
Where Hegel presented philosophy as the highest achievement of
human knowledge, with art as a primitive phase now past its useful
purpose, Cassirer allowed all media an eqUivalent importance in that
each has a unique role to play. He did this by considering the origins
of language in the assignment of symbols to objects and then extend-
ing this metaphorical basis of all language systems to the analysis of
symbolism in art. If art could be said to function as another form of
language, or another means of describing the world, then whole disci-
66 Building Ideas
plines like history, philosophy and science could also be seen as
languages in themselves. In the Philosophy of Symbolic Forms pub-
lished in three volumes in the 1920s, he set out the basic principles of
this theory, but it was only with his later publication, his Essay on
Man, that he applied them to this much broader field. This general
study of linguistics in other fields of cultural expression will be devel-
oped further in the following two chapters where the language model
is considered in detail. In the more recent theories of architecture this
notion has been widely influential, whether inspiring strong allegiance
or provoking opposition.
For our present study the major impact of this kind of relativism
between languages has been the challenge to the domination of
science as the only true description of reality. By questioning the
objectivity of science and its claims to the source of truth, cassirer
helped to reinstate the importance of other ways of describing the
world. Another philosopher, Ludwig Wittgenstein, who was writing
around the same time, came to a similar realisation about languages in
the course of his own research. Having begun by searching for a pure .
language based on logical and mathematical principles, he ended up by
abandoning this and devising the notion of "language-games". His
conclusion was that no single language - however precise it might be
- could ever give a total and accurate description ofthe world. As each.
mode of expression has its own range of uses, a composite picture is
built up from the overlapping of these various discourses. Each one
makes its own contribution towards our overall knowledge of the
world.
The reassessments of science by Thomas Kuhn and other writers,
which were discussed at the beginning of this chapter, should also be
compared with the reassessment of philosophy and its similar pur-
ported claims to a kind of objectivity. The techniques of deconstruct-
ing the inherited traditions of Western philosophy, to overcome the
limitations of this dominant model of rationality, have become popular
in philosophy in the last several decades, though the process has
been attempted in different ways in the past. As we saw earlier with
the Romantic movement, there was a similar critique of a dominant
"paradigm" and the freedom that resulted from this has expanded the
boundaries of human knowledge. Martin Heidegger, in a similar vein,
also challenged the assumptions of philosophy and attempted what he
called a "critical un-building" of its traditions. It was this notion that
was picked up by the French philosopher Jacques Derrida when he
coined the term "deconstruction" to describe his own approach to the
problem.
In Derrida's work one could say that philosophy is being done, if not
"with a hammer" - as Nietzsche recommended - then at least with a
crow-bar, for the purpose of opening up and revealing. Much of his
writing deals specifically with the work of previous philosophers, as he
attempts to expose their initial assumptions and to question their con-
clusions. He often does this through a process of re-enacting their own
thinking and thereby revealing the fragile logic of many common philo-
sophical principles. His goal is not a nihilistic one of simply attacking
and destroying, although he has often been lambasted for seeming to
disparage the achievements of philosophy. As he says in an interview,
on the general outlook of his thinking:
To 'deconstruct' philosophy, thus, would be to think - in the most faith-
ful, interior way - the structured genealogy of philosophy's concepts, but
at the same time to determine - from a certain exterior that is unqualifi-
able or unnameable by philosophy - what this history has been able to
dissimulate or forbid, making itself into a history by means of this some-
where motivated repression.
15
To help escape from this repression Derrida writes in a complex
manner, using an often dense and poetic language, which suggests the
"exterior" realm he referred to above. In this approach he again fol-
lows Heidegger, in his similar use of poetic language, and it is this
crossing over of literary genres that has allowed him to step outside the
conventions of his field. It is this style of presenting his thoughts that
has attracted criticism from "analytical" philosophers, those who still
15 Jacques Derrida, Positions, translated by Alan Bass, University of Chicago Press,
. Chicago, 1981, p 6.
L
i
'I
68 Building Ideas
adhere to the principles of Positivism - such as those with which
Wittgenstein began and soon abandoned.
Derrida is likewise concerned with the limits of language, together
with the general principles and mechanisms of signification, and in this
he takes off from the ideas of Structuralism, which we will return to in
Chapter 4. In his preoccupation with language as the very medium of
philosophy, he betrays a similar priority to Heidegger, although he is
much more concerned with the peculiarities of writing as distinct
from the traditional emphasis on speech. The difference is significant
for much of Derrida's work but what is important here is the wider
objective - by enquiring into the medium of his discipline with such
vigour he set a pattern which has inspired others to follow. In
architecture his ideas have found an enthusiastic reception, especially
among those looking to challenge historical tradition. His frequent
use of metaphors drawn from architectural sources has also been
the source of much direct inspiration. Despite the problems with
applying the process of design what began as a tool for analysis,
Derrida has collaborated with the architect Peter Eisenman with
some success, and we will return to this theme later in concluding this
chapter.
Another source of new ideas that have crossed over into architec-
ture is the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze and his collaborator Felix
Guattari. They too have focused on language as a theme in much of
their work, including the multiplicity of possible "language-games" as
ways of conceiving and describing the world. This pragmatic theme of
potential usefulness, as opposed to the "truth-value" of various lan-
guages, also forms part of Deleuze's general vision of theory as a "box
of tools". In his early work he uses the theories of individual philoso-
phers from the past to form a hybrid with his own thoughts through a
process of dynamic reinterpretation. The resulting offspring of these
relationships provides a model of his later theory, where he sets
out the general strategy of adopting "voices" for different purposes. In
all of this, as with Derrida, there is a lesson for other disciplines, as
their creative engagement with the past provides a means to deal
with the problems of tradition. More importantly for the theory of
architecture, their work suggests other interpretive possibilities, such
as the recovery and reassessment of previously marginal works of
architecture.
Architecture and the Housing of Tradition
In architecture the debate over the truth-value of different languages
has also been influential in the development of modernism. As the
argument between Muthesius and van de Velde made clear, the role
of the artist in architecture has often been questioned. In the early
years of modem architecture a division had developed between the
deterministic methods of science and the free inventions of the artist.
The architects of the expressionist wing of modernism, such as Erich
Mendelsohn and Hans Scharoun, had demonstrated early on that they
were more inspired by the vision of painters. Experiments with the
multiple viewpoints of the Cubist artists Picasso and Braque were
reflected in the fragmented geometries of buildings by Scharoun and
Le Corbusier. The sculptural forms of Mendelsohn's Einstein Tower
also provide an intriguing and paradoxical example, showing the
influence of scientific theories without the blind application of new
technology. The tower as built is a hybrid of traditional and modem
construction, with a frame of reinforced concrete and an infill of brick
and stucco. This produces a striking visual image of a universe in
motion, like the atomic model of physical matter as well as the Cubist
canvasses mentioned above. This notion of the capacity of architecture
to express a narrative in a spatial language is again echoed in the Dutch
De Stijl movement as well as many later projects by Le Corbusier. The
attempt to subordinate the expression of technology in order to
achieve a sculptural quality in space and form became a dominant trait
of several large-scale projects built in the period after World War 2.
While the bird-like profile of Eero Saarinen's TWA Terminal caused a
stir, perhaps the most famous of these projects is the Sydney Opera
House, designed by the Danish architectJorn Utzon. The Opera House,
completed in 1973, won in a competition in 1956, the same year as
70 Building Ideas
3 Le Corbusier - Pilgrimage Chapel, Ronchamp, Belfort, 1950-55. (Alistair
Gardner)
Scharoun's major project for the Berlin Philharmonie. Both buildings
have become icons for their respective host cities, despite the techni-
cal problems of building them and the functional challenges of inhab-
iting them. A more recent example of this phenomenon is Frank
Gehry's Guggenheim museum, completed recently in the run-down
and neglected Spanish city of Bilbao. This building's complexity pro-
vides a startling demonstration of the advances in information tech-
nology, as the hand-<:rafted models, made in the architect's own office, --
have been computerised into digital data and transferred directly into
the construction process. Another project which promises to update a
city's image is Daniel Libeskind's extension to the Victoria and Albert
Museum in London. This spiral of "distorted boxes" offers a challenge
to its conservative context and should, perhaps almost incidentally,
provide an intriguing series of exhibition spaces. On a smaller scale,
4 Erich Mendelsohn - Einstein Tower, Potsdam, 1917-21. (Alistair Gardner)
72 Building Ideas
5 Eero Saarinen -lWA Terminal, ]FK Airport, New York, 1956-62. (Alistair
Gardner)
this principle of heightening awareness of context through the con-
trast of old and new, is made visible in the most dramatic fashion in a
rooftop building in the centre of Vienna. The design by Coop
Himmelblau for a suite of offices and conference space displays a
blatant disregard for structural logic or conventional townscape
principles. Having dispensed with the common-sense solution, the
building suggests a deeper agenda and the result of its fragmented
geometry is the questioning of the city's traditional homogeneity. What
all these projects show is the power of a sculptural, spatial language -'
one which cannot be explained away or easily justified in rational
terms. These are all buildings that capture the imagination and inspire
the user to new experiences, and they all work by disrupting assump-
tions about conventional functional and contextual requirements.
6 Eero Saarinen - TWA Terminal, ]FK Airport, New York, 1956-62. (Aliscair
Gardner)
74 Building Ideas
8 Hans Scharoun - Philhannonie and Chamber Music Hall, Berlin, 1956--87.
(Neil Jackson)
, 11,. :1" r, r\ ,i' I
,: L
, "
9 Henzo Piano Building Workshop - Museum of Science and Technology,
("New Metropolis"), Amsterdam, 1992-97 Oonathan Hale)
10 Frank O. Gehry - Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, 1991-97. (Neil Leach)
12 Frank O. Gehry - Loyola Law School, Los Angeles, California, 1981-84.
(Neil Jackson)
J
13 Daniel Libeskind - Extension to Victoria and Albert Museum (project),
I.ondon, 1998. (Andrew Putler)
Much recent work in this direction has referred specifically to the
philosophy of deconstruction, as inspiration for this kind of challenge
to tradition and expectation. Particularly interesting in this regard is
the collaboration between Derrida and Peter Eisenman, after he had
been invited by the architect to work with him on a portion of the Parc
de la Villette in Paris. The most startling aspect of this project for the
purpose of our current discussion is the analysis that Derrida makes of
the plans for the larger project. By taking up the themes of Bernard
Tschumi's masterplan, he effectively reads his own philosophy into the
architectural forms proposed. In the essay "Point de Folie - maintenant
de I'architecture" he sets up an intriguing scenario where Tschumi's
78 Building Ideas
14 Coop Himmelblau - Rooftop remodelling, Vienna, 1983-88. (Redrawn by
the author after Coop Himmelblau)
15 Bernard Tsehumi - Pare de la Villette, Paris, 1982-91. Oonathan Hale)
16 Bernard Tsehumi - Pare de la Villette, Paris, 1982-91. Oonathan Hale)
series of "follies", or pavilions in the park, come to represent the kind
of philosophy that Derrida himself is actually searching for. As he
writes of the follies' challenge to the conventional norms of the disci-
pline of architecture:
The folies put into operation a general dislocation; they draw into it
everything that, until maintenant [now], seems to have given architec-
ture meaning. More precisely, everything that seems to have given archi-
tecture over to meaning. They deconstruct, first of all, but not only, the
semantics of architecture. 16
16 Jacques Derrida, "Point de Folie - maintenant de I'architecture", translated by Kate
Linker, in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997, p 326.
III
80 Building Ideas
j

'I
17 Bernard Tschumi, Parc de la Villette, Paris, 1985: Superimposition of
lines, poinl:S and surfaces. (Bernard Tschumi)
As with Derrida's early preoccupation with language, there is an
attempt to question deeply ingrained conventions, such that structures
of meaning are not naturally "given" but are in fact historically "con-
structed". The metaphorical link with constructing makes architecture
again an important theme - its persistence and all-pervasiveness makes
it a significant target for reappraisal:
This architecture of architecture has a history; it is historical through and
through. Its heritage inaugurates the intimacy of our economy,
the law of our hearth (oikos), our familial, religious and political
oikonomy, all the places of birth and death, temple, school, stadium,
agora, square, sepulchre. It goes right through us to the point that we for-
get its very historicity: we take it for nature. It is common sense itself.
17
The shaking up of these common-sense assumptions about architec-
ture's immovable orthodoxies is what Derrida discerns most clearly in
the design of Tschumi's follies. He sees it as a creative process and a
way of giving architecture another chance - against both the weight of
inherited tradition and the modem conventions of economic and func-
tionallogic. In this he outlines a more positive approach to history, as
an alternative to unthinking repetition:
The folies affirm, and engage their affinnation beyond this ultimately
annihilating, secretly nihilistic repetition of metaphysical architecture.
They enter into the maintenant of which I speak; they maintain, renew
and reinscribe architecture. 18
Reaffirming the possibilities of architecture as a language of materi-
ality and space has arisen from a process of questioning such mod-
ernist doctrines as "form follows function". The best examples of this
process in action occur where the function itself is unclear, such as in
the extension to the Jewish Historical Museum in Berlin, currently
,- Jacques Derrida, "Point de Folie - maintenant de I'architecture", translated by Kate
tinker, in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997, p 326.
18 Jacques Derrida, "Point de Folie - maintenant de ("architecture", translated by Kate
tinker, in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997, p 328.
l
"
82 Building Ideas
1
I.
18 E. E. Voillet-Ie-Due - Detail of Gothic vaulting from Dictionnaire
Raissonee, 1854-68
19 Zaha Hadid - Vitra Fire Station (model), Weil-am-Rhein, Germany,
1988-94. (Zaha Hadid)
84 Building Ideas
20 Zaha Hadid - Vitra Fire Station (painting), Weil-am-Rhein, Germany,
1988-94. (Zaha Hadid)
1
21 Zaha Hadid - Vitra Fire Station. (Christian Richters)
under construction. Daniel Libeskind has here designed a memorial,
rather than a functioning museum in the traditional sense, and it is un-
clear whether the installation of exhibits will add to or detract from its
effect. The powerful sense of loss and displacement which the build-
ing's empty spaces already invoke is a reminder that architecture's
lilliqueness can never be captured in a programme of requirements.
Another building which transcended its original function, in the
attain:ment of a sculptural expression, was designed for the furniture
company Vitra for its campus-like headquarters in Germany. The build-
ing by Zaha Hadid which was completed in 1994 began life as the site's
private fire station but eventually became part of the company muse-
um. The tension between rest and activity in the movements of the
building's projected inhabitants produced a dynamic composition of
22 Zaha Hadid - Vitra Fire Station. (Christian Richters)
overlapping planes in an attempt to express the drama of its function.
While this seems to have caused some problems for its originally
intended users, it raises the whole question of the use of architecture
as a means of functional or historical critique. A more explicit example
of this kind of challenge to intended uses can be found in Peter
Eisenman's early work in domestic architecture from the 1970s. The
most famous of these is probably the House VI or Frank House, built in
Connecticut in 1973 and much written about since. The house is an
extreme example of architecture as an autonomous language, with its
own system of compositional devices based on line, plane and volume.
like the architect's other designs of this period, the form is generated
through a strategy of transformation, by subjecting an initially simple
volume to a series of distortions, rotations and omissions. The most
dramatic effect of this geometric discipline is the slot that appeared in
the middle of the master bedroom, forcing the clients to sleep in sep-
23 Peter Eisenman - House Six, Axonometrics, 1976. (Peter Eisenman)
arate beds in order to preserve the formal integrity of the concept. This
is obviously a somewhat indulgent piece of planning, which later fell
victim to the owners' alterations, but the columns that occurred in the
middle of the dining area also suggested new patterns of habitation. As
Eisenman himself wrote, in House of Cards:
The design process of this house, as with all the architectural work in this
book, intended to move the act of architecture from its complacent rela-
tionship with the metaphysic of architecture, by reactivating its capacity
to dislocate; thereby extending the search into the possibilities of occu-
piable form. 19
This kind of questioning of the accumulated traditions enshrined in
the institution of dwelling is a theme that the philosopher Andrew
19 Peter Eisenman, House Of Cards, Oxford University Press, New York, 1987, p 169.
!
88 Building Ideas
Benjamin picks up on, in relation to deconstruction in philosophy.
Rather than assume that this kind of criticism can only be carried out
in conceptual terms, Eisenman's building actually "enacts" this
process, according to Benjamin, in the very medium it is attempting to
criticise. This deliberate blurring of disciplinary categories between
the theory and practice of a "critical" architecture is something that
Derrida has also set out to demonstrate, between philosophy and the
language of literature. As Benjamin writes, describing the context in
which this kind of building should be understood:
Eisenman's work, the experience of that work, the philosophy demanded
by it, opens up the need to think philosophicaUy beyond the recuperative
and nihilistic unfolding of tradition. Tradition is housed - since there is
no pure beyond - but the housing of tradition takes place within a
24 Rem Koolhaas (Office for
Metropolitan Architecture) -
Kunsthal, Rotterdam, 1987-92.
(Alistair Gardner)
25 Rem Koolhaas (Office for
Metropolitan Architecture) -
Kunsrhal, Rotterdam, 1987-92.
Interior showing columns in lecture
hall. (Alistair Gardner)
plurality of possibilities that can no longer be foreclosed by function, by
teleology or the aesthetics of form.
20
This project is therefore a clear example of the notion touched on
earlier, that architectural ideas exist at many different levels - in draw-
ings, writings and models and not merely in completed buildings. The
fact that some of these ideas have been obscured through the changes
to the building during its life should not detract from the value of the
project as a demonstration of architecture's "critical" capacities.
Rescuing the question of meaning from the reduction of architec-
ture to engineering has been a preoccupation in architectural theory
for at least the last several decades. It is this theme, which has only
been touched on in this section, which will now become the central
question in the remaining chapters. The following sections will map
out the territory between the two positions discussed so far, which
could be seen to mark the opposite poles of the argument over mean-
ing and interpretation in architecture.
Background
Monroe Beardsley, Aesthetics: From Classical Greece to the Present, A
Short History, Macmillan, New York, 1966.
John D. Caputo, Deconstruction in a Nutshell: A Conversation with
Jacques Derrida, Fordham University Press, New York, 1997.
Jacques Derrida, "The End of the Book and the Beginning of Writing",
in Of Grammatology, translated by Gayatri C. Spivak, Johns Hopkins
University Press, Baltimore, 1976, pp 6-26.
Hans-Georg Gadamer, "The Relevance of the Beautiful" in The
Relevance of the Beautiful and Other Essays, Robert Bernasconi
(ed.), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, pp 3-53.
20 Andrew Benjamin, "Eisenman and the Housing of Tradition", in Neil Leach (ed.),
Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997, p 300.
90 Building Ideas
Albert Hofstadter and Richard Kuhns, Philosophies ofArt and Beauty:
Selected Readings in Aesthetics From Plato to Heidegger, University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1%4.
Richard Kearney, "Jacques Derrida", in Modern Movements in
European Philosophy, Manchester University Press, Manchester,
1986, pp 113-33.
Christopher Norris, Deconstruction: Theory and Practice, Routledge,
London, 1991.
Foreground
Jacques Derrida, "Point de Folie - maintenant de l'architecture", trans-
lated by Kate Linker, in AA Files, No. 12/Summer 1986. Reprinted in
Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London,
1997, pp 324-47.
Peter Eisenman, "Post-Functionalism", in Oppositions, 6/Fall 1976.
Reprinted in K. Michael Hays (ed.), Architecture Theory Since 1968,
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, pp 236-9.
John Rajchman, Constructions, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998.
Bernard Tschumi, "Abstract Mediation and Strategy", in Architecture
and Disjunction, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994, pp 190-206.
Mark Wigley, "The Translation of Architecture: The Production of
Babel", in Assemblage, 8/1989. Reprinted in K. Michael Hays (ed.),
Architecture Theory Since 1968, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998,
pp 660-75.
Readings
Andrew Benjamin, "Eisenman and the Housing of Tradition", in
Architectural Design, 1-2/1989. Reprinted in Neil Leach (ed.),
Robert Mugerauer, "Derrida and Beyond", in Kate Nesbitt (ed.);
Theorising a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of
Architectural Theory 1965-1995, Princeton Architectural Press,
New York, 1996.
,
--------------
Part 2
Models of Interpretation
1
3
The Return of the Body
Phenomenology in Architecture
In Chapters 1 and 2 the problematic status of architecture as a
discipline was presented as an argument between what the writer
C. P. Snow referred to as the "two cultures", of science and the arts.
l
Snow; in his Rede Lecture of 1959, was describing what he saw as a
deep division in modem society, between those involved in quantita-
tive work - such as scientific research and engineering - and those
engaged in more qualitative fields, such as literature, music and fine
art. The problem for Snow was the lack of communication between
these two groups who seemed suspicious of each other's objectives,
and in architecture, this situation has developed into an argument over
the relevance of meaning. The two cultures within architecture
embody a similar disagreement over the qualitative versus the quanti-
tative -approach to design. The historical material set out in the first
two chapters of this book described the background to these two ways
of thinking.
In reality, of course, architecture is inevitably caught in the middle
between the "autonomous" realm of free artistic expression and the
"deterministic" activity of applied engineering. As the German philoso-
pher Theodor Adorno made clear, in an essay entitled "Functionalism
I C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures and tbe Scientific Revolution, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1961.
94 Building Ideas
Today", this split is actually brought about by a false opposition
between purposeful and purposejree objects. He was writing in
response to the call by Adolf Laos for an architecture that was free of
"unnecessary" ornament, but this definition of what was necessary in
the design of a building was seen by Adorno as fundamentally prob-
lematic. He described how the two issues were historically connected
- such that ornament often derived from construction - and, by the
same token, how supposedly "pure" technical objects soon acquired
symbolic significance for their users. In the latter case this would apply
to large scale structures, like the Eiffel Tower or the Brooklyn Bridge,
and on a smaller scale this can also be seen in people's relationships
with their cars or computers. The implications of Adorno's essay for
this discussion concern the notion of architectural expression, the fact
that even though one might attempt to design a purely functional
building, one can't avoid the question of meaning. As soon as one
produces something, of whatever description, one unavoidably enters
the realm of representation. To use a linguistic analogy to express this
idea more simply, one cannot separate what is said from the manner of
the saying. If architecture, thus, is inevitably caught up in the complex
web of cultural "languages", then questions of interpretation become
more important, in order to understand the full potential of design.
Having established that architecture should be seen as a "language"
of expreSSion, as well as a means of providing useful enclosure, the
final three chapters of this book set out possible strategies of inter-
pretation, as a means to bridge the gap between the two cultures
mentioned above. All three involve some compromise between the
two tendencies described already, in terms of the "objectivity" of
science versus the "subjectivity" of art, although in this chapter the
debate leans somewhat towards the latter.
Phenomenology is a philosophy that considers the individual's expe-
rience - although with the ultimate aim of producing a solid basis for ..
knowledge - and as such has proved particularly influential in archi-
tecture, due in large part to its emphasis on perception and cognition.
The term itself has been the subject of considerable confusion, as dif-
ferent philosophers have made use of it in different ways, and although
,...
/
The Return of the Body 95
the dictionary definition adds some clarity to the issue it -still leaves
much room for debate. The word itself translates as the study of how
phenomena appear to the consciousness, based on the Greek words
phaino and logos. Phaino means "to show" or "come to appearance"
and is also the root word of phantom and fantasy, while logos can
mean "reason", "word" or "speak", hence its use in the sciences for
"the study of".
The Meaning of "Being" - From Husserl to Heidegger
The current understanding of the term phenomenology comes from the
German philosopher Edmund Husserl, who wrote in the early part of
the twentieth century and who influenced much of the later work on
the subject. Hegel, too, had used the term in his philosophy, as in the
Phenomenology of Spirit already mentioned and in his case this also
referred to a "coming to appearance" of things, in the sense that all
objects were seen as manifestations of the creative force or spirit. Ilke
Hegel, Husserl was also concerned with the search for certainty in our
knowledge of the world, and both philosophers also referred back to
the work of Kant. Kant had addressed this question of the relations
between the mind and the world in his enquiries into the "conditions
of possibility" of knowledge, but he had concluded that reality "in
itself" was unknowable - that the mind was denied complete access to
the outside world. In Kant's view the mind produces its own version of
reality, one shaped by our cognitive capacities, although this
can result in the conclusion that we see the world through a veil, or a
distorting mirror which - inevitably, some would argue - obstructs our
understanding. Later philosophers would interpret this in a more
pOSitive light but in Husserl's time this was seen as a shortcoming - the
admission by philosophy that its ideas were unreliable and lacking
the objective truth of modern science. The desire to raise philosophy to
the level of a "rigorous science" inspired Husserl in his quest for a new
approach: he was determined to find a way in to this realm of things-in-
themselves, by examining the way things appeared to the mind.
96 Building Ideas
In one sense this notion of a scientific philosophy could be seen as
part of the continuing Enlightenment "project", with many disciplines
including even the new social sciences still under pressure to fit the
definitions of objectivity. The method that Husserl adopted for his
study of phenomena and the ways that they present themselves to the
mind were also reminiscent of Descartes' thought process, in his
earlier search for the foundations of true knowledge. Like Descartes,
Husserl began by abandoning all previous experience, regarding it as
doubtful, uncertain or misleading and, having suspended his precon-
ceptions he would "bracket off' a particular object, allOWing him to
contemplate it detached from its context. Having achieved this with
the thing under study he then set about uncovering its essence. He did
this by a process of "free variation" where an object's attributes are
each considered in turn. By varying the characteristics an object pos-
sesses until it ceases to be the thing that it is, a core set of properties
can eventually be identified which express the thing's underlying
essence. One can try this with an everyday object like a table lamp and
imagine substituting each of its features - one can change the flex or
the shade without it ceasing to be a lamp, but removing the light
source would transform it beyond recognition.
This is a crude example of what was a complex process for Husserl,
referring to it as an eidetic reduction, from the Greek eidos, meaning
ideal or essence, which Plato had also used in a similar sense. For Plato
this referred to the unchanging idea or universal "type", of which any
object was a particular example, and in Husserl's work this formed the
first step of a larger process, which he referred to as the "phenome-
nological reduction". The initial element in this method is the bracket-
ing off mentioned above, which leads to the isolation of the object
from its context. By reducing the cultural world to the "life world", or .
the realm of immediate experience, Husserl hoped to achieve an unob-
structed view of reality. The final movement in this sequence is
the "transcendental reduction" which assumes that the experience of
the individual can be applied universally. From the individual subject
one is meant to extrapolate towards the universal realm of subjectivity
in general - the unique experience of the particular individual is
1
extended to apply to a "transcendental subject". All this was meant to
provide the necessary scientific objectivity to the kind of philosophy
which Husserl was developing, and it was suggested that this would
achieve a certainty of knowledge that even the "normal" sciences
could barely approach. As one commentator described it:
... it appears that all non-philosophical sciences start from a complex of
presuppositions which are not clarified in these sciences themselves.
Philosophy, on the other hand, does not want to leave anything unsolved;
it wants to reduce everything to primary 'presuppositions' which do not
need to be clarified because they are immediately evident .. 2
Husserl's attempt to claw back the ground that had been lost to the
physical sciences, in his claim to provide objective truths about the
world, led him to an over-ambitious goal for his philosophy, which he
admitted in his later work' had failed to fully materialise. Even his
famous slogan "back to the things themselves" had been somewhat
belied .by his emphasis on the study of universals. This abstraction in
his approach cut him off from history and culture, and failed to capture
the full depth of our experience of the world and, with his leaning
towards a purely intellectual analysis, the role of the body in percep-
tion was played down. While in his later writings, particularly The
'.,
Crisis of the European Sciences, he did suggest the importance of con-
sidering these wider themes, it was left to Husserl's students to devel-
op them in detail, in ways that have since become significant in the
course of recent philosophy.
Martin Heidegger was perhaps the most illustrious of those students.
He came to study with Husserl at the UniverSity of Freiburg, and most
of the leading figures in later Continental philosophy owe a great deal
to his influence, whether direct or not. Although in Heidegger's later
work he moved back to the study of language - as the ultimate source
of knowledge or, as he described it, the "house of being" - it was in his
early writings that he turned the phenomenological methods towards
2 Joseph K. Kockelmans, Phenomenology: The Philosophy of Edmund Husserl and its
1nterpretatiOtl, Anchor Books, New York, 1967.
98 Building Ideas
"lived" experience and away from Husserl's abstract "essences". The
reason for this shift came from Heidegger's overall intention, to study
the nature of being, not merely the nature of knowing. This distinction
caused the argument between Heidegger and Cassirer on the status of
art discussed in Chapter 2 and Heidegger felt Husserl had restricted
his thinking, by considering epistemology at the expense of ontology.
It was this larger preoccupation with the "meaning of being" that was
to drive Heidegger's philosophy throughout his long and prolific
career.
His approach to this question has also proved influential in architec-
ture, as he set out to study the philosophical implications of the con-
crete experience of everyday reality. He followed Husserl's instruction
to go "back to the things themselves", but this time as part of a larger
historical context. Here emerges Heidegger's attempt at deconstruc-
tion, as we saw in Chapter 2, in terms of his "overcoming" of Western
philosophy. He blamed that tradition for suppressing these difficult
questions, partly by its insistence on the separation of the mind and
the body - expressed in philosophical terms as the split between the
subject and the object. This same split occurs in the debate between
rationalism and empiricism - or between the reliability of data from
the senses versus the "pure" concepts of the reasoning mind. This is
the argument that phenomenology initially set out to transcend, by its
concentration on the link between the two realms of the body and the
mind. This overlap that occurs in the acts of perception and cognition
was the underlying theme of Heidegger's study of the meaning of
being - seen in terms of the German word Dasein, or "being-there".
The first hints of phenomenology as a "philosophy of bodily experi-
ence" are contained in the first part of Heidegger's major book, Being
and Time (1927). This book, which has since become a founding
document for phenomenology, was published at the same time as he
was editing another book with Husserl. The influence of his master's
teaching is clear from his overall intentions, but his detailed concerns
are directed more towards the description of everyday experience.
The focus on "being-there" as the concrete counterpart to "being-as-
such" was Heidegger's means of overcoming the abstractions of
-
Hussert's method. This principle that the study of existence must
precede the understanding of essence is based on the notion that con-
sciousness can only be understood as the consciousness ofsomething.
By studying the actual conditions of being-there, in a particular place
at a paiticular time, Heidegger was able to suggest that there is no
"essential" self prior to the action of the self in the world. It was this
action that the self perfonns in its "reaching out" towards the world
that became the key to resolving the subject-object split that had sep-
arated the mind from the body. This split which began with Plato and
which was reinforced in the work of Descartes was now being
addressed by phenomenology in tenns of the relationship between
interacting forces - the self is no longer a "disembodied mind" or just
a fixed object amongst objects, but an ongoing "project" with a his-
torical past and future possibilities.
This sense of temporality is what sets humans apart from other
beings and likewise the responsibility of constructing the self as a pro-
ject. This responsibility of the individual to carve out their own way in
the world is a product of the idea of freedom, which fonned the basis
of "authentic" being. The freedom to set one's own objectives, accord-
ing to a personal goal or project, carries with it what Heidegger
claimed was an obligation to live up to being's "ownmost possibilities".
The need to take responsibility for one's own destiny in the course of
life became a defining characteristic of the existentialist branch of phe-
nomenology - which was led by another of Husserl's students, the
French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. What was significant about this
emphasis on the theme of action in the world was the nature of the
knowledge that was produced by the interaction between the body
and its surroundings.
In an important passage of Being and Time Heidegger sets out a
clear distinction between the two kinds of knowledge that emerge
from the realms of action and contemplation. To illustrate this distinc-
tion he uses the famous example of a person with a hammer who, as
they take up the tool and use it, gain access to an important mode of
experience:
II
100 Building Ideas
In dealings such as this, where something is put to use, our concern sub-
ordinates itself to the 'in-order-to' which is constitutive for the equipment
we are employing at the time; the less we just stare at the hammer-Thing,
and the more we seize hold of it and use it, the more primordial does Our
relationship to it become ... The hammering itself uncovers the specific
'manipulability' of the hammer. The kind of Being which equipment
possesses - in which it manifests itself in its own right - we call
'readiness-to-hand' .
3
The equipment, while in use, begins to "withdraw" from our per-
ception, as we concern ourselves instead with the larger objective of
the task itself. This will continue to be the case unless the tool breaks
down in the course of its use, when it will suddenly step forward and
assert itself again as an object in its own right. This is described by
Heidegger as the condition of being "present-at-hand", and applies to
all those objects that we can't make use of - like works of art or natu-
ral phenomena. These objects which are not considered as equipment,
in the sense of being tools or material resources, demand a contem-
plative mode of understanding, as opposed to the active mode of use.
"Dwelling" and Building - Heidegger and Ortega
Another important notion for later writers on technology is the idea
that a piece of equipment forms part of a network or pattern of related
activities. A tool such as the hammer can only be meaningfully
interpreted when it is seen in terms of the other tools involved in the
performance of a particular function. The Spanish philosopher, Jose
Ortega y Gasset, who also wrote on the philosophy of technology!
coined the term "pragmatic fields" to explain this characteristic of
items of equipment. The fact that all tools can be seen as belonging
to particular activities means that to understand one item we must
see it in context with a number of others. This is also extended
3 Martin Heidegger. Being and Time, translated by John Macquarrie and Edward
Robinson, Harper & Row, New York, 1%2, p 98.
-
in Heidegger's wntlOg into an architectural dimension, when he
describes the understanding of a room as more than simply the space
hetWeen four walls. As "equipment for residing" it implies a series of
actjdties and related objects, such as the ink-stand, pen, paper, blot-
t i n ~ pad, lamp, desk, chair and window that provide the example of
tile writer's study. These objects form an "arrangement" and provide a
context for our understanding, where each item implies the others
which are also necessary to the larger function of the room.
As a means of understanding buildings in terms of their activities,
this logic is then extended into the natural domain, as Heidegger goes
on to describe the ways in which equipment provides information
about the outside world. A railway station with its covered platforms
takes account of the local climate, and the use of street lighting tells us
something about the variation in daylight through the year. Along with
these environmental qualities there is the user, whose presence is also
implied by the item of equipment, as the interpretation can be extend-
ed from the activity towards the person taking part in it.
While on one hand the above analysis sets the two kinds of knowl-
edge - action and contemplation - in opposition to each other,
Heidegger is also keen to establish the necessary interaction between
these two ways of engaging with the world:
'Practical' behaviour is not 'atheoretical' in the sense of 'sightlessness'.
The way it differs from theoretical behaviour does not lie simply in the
fact that in theoretical behaviour one observes, while in practical
behaviour one acts, and that action must employ theoretical cognition if
it is not to remain blind; for the fact that observation is a kind of concern
is just as primordial as the fact that action has its own kind of sight.
4
This notion of an "embodied" knowledge which comes from engag-
ing with the world of things forms the basis for contemplation in the
projection of future possibilities for action. This emphasis on the inter-
relation between action and contemplation is what gives Heidegger's
Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, translated by Jolm Macquarrie and Edward
Robinson, Harper & Row, New York, 1962, p 99.
102 Building Ideas
---------=::'-----------------------
early writing its existentialist orientation. This view, where the world
is experienced before the mind describes it in concepts - where "eXis-
tence precedes essence", according to the famous existentialist slogan
- is contradicted to a certain extent by the direction of Heidegger's
later thinking, when he moves back through a philosophy of language
towards a more essentialist orientation.
What later writers called the Kehre or "turning" in Heidegger's
work, occurs around the time of World War 2 during a difficult period
in the philosopher's career. As Rector of Freiburg University in the
period before the war, he failed to oppose the rise of National
Socialism and this tarnished his reputation. In the late 1940s he was left
without a formal teaching position, but he used this time to carry out
further research and this deeply affected his later thinking. The shift in
Heidegger's thought is the "tum" to language as a privileged realm, as
we saw in his discussion of art and poetry, described in Chapter 2.
More specifically, in terms of architecture, his interest was likewise
centred on language, as he describes in the famous essay, "Building,
Dwelling, Thinking". The order of priority suggested by the title - that
one builds first, in order to dwell - is actually reversed in Heidegger's
thinking, such that one must learn to dwell in order to build. This
argument is based on the idea that we have "forgotten" what dwelling
means, in the same way that Western philosophy has forgotten, or
neglected, the true meaning of Being. In order to retrieve this original
meaning Heidegger looks back into the history of language, to a time
before Plato's troublesome division between the world of experience
and the realm of ideal forms. In this pre-Socratic world, as it has
since been referred to, Heidegger discerns a more authentic language,
where a natural correspondence is supposed to have existed between
ideas and words.
Through a series of etymologies based on the Greek and German
languages, he uncovers a number of interrelations between the words
connected with building and ideas about the meaning of being. In
another essay from 1951, "Poetically Man Dwells", he gives a further
account of the importance of the history that is "sedimented
n
within
language:
--
But where do we humans get our infonnation about the nature of
dw(;lIing and poetry? Where does man generally get the claim to arrive at '
the nature of something? Man can make such a claim only where he
fn:
dves
it. He receives it from the telling of language. S
He goes on to quote the line from Friedrich Holderlin's poem that
g:l\'e the essay its title, which implies a certain "merit" in the physical
;leIS of building. He compares this with the kind of construction
in\'olved in the cultivation of plants and the making of objects, but con-
dudes that these are merely a consequence of the process of dwelling
and not the "grounding" of dwelling itself For this, man must look to
poetry as .the "authentic gauging of the dimension of dwelling"6 which
carries the history of dwelling within it, as well as the "projects" of
future possibilities for building:
Man iS,capable of such building only if he already builds in the sense of
the poetic taking of measure. Authentic building occurs so far as there are
poets, such poets as take the measure for architecture, the structure of
dwelIingJ
By way of a contribution towards this poetic background to the
practice of architecture, Heidegger himself provided some intriguing
insights in his earlier essay on the nature of dwelling. He describes
the primordial character of human Being in terms of its location on the
surface of the earth, which he develops into a notion called the "four-
fold", .which prOVides the background to the act of building, This
four-way structure results from the way a building inhabits the inter-
face of earth and sky - the implication of being on the earth is that of
also being under the sky - while the second two terms cover divinities
and mortals, which are more obscure and less clearly developed.
Martin Heidegger, "... Poetically Man Dwells ...", in Poetry, Language, Thought,
translated by Albert Hofstadter, Harper & Row, New York, 1971, p 215. Reprinted in
Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture. Routledge, London, 1997.
c, Martin Heidegger, "... Poetically Man Dwells ...", in Poetry, Language, Thought,
translated by Albert Hofstadter, Harper & Row, New York. 1971, p 227.
Martin Heidegger, ". . . Poetically Man Dwells ...", in Poetry, Language, Thought,
translated by Albert Hofstadter, Harper & Row, New York, 1971, p 227.
I
I
II
II
I
I
I
104 Building Ideas
While all four components are meant to be "presented", in the
properly poetic activity of authentic dwelling, the discussion remains
tantalisingly vague about the practical application of these ideas in
architecure. Where Heidegger does become more specific is in his dis-
cussion of the definition of place, which he sees as the initial task
involved in the acts of building and dwelling. On the one hand place is
seen to be dependent on the articulation of boundaries and edge-eon-
ditions - the boundary is not where something stops, but where some-
thing actually "begins its presencing"8 - and at the same time, places
can be created through the intervention of a newly built object. He
illustrates this with the example of the bridge, which brings the river
banks into a new relationship, as it "causes" the banks to lie opposite
to one another and "gathers the earth as landscape around the
stream".9
These ideas begin to suggest a role for architecture, in heightening
our awareness of the character of our surroundings, as did Heidegger's
earlier analyses in the book Being and Time, where he considered the
interpretation of items of equipment. In the end, however, language
retains its status as the privileged medium or "house of being" and this
view has caused much controversy ever since Heidegger first present-
ed the essay "Building, Dwelling, Thinking" as a lecture. At the same
conference, the Darmstadt Colloquium, which took place in August
1951, Ortega y Gasset presented his paper (mentioned above) on
pragmatic fields. Their argument concerned the priority between
action and contemplation, or between existence and essence in the
understanding of the nature of dwelling. Ortega's "project of life" had
become a "project of thought" in Heidegger's work, whereas the
dialectical relationship between the two realms was still undeveloped
in either version. It was left to other philosophers to return to this'
theme and to consider the specific role of bodily experience - to
K Martin Heideggcr, "Building, Dwelling, lhinking", in Poetry, Language, Thought,
translated by Albert Hofstadter, Harper & Row, New York, 1971, P 154. Reprinted in
Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997.
9 Martin Heideggcr, "Building, Dwelling, Thinking", in Poetry, Language, Thought,
translated by Albert Hofstadtcr, Harper & Row, New York, 1971, p 152.
-
escape what Michel Foucault would later call the "prison-house of
language" - and provide a clearer understanding of the nature of
"embodied" knowledge.
APhilosophy of the Body - From Bergson to Merleau-Ponty
Perhaps the most intriguing of those later writers who took up this
theme of embodiment is the French philosopher Maurice Merleau-
Panty; who collaborated closely with Jean-Paul Sartre. The two men
founded the philosophical journal Les Temps Modernes in 1945 and
continued to work together on it until a disagreement forced them to
part company. The same year that the journal was founded saw the
publication of Merleau-Ponty's major work, the results of his doctoral
research entitled The Phenomenology of Perception. In this work he
first set out the effect that the body has on our perception, through a
series -of detailed analyses based on case studies from clinical research.
By considering the way the senses work together in the process of
synaesthesia, and how perception provides the raw data that the mind
arranges into clear concepts, Merleau-Ponty hoped to show that lan-
guage itself is merely derived from our lived experience and thereby to
reverse the priority given to it in Heidegger's earlier analysis. As he
describes it in the preface to his book:
To return to the things themselves is to return to that world which pre-
cedes knowledge, of which knowledge always speaks, and in relation to
which every scientific schematization is an abstract and derivative sign-
language, as is geography in relation to the countryside in which we have
learnt beforehand what a forest, a prairie or a river is. 10
What Merleau-Ponty is trying to describe is a kind of pre-linguistic
understanding, the notion that the world is already meaningful for
us before it is "parcelled up" into language. His research led him, not
10 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Phenomenology of Perception, translated by Colin
Sntith,Routledge,London, 1 9 6 2 , p ~ .
106 Building Ideas
surprisingly, away from the history of philosophy as such, to consider
instead the role that action plays in our perception of the Outside
world. Although in this early work he had looked at spoken language in
terms of its origins in the "language" of gesture - to claim that gesture
was still an important factor in communication - he went on in his later
essays to look at other means of expression, such as how an artist might
use his body to communicate ideas in physical form. In the essay "Eye
and Mind", published in 1%1, Merleau-Ponty described the body as an
interface between the perceiving mind and the physical world. His
interest in the work of art came from its expression of this interaction,
such as where the brush strokes in a painting reveal the movements of
the artist's hand. This "encounter" between the artist's body and the
natural resistance of the medium being used provides a powerful image
of the everyday process of interaction between the body and the world.
As another French philosopher, Henri Bergson, wrote in 18%: "The
objects which surround my body reflect its possible action upon
them."ll Merleau-Ponty saw this reflection or revelation of the body's
actions in the tectonic qualities of the work of art - this suggested the
idea of continuity between the body and the outside world.
The American philosopher John Dewey, in the book Art as
Experience, also used a similar formulation to explain his understand-
ing of the work of art:
The epidermis is only in the most superficial wayan indication of where
an organism ends and its environment begins. There are things inside the
body that are foreign to it, and there are things outside of it that belong
to it... Y
He suggested that as the biology of human life requires the taking in
of air and foodstuffs, then one could also interpret the use of tools as
a kind of "incorporation" of objects into the body. This discussion
brings him close to the early Heidegger, in his analysis of the "ready-to-
11 Henri &rgson, Matter and Memory. translated by N. M. Paul and W. S. Palmer, ZOne
Books, New York, 1988, p 2l.
12 John Dewey, Art as Experience, Perigee Books, New York, 1934, P 59.
-
hand", particularly the way the tool in use becomes "transparent" to
the person using it. This idea of reaching out into the environment .:..
in the sense of the tool as an extension of the body - becomes a major
rheme itt Merleau-Ponty's work, particularly in his unfinished writings
published just after his death. Earlier, in his book The Phenomenology
of Perception, he had described a common scenario, where a person
driving a new car takes a period of time to become accustomed to its
size. With experience the person can feel whether the car will fit
through a particular opening, as the volume of the vehicle becomes
gradually incorporated into the overall "body image". Likewise in the
case of a blind person who has to navigate with the aid of a stick, the
rip becomes the point of sensitiVity and a means of communication
with the surrounding environment. The stick becomes a part of the
body as the person eventuaUy learns to feel things "through" it and,
like Heidegger's hammer, it "withdraws" from our perception as the
world is experienced at the tip of the cane. 13
In his essay "The Intertwining - The Chiasm" which appeared in
1964, he developed the concept of the "flesh of the world" as a means
of further exploring this idea. The intertwining referred to in the title
is again that of the individual with the outside world, which he saw as
a kind of transitional zone where the flesh of the body interacts with
the "flesh" of things. Instead of a barrier between the mind and the
world, he saw the body as our means of contact - the only means we
have available for the task of reaching out to understand the world:
It is that the thickness of flesh between the seer and the thing is (as)
constitutive for the thing of its visibility as (it is) for the seer of his
corporeity; it is not an obstacle between them, it is their means of
communication. . . . The thickness of the body, far from rivalling that
ofthe world, is on the contrary the sole means I have to go unto the heart
of the things, by making myself a world and by making them flesh. 14
I ~ Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Phenomenology of Perception, translated by Colin
Smith, Routledge, London, 1%2, p 143.
L4 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, "The lntertwining - The Chiasm" in The Visible and the
InVisible, translated by Alphonso lingis, Nonhwestern University Press, Evanston, IL,
1%8, P 135.
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This quest for the heart of things has been phenomenology's major
objective, ever since Husserl first set out his method of achieving a def-
inition of "ideal" essences. This highlights the persistent problem of
conceiving the relationship between the mind and the world, just as
Kant had discovered in the eighteenth century, in trying to resolve the
argument between rationalism and empiricism. As Kant concluded,
our human faculties impose a set of limits on our potential knowledge
and in attempting to define these limits the search has since shifted to
the experience of the individual "embodied" subject. The problem for
phenomenology has been the extension of these individual insights, to
apply to other individual subjects as part of an "inter-subjective" realm.
Like Kant's definition of beauty as something experienced subjective-
ly, there is still a huge leap of faith required to accept that judgements
are agreed upon universally. This rift between the individual and the
diverse experience of the larger society is a persistent problem in
phenomenology which many critics have been quick to point out.
In architecture there lies the possibility that this problem might be
alleviated through the study of phenomenology's insights as part of the
wider cultural world. This hope that phenomenology offers possibili-
ties for resisting the reductive ideology of modern science has been
expressed by various writers as part of a general disillusionment with
the state of architecture in the twentieth century. As the architectural
historian Alberto Perez-Gomez pointed out, in the introduction to his
important work on the "crisis" in modern architecture:
The problem that determines most explicitly our crisis, therefore, is that
the conceptual framework of the sciences is not compatible with reality.
The atomic theory of the universe may be true but it hardly explains real
issues of human behaviour. The fundamental axiom of the sciences since
1800 has been 'invariance', which rejects, or at least is unable to cope
with, the richness and ambiguity of symbolic thought. IS
15 Alberto Perez-Gomez, Architecture and the Crisis of Modern Science, MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1983, P 6.
Towards an Architecture of the Body
One writer who provides a stepping-stone between the realms of
philosophy and architecture also demonstrates the above dilemma in
the development of his own career. The French phenomenologist
Gaston Bachelard began as a philosopher of science, publishing a
series of books on contemporary scientific issues during the 1920s and
1930s. In 1938 he published a book called The Psychoanalysis ofFire,
which inaugurated a new direction in his work and puzzled most of his
former readers. The reason for the consternation was Bachelard's
apparent rejection of his own principles - instead of scientific methods
of analysis, he now seemed to be more interested in poetry. In fact,
Bachelard set out to answer the problem Perez-Gomez tried to answer
(described above) that while science might provide precise definitions
of things, these no longer seemed to mean anything in terms of our
everyday experience. The notion that we understand things in terms
of images, or by "telling stories" about the world, became the major
theme of Bachelard's subsequent research, which crossed over effec-
tively into literary criticism. This first work set out the literary sources
for our understanding of the phenomenon of fire, particularly the sym-
bolic significance of different uses of fire and the type of associations
that went along with it. This book formed the first part of a whole
series on a similar theme, where Bachelard considered each of the tra-
ditional four elements in turn and their potential to inspire imagination
and reflection. With books on air and water and a further two on
different aspects of the earth, he provided substantial evidence of the
kind of knowledge that he felt science was leading us away from -
the kind of knowledge still expressed in art, with its direct appeal to
the imagination. It was the depth of meaning in the poetic image that
held the key to Bachelard's interest, and he pursued this theme into
the realm of architecture with his 1958 book The Poetics of Space.
This work develops a range of ideas based on the poetic qualities of
intimate spaces, beginning with the house and its associated imagery
as described in literary sources. In the early chapters the house is con-
sidered in its idealised form, as both a hermit's hut and an image of the
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cosmos, and this is later developed in a series of comparisons to other
ideas of comfort and enclosure. Descriptions of animal dwellings such
as shells and nests, along with items of furniture like chests and
wardrobes, are all examined for their imaginative potential in express-
ing the different qualities of the "ideal" home. The implication of
Bachelard's examples, which are drawn in the main from poetry and
fiction, is that a meaningful environment is one that will itself inspire a
kind of poetic reverie. This activity of reflection by the solitary dreamer
on the meaningful qualities of one's physical environment provides an
interesting counterpart to Heidegger's notion that dwelling must
always remain "worthy of questioning" .16 At the same time his collec-
tion of resonant images could be seen as part of a design approach
based on the memory of places. As the architect Peter Zumthor has
written in a recent collection of essays:
When I concentrate on a specific site or place for which I am going to
design a building, if I try to plumb its depths, its form, its history; and its
sensuous qualities, images of other places start to invade this process of
precise observation: images of places that I know and that once
impressed me, images of ordinary or special places that I carry with me
as inner visions of specific moods and qualities; images of architectural
situations, which emanate from the world of art, of films, theatre or
literature. 17
Bachelard's project of providing an "archive" for the activities of the
"material imagination" provides a new way of understanding the kind
of knowledge that architecture might express. As we no longer
experience life in the abstract languages that have been produced by
the physical sciences, we might consider Bachelard's use of the four
elements as providing a phenomenological understanding of our envi-
ronment. We can see how a work of architecture might contribute
16 Martin Heidegger. "Building, Dwelling, Thinking", in Poetry, Language, Thought,
translated by Albert Hofstadter, Harper & Row, New York, 1971, p 160.
17 Peter Zumthor, Thinking Architecture, translated by Maureen Oberli-Tumer, Lars
Muller Publishers, Baden, ] 998, P 36.
IOwa'rds an awareness of these environmental qualities, if we consider
a building like Fallingwater, the famous house by Frank Uoyd Wright.
Completed in 1936 for the Pittsburgh retailer Edgar Kaufmann, the
house was built as a weekend retreat, an escape from the pressures of
city life. The site on Bear Run with its dramatic waterfall and rocky
outcrops was well-known to the client's family from their summer
weekends at a nearby cabin. They would often picnic along the river,
around a campfire on the rock ledges, and it was this experience of the
nattlrallandscape that became the basis for Wright's design. The liVing
room fireplace is built on an existing boulder, which is left as an "out-
crop" rising up through the floor, and the spherical wine-kettle which
is mounted above it also recalls the experience of outdoor cooking.
The house itself provides an echo of the landscape, in its cantilevered
ledges and continuous glazing - as though the terraces of the waterfall
have been simply inhabited, like a series of cave-dwellings that might
have existed already. This process of "concentration" of the site's exist-
ing characteristics is perhaps best evidenced in the way the building
establishes .different relationships with the water. From the entrance
pool with its running fountain, to the open staircase suspended out
over the r i ~ e r , the whole building prOVides an experience of water,
even down to the stone flooring which recalls the river bed. This
theme of the four elements creates a poetic image of the natural land-
scape, a kind of three-dimensional cosmic diagram in the sense that
Bachelard would have appreciated. This building could also be read in
terms of Heidegger's example of the way a bridge affects its surround-
ings, but for a direct application of these latter ideas we must look to
other writers on architectural theory.
The Phenomenon of Place
In 1960 an early warning was sounded against the limitations of func-
tionalism in architecture, in the manifesto written by two German
architects and published in the Berlin journal Der Monat:
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1 Frank Lloyd Wright - "Fallingwater", House for Edgar Kaufmann, Bear
Run, Pennsylvania, 1935-39: Fireplace and wine kettle. (Jonathan Hale)
Run, Pennsylvania, 1935-39. (Jonathan Hale)
Architecture is a vital penetration of a multi-layered, mysterious, evolved
and structured reality. Again and again it demands recognition of the
genius loci out of which it grows. Architecture is no longer a two-
dimensional impression but is becoming experience of corporeal and
spatial reality, achieved by walking around and entering into ... The
subject-object relationship has been done away with ... Architecture is
the enveloping and sheltering of the individual, and hence a fulfilment
and a deepening.
18
This reintroduction of a phenomenological dimension into our inter-
pretation of the built environment became significant in the reassess-
ments of modernism that took place in the foUowing decades.
'" Reinhard GieseImann & Oswald Mathias Ungers, "Towards a New Architecture", in
Ulrich Conrads (ed.), Programmes and Manifestoes on 20th Century Arcbitecture,
Lund Humphries, London, 1970, p 166.
114 Building Ideas
.,
Run, Pennsylvania, 193:>--39. (Jonathan Hale)
The Norwegian historian, Christian Norberg-Schulz, has been per-
haps the most prolific of these recent writers, producing a series of
works that tries to question the dominant emphasis on functional
norms. He also utilised the concept of genius loci - spirit of the place
- in the book of the same name, subtitled "Towards a Phenomenology
of Architecture", and he also made use of many of the ideas we have
been discussing. Norberg-Schulz borrows directly from Heidegger's
work on the nature of dweUing, though he develops the ideas more
specificaUy through the notion of the "existential foothold":
First of all I owe to Heidegger the concept of dwelling. 'Existential
foothold' and 'dwelling' are synonyms, and dwelling, in an existential
sense, is the purpose of architecture. Man dwells when he can orientate
himself within and identifY with, an environment, or, in short, when he
experiences the environment as meaningful. Dwelling implies therefore
something more than 'shelter'. It implies that the spaces where life
occurs are places, in the true sense of the word. 19
What gives a location its character, and transforms an abstract space
into a concrete place, is the way in which a work of architecture pro-
vides a visualisation of the genius loci. This can happen in various
ways, according to different cultures and historical traditions, and in
his earlier book Meaning in Western Architecture he set out to show
how this had occurred in the past. By analysing buildings of different
periods in terms of their common symbolic characteristics, he tried to
demonstrate how every culture has expressed its belief systems
through its architecture. Whether based on religious rituals or on the
structure of the cosmos, he tries to show how these narratives have
been "concretised", in ways specific to their geographical context.
In his later writings, these ideas were also applied to more recent
bUildings, such as in the essay on Jom Utzon concerning the theme
of earth and sky in his work. In Utzon's own essay "Platforms and
Plateaus", which looked at the landscape forms of sacred sites, he
19 Christian Norberg-SChulz, Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Arcbitecture,
Rizzoli, New York, 1980, p 5.
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116 Building Ideas
------"''-----------------------
described the importance of the sculpted ground-plane, in the defini_
tion of a significant place. The dramatic juxtaposition with a hovering
roof-fonn, such as the outside of the Sydney Opera House and the inSide
of the Bagsvaerd Church in Copenhagen, displays a similar Heideg_
gerian preoccupation with the building as an interface between earth
and sky. Norberg-Schulz also wrote on Louis Kahn, in another of his
later essays, discussing particularly his distinctive design approach
which is reminiscent of Husserl's bracketing. When beginnirig a project
for a school, Kahn tried to abandon his preconceptions and to rethink
the nature of the institution in tenns of its essential characteristics:
Schools began with a man under a tree who did not know he was a
teacher, discussing his realisation with a few who did not know they
were students. The students reflected on what was exchanged and how
good it was to be in the presence of this man. They aspired that their sons
also listened to such a man. Soon spaces were erected and the first
schools became.
2o
Kahn thought of these "institutions" as the basic structures of
society and it was the task of a meaningful architecture to make them
visible to humanity. At the same time a building should make visible
the essential "structures" of the natural environment, particularly the
characteristics of the local landscape and the changing conditions of .
natural light. The buildings for the Salk Institute in California and the
Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth both reveal these preoccupations
in their overall layout and choice of materials. The Salk proVides a mon-
umental plaza which opens the building up to view the wider land-
scape, and - as Heidegger would appreciate - to "receive" the sky. At
the Kimbell, Kahn's textured surfaces illustrate his idea of materiality..
as "the giver of light", and also echo his famous saying that "the sun
never knew how great it was until it struck the side of a building".21
20 Louis Kahn, quoted in Christian Norberg-Schulz, "The Message of Louis Kahn", in
Architecture: M.eaning and Place, Selected Essays, Rizzoli, New York, 1988, p 20l.
2\ Louis Kahn, quoted in Christian Norberg-Schulz, "The Message of Louis Kahn", in
Architecture: M.eaning and Place, Selected Essays, Rizzoli, New York, 1988,
pp 203-5.
The Return of the Body
-
117
4 Louis 1. Kahn - Salk Institute, La Jolla, California, 1959-65: Colonnade.
(Neil Jackson)
118 Building Ideas
6 Louis 1. Kahn - Salk Institute, La Jolla, California, 1959-65: Plaza. (Neil
Jackson)
,....
7 l.ouis 1. Kahn - Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, 1966-72: Interior.
(jonathan Hale)
8 Louis 1. Kahn - Kimbell Art
Museum, Fort Worth, Texas,
1966-72. (Jonathan Hale)
9 Louis 1. Kahn - Fisher House,
Pennsylvania, 1960: Interior.
(Jonathan Hale)
120 Building Ideas
10 Louis 1. Kahn - Fisher House, Pennsylvania, 1960. (Jonathan Hale)
anla smaller scale, this can also be seen in the design of the Fisher
House in Pennsylvania, where the simple arrangement of timber boxes
provides a dramatic "viewing-platform" over the landscaped site.
In the work of another writer, Kenneth Frampton, some of these
ideas have been taken further, with the attempt to provide a pro-
gramme for what he called a "critical regionalism". This would again
address the idea ofplace but within the context of a "global" architec-
ture, through a "critical" reinterpretation of vernacular building types
and the use of local materials and craft skills. Frampton was again pick-
ing up on Heidegger and his attachment to the sense of place, though
he identified a number of recent architects he felt had also been work-
ing on a similar theme. In the final chapter of his book Modern
Architecture: A Critical History, he looked at the work of the Italian
architect Carlo Scarpa, both as an example of a regional architecture
and a seductive collage of sensuous materials. Frampton has since
developed a more specific interest in tectonic culture in modern archi-
tecture and in a recent book he reinterpreted a number of key build-
ings in terms of their construction. This shift of interest towards archi-
tectural detail shows a further influence of phenomenological think-
ing, as the expressive potential of a building's materiality is seen as
enriching the experience of form and space. As Marco Frascari - a for-
mer assistant of Scarpa's - wrote on this theme:
In architecture feeling a handrail, walking up steps or between walls,
turning a comer and noting the sitting of a beam in a wall, are coordinat-
ed elements of visual and tactile sensations. The location of those details
gives birth to the conventions that tie a meaning to a perception.
22
These two themes of place and bodily experience become for
Frampton a mode of "resistance" - a way of countering the alienation
of the city and the emphasis in our media culture on the sense of
vision:
22 Marco Frascari, "The Tenthe-Tale Detail", Vlit, No.7, 1984, P 28. Reprinted in Kate
Nesbitt (ed.), Theorising a New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of
Architectural Theory 1965-1995, Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 1996,
p 506.
122 Building Ideas
12 Carlo Scarpa - Querini Stampalia foundation, Venice, 1961-63: Detail of
bridge. (David Short)
Two independent channels of resistance proffer themselves against the
ubiquity of the Megalopolis and the exclusivity of sight. They presuppose .
a mediation of the mindlbody split in Western thought. They may be
regarded as archaic agents with which to counter the potential univer-
sality of rootless civilisation. The first of these is the tactile resilience of
the place-form; the seco"nd is the sensorium of the body. These two are
posited here as interdependent, because each is contingent on the other.
The place-form is inaccessible to sight alone just as simulacra exclude the
tactile capacity of the body. 23
While the preoccupation with the body has become a progressive
theme in recent architecture, in Frampton's work it remains tied to a
somewhat reactionary urban agenda - slightly too reminiscent of
Heidegger's nostalgic longing for the "rooted" vernacular lifestyle of
the pre-industrial Black Forest.
The Body in Space - Movement and Experience
Other architects who have worked on this theme of the perceiving
body in its relation to space have begun to break away from the restric-
tive archetypes suggested by Frampton's critical regionalism. Among
these might be counted Tadao Ando in Japan, Herzog and De Meuron
in Europe and Steven Holl in America. With each of these architects, as
in Louis Kahn's work, there is a desire to articulate material qualities,
in order to heighten our perceptual awareness of the encounter
between the body and the world of things. In Holl's own recent book
Intertwining, he specifically engaged with the work of Merleau-Ponty
and even used the term "Kiasma" to label his project for the Helsinki
Art Museum. Among younger architects, Ben van Berkel has also been
exploring this theme of movement, particularly in the Mobius House,
recently completed. The design is based on interlocking use-patterns
and the sequence of possible movements throughout the day and it
2 ~ Kenneth Frampton, "Intimations of Tactility: Excerpts from a Fragmentary Polemic",
in Scott Marble et al. (eds), Architecture and Body, Rizzoli, New York, 1988.
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124 Building Ideas
was recently published along with two sets of photographs, one of the
building and the other showing figures in motion. Reminiscent of fash-
ion photography, this was the architect's decision, to try to capture the
sub-conscious context behind the conceptual process:
They are meant to be shown next to each other to express the two
aspects mentioned above: the idea of movement as a structuring princi-
ple, and the way in which the specific architectural imagination is engag-
ing with the collective imagination.
24
On another level phenomenology has been used in various projects
of "resistance", where the emphasis on bodily experience has exposed
the limits of functional principles. This has also shown how decon-
struction has been deeply influenced by phenomenology, particularly
in Jacques Derrida's critique of Heidegger and its architectural coun-
terpart in recent buildings. In this regard the writings of Bernard
Tschumi could also be seen as part of this movement, particularly his
early essays on the "Pleasure of Architecture" and the "erotic" dimen-
sion of spatial experience:
Exceeding functionalist dogmas, semiotic systems, historical precedents,
or formalised products of past social or economic constraints is not
necessarily a matter of subversion but a matter of preserving the erotic
capadty of architecture by disrupting the fonn that most conservative
societies expect of it.
25
Tschumi went on to develop this notion towards a new way of
thinking about the use of space - his idea was to avoid the kind of func-
tional specificity which he felt was stifling the real life of architecture.
To this end he came up with the intriguing concept of the architecture
of the "event":
2. Ben van Berkel, "A Day in the Life: Mobius House by UN Studio/van Berkel & 80s",
Building Design, Issue 1385, 1999, piS.
25 Bernard Tschumi, Architecture and Disjunction, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996,
p92.
..
13 Tadao Ando - Meditation Space, UNESCO, Paris, 1994-95.
(Jonathan Hale)
126 Building Ideas
The very heterogeneity of the definition of architecture - space, action,
and movement - makes it into that event, that place of shock, or that
place of the invention of ourselves. 26
This notion of self invention recalls the thinking of Merleau-Ponty on
the work of art, particularly as a means of portraying the encounter
between the artist and the things of the world. Tschumi also makes an
interesting counterpoint to the idea of place as something fixed and
stable, as he describes a more dynamic and flexible situation where
activities themselves establish new kinds of places. This recalls
Heidegger's notion of dwelling as an activity, something that must be
constantly striven for and not something achieved or given, and at the
same time it suggests a looser fit between a building's form and its
functional programme. The follies at La Villette, for instance, illustrate
this openness to future possibilities, being a series of initially unpro-
grammed spaces that different events might transform into places. The
networks of paths and walkways at La Villette also highlight the impor-
tance of movement, suggesting a choreography of routes that recall Le
Corbusier's "architectural promenade" - as seen at the Villa Savoye and
the later Carpenter Centre.
The several problems with the influence of phenomenology in.
architecture tend to derive from the difficulties with the philosophy
itself, not least of which is the emphasis on subjective experience and
the problem of applying this kind of knowledge in a wider, social con-
text. While it can certainly be productive as part of a detailed design
process, particularly for the qualitative and sensory aspects of the
experience of space, it can also prove useful as part of a more "critical"
strategy, as the recent work in deconstruction has begun to suggest.
Part of this relevance depends on our next topic, the other major.
source for the philosophy of deconstruction, based as it is on a critique
of structuralism as a supposedly more objective approach to-interpre-
tation. In the conclusion we will look at other thinkers who have taken
up the themes of phenomenology, but who have tried to consider
26 Bernard Tschumi, Architecture and Disjunction, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996,
P 258.
14 Le Corbllsier - Carpenter Centre, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA,
1959-63. (Alistair Gardner)
15 Le Corbllsier - Carpenter Centre,
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA,
16 Le Corbllsier - Carpenter Centre,
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA,
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128 Building Ideas
them in tenns of the wider issues, such as cultural contexts and
historical traditions.
Background
Hubert L. Dreyfus, Being-in-the-World: A Commentary on Heidegger's
Being and Time, Division I, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1991.
Terry Eagleton, "Phenomenology, Hermeneutics, Reception Theory",
in Literary Theory: An Introduction, University of Minnesota Press,
Minneapolis, 1983, pp 54-90.
Richard Kearney, "Edmund Husserl", "Martin Heidegger" and "Maurice
Merleau-Ponty", in Modern Movements in European Philosophy,
Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1986.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, "Preface" to Phenomenology of Perception,
translated by Colin Smith, Routledge, London, 1962, pp vii-xxi.
George Steiner, Martin Heidegger, University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, 1991.
Foreground
Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space, translated by Maria ]olas,
Beacon Press, Boston, 1969.
John Dewey, Art as Experience, Perigee Books, New York, 1980.
Kenneth Frampton, "Prospects for a Critical Regionalism", in
Perspecta, 20/1983, reprinted in Kate Nesbitt (ed.), Theorising a
New Agenda for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural
Theory 1965-1995, Princeton Architectural Press, New York,
1996, pp 470-82.
Steven Holl, Intertwining, Princeton Architectural Press, New York,
1996.
Christian Norberg-Schulz, "The Phenomenon of Place", reprinted in
Kate Nesbitt (ed.), Theorising a New Agenda for Architecture: An
Architectural Press, New York, 1996, pp 414-28.
Alberto Perez-Gomez, "The Renovation of the Body", in AA Files, No.
13/Autumn 1986, pp 2 6 ; ~ 9 .
Readings
Kenneth Frampton, "Rappel aI'Ordre: The Case for the Tectonic", in
Architectural Design, 3-4/1990. Reprinted in Kate Nesbitt (ed.),
Architectural Theory 1965-1j995, Princeton Architectural Press,
New York, 1996, pp 518-28.
Martin Heidegger, "Building, Dwelling, Thinking", in Poetry,
Language, Thought, translated by Albert Hofstadter, Harper and
Row, New York, 1971. Reprinted in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking
Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997, pp 100-9.
Bernard Tschumi, "The Architectural Paradox", in Architecture and
Disjunction, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994. Reprinted in K.
Michael Hays (ed.), Architecture Theory Since 1968, MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1998, pp 218-28.
,
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4
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Systems of Communication
Structuralism and Semiotics
Phenomenology was introduced in Chapter 3 as emerging from
Edmund Husserl's dream of philosophy as a legitimate and "rigorous"
science. In order to place philosophy on a firm foundation of scientific
certainty, he had attempted a return to the study of "things in them-
selves". This had led some philosophers to focus on the individual's
subjective experience and the influence that the body has on our
understanding of the world around us. As a consequence of this,
phenomenology has been charged with being too restricted in its
interest, considering things as isolated objects cut off from the social
context of reality. On the other hand a more deterministic version has
developed which sees language as the source of all meaning - affect-
ing our understanding by limiting the way we think. In more recent
years this emphasis on language has proved attractive in the shift
towards science, as linguistics has developed a series of far-reaching
interpretive models which have since been applied more generally to
the understanding of culture as a whole. The innovations that inspired
this dramatic transition are still central to our understanding of
architecture today, as modernism, post-modernism and even decon-
struction have all been affected by this new conception of language.
The discussion in Chapter 3 of the significance of places was intended
to establish the importance of meaning in architecture. The fact that
buildings, in a sense, can be "read" as cultural "texts" will now be the
l
t
1:1
132 Building Ideas
dominant theme of this and subsequent chapters. Where Chapter 3
looked at the issue of what buildings mean, in terms of the existential
predicament of humanity and the search for a sense of belonging, this
chapter considers the question of how buildings mean, using the
philosophy of language that has become known as structuralism.
Our discussion of language so far in this book has centred on the
issue of free will and determinism - the question of whether, as
Heidegger suggested, it is man or language that speaks. Is man in fact
the master of language or is language the master of man?! The idea
that we are somehow restricted by language to repeating the meanings
that have been established before us is suggested by Heidegger's
etymological analyses that attempt to uncover so-called original
meanings. This approach to the study of language as a continually
developing historical phenomenon seems to ignore the way that the
use of language alters meanings over time. The slightly arbitrary points
in history that Heidegger chooses to look back to still suggest a rather
unscientific understanding of the workings of language as a system. It
was the problem of untangling these historically dependent issues
that structuralism initially attempted to answer and in the process it
created a much more systematic and scientific approach to language,
which has since become a "science" of human culture. As critic Terry
Eagleton has succinctly pointed out:
Structuralism in general is an attempt to apply this linguistic theory to
objects and activities other than language itself. You can view a myth, a
wrestling match, system of tribal kinship, restaurant menu or oil painting
as a system of signs, and a structuralist analysis will try to isolate the
underlying set of laws by which these signs are combined into meanings.
It will largely ignore what the signs actually 'say', and concentrate
instead on their internal relations to one another. Structuralism, as Fredric
Jameson has put it, is an attempt to rethink everything through once ..
again in terms of linguistics.
2
I Martin Heidegger, ... Poetically Man DweUs ...", in Poetry, language, Thought,
translated by Albert Hofstadter, Harper & Row, New York, 1971, p 215. Reprinted in
Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London. 1997.
2 Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction, University of Minnesota Press,
Minneapolis, 1983, p 97.
Systems of Communication 133
The reason for this turn towards language again - although in a way
quite distinct from the tum in phenomenology - is the attempt to
understand our relationship to the world in terms of the metaphors
that we use to describe it. To get beyond the abstractions of science,
as Gaston Bachelard tried to do, structuralism focused instead on the
cognitive value of narratives, as a way of dealing with the fact that in
everyday human terms, the universe is not made of atoms, it is "made
of stories".3
The "Deep Structures" of Language - Ferdinand De Saussure
So what is this linguistic model that has proved so useful in so many
disciplines and how does it differ from the treatment of language in
the other philosophies considered so far? The model originates in the
wo'rk of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and is described in his
Course in General Linguistics which was assembled from notes and
published as a book after his death in 1916. The three key principles
of 5aussure's analysis of language all follow from his initial observations
on the nature of the "linguistic sign". The sign in language is the word
or sentence, which operates by referring to the idea of an object in the
mind, and can therefore be split into its two components - the signi-
fier, or the word, and the signified, the idea of the object. Having
devised this two-part structure he then developed the first of his con-
troversial principles by insisting on the arbitrary nature of the
connection between the two halves of the sign. Traditional linguistic
studies had assumed a natural bond between sound and thing, such as
in onomatopoeic words like "cuckoo", "drip" or "splash". By contrast,
Saussure maintained that these formed only a small component of a
language while the majority of the words we use were simply assigned
to things by convention. As he writes in Part One of his Course:
.' Muriel Rukeyser, quoted in Charles Moore, Water and Architecture, H. N. Abrams,
New York, 1994, p 15.
!I i
I
,
I
i;
I
134 Building Ideas
Words like the French/ouet 'whip' or glas 'knell' may strike certain ears
with suggestive sonority, but to see that they have not always had this
property we need only examine their Latin forms ({ouet is derived
from/agus, 'beech tree'; glas from classicum, 'sound of a trumpet'). The
quality of their present sounds, or rather the quality that is attributed to
them is a fortuitous result of phonetic evolution.
4
This led Saussure to the observation that language operated as a
"system of where the functioning of words depended on
their relationships with one another, rather than any necessary
connection to the objects to which they refer. For example, there is
nothing particularly animal-like about the words "rat" or "cat", where-
as the difference between rat and cat is obviously quite significant to
the meaning of a sentence. Communication is possible within this
system due to the mutual agreement which governs its use, and this
also depends on the user's knowledge of the conventions, without
which the letters r-a-t would simply be three black marks on a page.
This principle frees Saussure to concentrate on the syntactic dimen-
sion of language, the internal rules of combination which structure its
operation, as opposed to the semantic dimension or the external ref-
erence and meaning. In other words, what Saussure is studying is the
form rather than the content of language, isolating what for him is the
most important aspect of the problem.
The second of Saussure's three principles emerged from this notion
of language as a system, and concerned the distinction between the
system in general and particular uses of it in the act of speaking. For
this he made use of another binary opposition, described by the
French terms langue and parole, which are usually left untranslated,
to avoid the ambiguities of their English equivalents. Langue refers to
language as a system, with its underlying structure of rules and con-
ventions, which are then deployed like pieces in a chess game, in the
process of communicating a particular meaning. These specific acts of
parole, or "speech", are to some extent restricted by the potential of
4 Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, translated by Wade Baskin,
McGraW-Hili, New York, 1%6, p 69.
the system and it is this limitation of the individual's free expression
that has proved the most controversial of Saussure's ideas. As the
philosopher Richard Kearney has succintly pointed out:
It implied a fundamentaJ rejection of the romantic and existentialist
doctrines that the individual consciousness or 'genius' is the privileged
locus of the creation of meaning. In answer to Sartre's view, for example,
that each individual existence is what each individual makes of it, the
structuralist replies that the meaning of each person's parole is governed
by the collective pre-personal system of langue.
5
Saussure's third important principle is founded on a further binary
opposition, this time concerned with the question of history and its
relevance to the underlying structure of language. As Saussure had dis-
missed the notion of meaning as a product of the relationships
between words and things, he was thereby also able to dispense with
the ways these might have changed with the passage of time. He thus
made the distinction between the diachronic study of language, which
looks at its development across historical time, and his preferred
synchronic analysis which isolates the system at a particular moment
in a "frozen" state. It is here that Saussure departs most dramatically
from the traditional habits of linguistic study, with its usual emphasis
on philology and etymology and the complex interactions of cultural
forces. Saussure concluded that while particular acts ofparole may be
continually changing with the passage of time, beneath these "surface"
effects lay the deep and timeless structure of langue. At any pOint in
history this deep structure could be subjected to analysis and this
would always yield the most informative picture of the systems of
meaning at work in language.
What Saussure laid out was a method of analysis which those who
followed him applied in practice - he did not himself live long enough
to develop the science of signs which he had already dreamt of and
christened semiology:
~ Richard Kearney. Modern Movements in European Philosophy, Manchester
University Press, Manchester, 1986, p 245.
136 Building Ideas
A science that studies the life of signs within society is conceivable; it
would be a part of social psychology and consequently of general psy-
chology; I shall call it semiology (from Greek semeion 'a sign').
Semiology would show what constitutes signs, what laws govern them.
Since the science does not yet exist, no one can say what it would be
... Linguistics is only a part of the general science of semiology; the laws
discovered by semiology will be applicable to linguistics, and the latter
will circumscribe a well-defined area within the mass of antlrropological
facts.
6
Structures of Society - From Levi-Strauss to Barthes
Appropriately, the first to occupy the territory staked out in Saussure's
work was the French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss, born in 1908,
who is perhaps today the most closely associated with the spread of
structuralism in cultural analysis. Levi-Strauss had travelled in South
America while teaching in Brazil in the 1930s, and based much of his
later writing on this early experience working in the field. In one of
his early works, Tristes Tropiques, published in 1955, he described his
three major influences as "geology, Marxism and psychoanalysis" - he
claimed that all three disciplines demonstrate that "the true reality is
never the most obvious".7 The principle in all these practices, that sur-
face effects are invisibly determined by the influence of underlying
structures, is an important factor in Chapter 5 of this book. For now, it
is the language model that provided the structure for Levi-Strauss'
work, as he searched for a similar system of "differences" to that which
Saussure had uncovered in language. As an anthropologist he studied
societies that had changed very little with the passage of time and this
allowed him to isolate them "synchronically", as Saussure had recom-'
mended with language.
6 Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, translated by Wade Baskin,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966, p 16.
7 Claude Levi-Strauss, Trlstes Tropiques, translated by John and Doreen Weightman,
Penguin Books, New York, 1992, p 57.
. In The Elementary Structures of Kinship, which first appeared in
1949, he applied this model to the laws governing marriage in various
so-called primitive cultures. At first sight this application might seem
somewhat inappropriate, as the make-up of family units appears to be
not primarily a means of expression. Levi-Strauss, however, demon-
strates that these relationships are governed by laws - a complex
network of codes and prohibitions that provides a sense of order and
structure within a community. By this means, he shows that kinship
laws act as a form of "representation", a symbolic language through
which a community describes itself in structural terms. By following
the authority of these implicit codes, a tribal grouping can maintain its
sense of order, as individual decisions and actions can always be
related to the larger patterns. Rather than the object-eentred approach
oftraditional anthropology, which concentrated on the nuclear family
unit as a basic building block of a society, Levi-Strauss instead followed
Saussure and considered the relations between these units. He
observed that patterns of intermarriage followed a ritualised process of
exchange, resulting in important bonds between groups of families,
due to connections such as parents/siblings, children/cousins, etc.
beyond the immediate child/parent relationship. The females were
often "exchanged" in marriage, as part of this process of maintaining
order, and a similar system often operated in other ritualised customs
such as gift-giving, trading and religious practice. To Levi-Strauss these
patterns also betrayed the attempt to explain the underlying structures
of nature, such as where the community forms a microcosm of the
world, and procreation becomes a metaphor for creation.
This is explained more comprehensively in what is probably Levi-
Strauss' most representative book, his collection of essays entitled
Structural Anthropology, published in French in 1958. In this book he
develops much further the analysis of cultural practices as fonus of
expression, with studies on the structural analysis of myth, alongside
magic, religion and art. This work fonus a parallel to his study of kin-
ship in its emphasis on underlying order, in particular the idea that
meaning emerges from the way basic units are combined into systems.
Where Saussure had analysed language in tenus of "phonemes", or units
I:
138 Building Ideas
of sound, Levi-Strauss identified "mythemes" as the units of meaning
within a story. As with language, it was not the semantic reference of
the individual mytheme that was most important: as he admitted, many
myths contained quite superficial literal meanings. What was significant
was the way in which the units were combined into a story, the pres-
ence or absence of particular characters and the sequence of events in
which they were involved. Levi-Strauss provided a demonstration of his
theory in his analysis of the Oedipus myth, which he showed depend-
ed on a series of themes which are acted out by the figures in the story.
He highlighted a series of general contradictions with which he claimed
the myth was attempting to deal, such as the oppOSitions between cul-
ture and nature, male and female, marital relations and blood relations,
together with the general mysteries of life and death and the origins of
mankind. The fact that myths always address these fundamental dilem-
mas provides the true meaning beneath their surface appearance and
they are thus composed, like works of art, to make sense out of the
chaos of the world. This theme of imposing patterns upon the flux of
everyday experience forms a parallel to techniques of psychoanalysis
such as the interpretation or decoding of dreams.
The latter field uses the technique as a way of resolving psychologi-
cal dilemmas and in a similar sense Levi-Strauss sees a myth as a kind .
of interpretive or mediating device - an attempt to resolve the kind of
oppositions set out in the list above. This theme is often taken up by a
particular character within the story, such as with the trickster figure
he discovered in the mythologies of the North American Indians. The
trickster is a hybrid of mortal and divine being who appears in a range
of different guises and is used to help make sense of mysterious
phenomena by shifting from one mode of existence to another. This
theme of the intermediary as a useful explanatory device also occurs in .
religious traditions in a somewhat similar role - the Greek gods
who could adopt various human forms to interfere with everyday'
events and the figures of Christ and the angels as divine messengers of
the word of God all have the ability to move between one world and
another and are thereby used to explain away apparently contradictory
aspects of experience.
These archetypal themes are played out in countless individual myths
and"Levi-Strauss' ambitious intention was to provide a universal "tein-
plate" for their interpretation. It is this emphasis on universality and the
use of binary oppositions as units of meaning that lends his method its
immediate impact as well as exposing its obvious limitations. The arche-
typal themes which appear in myths and seem to limit their potential
meaning relate to the inherited structure of language that apparently
limits the possibilities of expression. This "displacement" of the indi-
vidual subject from its sovereign position as a free-thinking person is
one effect of the structuralist view of the world which later philoso-
phers attempted to address. The implicit determinism in Levi-Strauss'
approach to culture seems to result from his overreaction to phenome-
nology and existentialism - he disparaged their emphasis on the indi-
vidual subject's experience and sought instead for a more objective
means of analysing and interpreting reality. His quest, like Edmund
Husserl's, for a truly "rigorous science", had resulted in a similarly iso-
lated study of the "essential" structures of meaning.
Projecting some of these insights back into the social context of
experience has been the task of those more recent writers who have
been influenced by structuraIist thinking. Of these, one of the most
provocative is the French critic Roland Barthes, who also demon-
strated in his later work the influence of structuralism on deconstruc-
tion. As Levi-Strauss had already demonstrated that the linguistic model
could be applied to social practices - such as marriage laws, religious
rites, food preparation and so on - Barthes was able to extend this
thinking into the context of contemporary cUlture and at the same
time assess its political implications for our understanding of sign
systems. Barthes also amplified Levi-Strauss' analysis of the ways in
Which signs transmitted their meanings, based on two alternative ways
of interpreting a word, either by category or position within a sen-
tence. By this he meant that words could be understood as part of a
continuous chain or sequence, where they acquire meaning by their
position and context, and through their relationship with other words
in the same sentence. On the other hand, they can be understood in
terms of categories or groups of words, or as alternative nouns,
140 Building Ideas
verbs or adjectives chosen from those available within the system. This
technique of interpretation can be seen more easily with a restaurant
menu, where items can either be read as components of a meal, or
simply as alternative starters, main courses or desserts. Table 1 shows
Barthes' formalised version of this analysis, comparing a range of
signifying practices and contrasting the "syntagmatic" (or sequential)
System Syntagm
Garment
Set of pieces, parts or Juxtaposition in the same
system
details which cannot be type of dress of different
worn at the same time on elements: skirt, blouse,
the same part of the body, jacket.
and whose variation corre-
sponds to a change in the
meaning of the clothing:
tocque, bonnet, hood, etc.
Food
Set of foodstuffs which Real sequence of dishes
system
have affinities or differ- chosen during a meal: this
ences, within which one is the menu.
chooses a dish in view of a
certain meaning: the types
of entree, roast or sweet.
A restaurant menu actualises both planes: the horizontal
reading of the entrees, for instance, corresponds to the
system; the vertical reading of the menu corresponds to
the syntagm.
Furniture Set of the "stylistic" van- Juxtaposition of the differ-
system eties of a single piece of ent pieces of furniture in
furniture (e.g. a bed) the same space: bed,
wardrobe, table, etc.
Architecture Variations in style of a sin- Sequence of the details at
system gle element in a building, the level of the whole
various types of roof, bal- building.
cony, hall, etc.
Table 1: Syntagrn and System". after Roland Barthes. Elements of Semiology. p. 63.
reading with the alternative "systematic" (or categorial) approach.
s
The gridded structure that Barthes makes use of here was often adopt-
ed by Levi-Strauss, particularly for the complex analysis of mythemes
in his later work on the science, or "logics", of myth.
.. Barthes, however, by contrast with Levi-Strauss, used the term
"myth" to refer to "ideology" which he saw as a way of distorting
meaning in favour of a dominant political or economic power. The
thinking behind this process of distortion will be dealt with more fully
in Chapter 5, but for now it is important to recognise that Barthes
also had another agenda - questioning the deterministic principle of
Levi-Strauss' linguistic model. Barthes does this by returning to the
nature of the sign and the arbitrary attachment between signifier
and signified, thereby challenging the inference in Levi-Strauss' work
that culture should be seen as a "static" system. If signs are agreed on
by convention then Barthes claims they must be capable of change,
and therefore to neglect the historical dimension of language leads to
the confusion of nature and culture. As he wrote in his collection of
essays, Mythologies (1957):
The starting point of these reflections was usually a feeling of impatience
at the sight of the 'naturalness' with which newspapers, art and common-
sense constantly dress up a reality which, even though it is the one we
live. in, is undoubtedly determined by history ... I resented seeing Nature
and History confused at every turn, and I wanted to track down, in the
decorative display of what-goes-without-saying, the ideological abuse
which, in my view, is hidden there.
9
Reflecting on matters as divergent as a wrestling match, Elle maga-
zine, a plastics exhibition and the new Citroen DS, Barthes was
constantly on the lookout for the political undercurrents in everyday
experience. On the principle that every object is a sign and that every
H Roland Barthes, Elements ofSemiology, translated by Annette Lavers and Colin Smith,
Hill and Wang, New York, 1968, p 63.
9 Roland Barthes, Mythologies, translated by Annette Lavers, Harper Collins, London,
1973, p 11.
I
.1
142 Building Ideas
sign must be part of a system, he considered all objects equally worthy
of this kind of meticulous textual analysis. Barthes' idea that we are
always somehow locked within various networks of representation
anticipated Derrida's famous notion that there is "nothing outside the
text". Barthes proVided a demonstration of the importance of these
cultural "texts" - including works of architecture - and he tried to
describe in his later writings the tools by which these texts could be
"read". As he described in his essay on cities, given as a lecture in 1967:
Here we rediscover Victor Hugo's old intuition: the city is a writing. He
who moves about the city, e.g. the user of the city (what we all are), is a
kind of reader who, following his obligations and his movements, appro-
priates fragments of the utterance in order to actualise them in secret. 10
This dynamic engagement with the city, which he compared with
the reading of modernist literature, provided a mechanism by which
Barthes claimed it was possible to counteract society's myths. One of
those he set out to attack was the literary opposition between reader
and author, where the writer is the "creator" of meanings that the pas-
sive reader merely receives and deciphers. As the city is a collage of
fragments, so too was writing in the modernist sense, and Barthes saw.
the enlightened reader as a dynamic agent in the interpretation
process. In his famous essay "The Death of the Author", written in
1968, he describes the "instability" of meaning that results:
We know now that a text is not a line of words releasing a single
'theological' meaning (the message of the Author-God) but a multi-
dimensional space in which a variety of writings, none of them original,
blend and clash. The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the
innumerable centres of culture. II
10 Roland Barthes, "Semiology and the Urban", in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking
Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997, p 170.
11 Roland Barthes, "The Death of the Author", in lmage-Music-Text, translated by
Stephen Heath, Noonday Press, New York, 1988, p 146.
This implies that each act of speech is in some sense a repetition - that
our words have always been spoken before us, and that language
speaks "through us", as even Heidegger had suggested.
Barthes' thinking, however, is based on Saussure's idea of the arbi-
trariness of the sign, which allows the notion of the "free-play" of
meaning to disrupt such "totalising" discourses as "reason, science and
law"; 12 It is here that Barthes is echoing a major theme in deconstruc-
tion, one that Derrida had already instigated in Of Grammatology in
1967. As Barthes describes it in the same essay, with the emphasis
again on syntactic "structures":
;'.
In the multiplicity of writing, everything is to be disentangled, nothing
deciphered; the structure can be followed, 'run' (like the thread of a
stocking) at every point and at every level, but there is nothing beneath:
the space of writing is to be ranged over, not pierced; writing ceaselessly
posits meaning ceaselessly to evaporate it, carrying out a systematic
exemption of meaning. 13
.'" ~ .
For Barthes it seemed that a deterministic structuralism could itself
become just another myth and he wished to question its restrictive
assumptions, such as its reliance on binary oppositions. This theme
extends into deconstruction as part of what we now refer to as post-
structuralist thinking, which builds on, rather than dismisses, the earli-
er philosophy - contrary to what the misleading label suggests. Other
fields in which structuralism has found favour are touched on in
Chapter 5 of this book, including two of Levi-Strauss' "three
mistresses" - Marxism and psychoanalysis.
12 Roland Barthes, "The Death of the Author", in lmage-Music-Text, translated by
Stephen Heath, Noonday Press, New York, 1988, p 147.
IJ Roland Barthes, "The Death of the Author", in lmage-Music-Text, translated by
. Stephen Heath, Noonday Press, New York, 1988, p 147.
144 Building Ideas
Semiotics in Architecture - The Rediscovery of Meaning
Where does all this leave us in terms of structuralism and the
"language" of architecture? A possible connection was of course sug-
gested by Barthes' use of the city as a metaphor. However, the more
specific question of the building as a system of signs related to func-
tions was left to the Italian writer Umberto Eco who wrote a lengthy
essay on this topic. Eco was close to the work of Barthes with his
interest in the sign-systems of everyday life, particularly the presence
of archetypal themes in the narratives of popular culture. In a study
from 1973, following the US President Nixon's faU from office, Eco set
out an intriguing analysis of the narrative structure of Nixon's resigna-
tion speech. The essay was called "Strategies of Lying" and compared
the speech with the pattern of a fairytale, tabulating its characters and
episodes as Levi-Strauss had done with the Oedipus myth. 14
ill his essay devoted to buildings, "Function and Sign: The Semiotics
of Architecture", Eco considered the more ambiguous problem of how
an architectural element "signifies" its function. He began by dividing
the question into primary and secondary functions which relate to the
distinction adopted in linguistics between denotative and connotative
meanings. The former refers to the literal meaning, or what the word
denotes or "says", whereas the latter involves the more implicit refer-
ences that are suggested by the manner of the saying. In everyday lan-
guage the denotative is dominant, such as in the communication of
facts or information, while the connotative becomes important in the
case of poetic language, where information is of secondary concern.
This division, however, oversimplifies the issues, as in reality the two
categories coexist - as language is never a truly neutral means of com-
munication, the poetic dimension will always intrude. Eco acknowl-
edges this situation in another essay on architecture, on the 1967 Expo
World Fair, where he describes the pavilions as reversing convention-
al functions, as the connotative takes over from the denotative. The
normal relationship between primary and secondary - or between
14 Claude Levi-Strauss, "The Structural Study of Myth", in Structural Anthropology, Basic
Books. New York, 1%3, pp 206-31.
functional and symbolic form - is inverted in the case of the Expo
pavilions, as they have no function except to symbolise their sponsors.
This conclusion is based on the earlier definition of an architectural
sign as denoting a function, such as the example of a staircase whose
literal meaning would be the possibility of walking up it or down it.
The principal theme that emerges in Eco's writing on architecture
recalls Barthes' idea of the "free-play" of signifiers - the interpretation
of buildings can never be controlled by the designer, just as the author
cannot predetermine the reader's reading. Eco finally recommends
that the architect must design for "variable primary functions and open
secondary functions" 15, in the hope of inviting the user's creative
engagement, or reappropriation, as Barthes had recommended with
language.
Notwithstanding any ambigUity in the translation from language to
architecture, these ideas have had a huge influence on architectural
theory. Fundamentally, this thinking showed a new concern for the
role of the interpreter, previously neglected in the modernist empha-
sis on functional norms. Rather than analysing user requirements and
letting technology take care of the rest, the 1960s saw the reappear-
ance of the question of meaning - a concern with how buildings were
understood by their inhabitants and the role of history in this process
of interpretation. A series of important books appeared from a variety
of different sources that addressed a similar shortcoming in main-
stream modernism. TItis consisted of a perceived poverty of expres-
sion in architectural form, resulting in a lack of engagement between
buildings and their users. The first of these books, CompleXity and
Contradiction in Architecture, was written by Robert Venturi, and set
out to reassess the lessons of history in architecture which he felt
had been suppressed within modernism. The Architecture a/the City,
written by the Italian Aida Rossi, also appeared in 1966. In this book
urban form was considered as a series of historical layers, based on
" Umbeno &0, "Function and Sign: The Semiotics of Architecture", in The City and the
Sign, Gottdiener and Lagapoulous (eds), Columbia University Press, New York, 1986,
pp 56-85. Reprinted in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge,
London, 1997, p 200.
146 Building Ideas
successive transfonnations of "archetypal" buildings. Rossi's book was
only translated into English in 1982, but his work had in the meantime
become internationally famous. The Architecture of the City had
appeared in Spanish and Gennan in the early 1970s, around the same
time as another landmark work, what became the book Collage City
written by Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter, which appeared as a journal
article in 1975. This work also looked at traditional cities as a
palimpsest of layers, as Roland Barthes had suggested in his analysis of
literature.
The historical depth that all these writers were searching for in
architecture was disappearing from the new "functional city" and their
intention was not just to preserve it but to reinvent it as a method
for making new buildings in the contemporary context. The effect of
this reassessment of the principles of modernism was to open the way
for linguistics in architecture - the possibilities for readdressing the
relations between fonn and meaning were taken up with great interest
around this time.
Agood summary of this process was provided by Geoffrey Broadbent
in his essay published in Architectural Design in 1978. Entitled"APlain
Man's Guide to the Theory of Signs in Architecture", the piece con-
tained a systematic treatment of the field's major figures, along with
explanations of their competing terminologies. He made a distinction
between the two main areas of influence in architecture, using
Saussure's division between syntactic and semantic. He described how
the two fields might be pursued independently of each other, leading
to contrasting expressions of fonn. The first, the syntactic view of
architecture, with its emphasis on structures, is dismissed as a hennet-
ic activity - the preoccupation with the rules of fonnal combination is
seen as ignoring what buildings actually mean. The shortcomings of .
this criticism will be considered later in more detail, but for the moment
it is worth noting Broadbent's conclusion. He regards the semantic
dimension of language as inescapable for architecture, as even so-called
neutral structures will inevitably carry meaning.
One of the first manifestations of this semantic tendency in archi-
tecture was the collection of essays published in 1%9, entitled
l
Meaning and Architecture and edited by Charles Jencks and George
Baird. Jencks went on to champion the use of semantic references
in buildings, which became the basis of what we now refer to as the
"language" of postmodernism in architecture. Robert Venturi was per-
haps the first architect to make explicit use of these ideas, in terms of
the self-conscious "quotation" of historic forms in his buildings. While
in his early work from the 1960s these references are still fairly abstract
- such as in the arch form across the doorway of the house for his
mother, near Philadelphia - in his later work they appear in a much
more literal form, as in the classical pilasters and Egyptian decoration
of his Sainsbury Wing of the National Gallery in London. Uniting these
twO extremes is the principle of the arbitrariness of the sign, which in
his written work Venturi had translated into an intriguing architectur-
al theory. On the basis that any object could be made to signify a par-
ticular use, he saw a problem in the modernist principle of expressing
a function through a specific form. Illustrated by his famous sketch of
the "duck" and the "decorated shed", Venturi showed how a building
could signify without resorting to functionalist expression. Rather than
trying to make the form of the building express the character of what
goes on inside, Venturi advocated the application of signs, as seen in his
studies of Las Vegas hotels. He felt that modernism had compromised
itself by insisting on functionalist expression and it was time to learn
from commercial architecture in its techniques of communication:
By limiting itself to strident articulations of the pure architectural
elements of space, structure and program, modem architecture's expres-
sion has become a dry expressionism, empty and boring - and in the end
irresponsible. Ironically, the modem architecture of today, while reject-
ing explicit symbolism and frivolous applique ornament, has distorted the
whole building into one big ornament. In substituting 'articulation' for
decoration, it has become a duck. 16
To get over what he claimed was a problem within modernism of
functional expression compromising functional operation, he tried to
16 Robert Venturi et at., Learning From Las Vegas, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997,
P 103.
1 Venturi and Rauch - Franklin COllrt, Philadelphia, 1973-76. (Neil Jackson)
2 Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown - Sainsbury Wing, National
Gallery, London, 1986-91. (Neil Jackson)
r
satisfy both demands by disconnecting them from each other, hence
the functional "shed" and its expressive "decoration". This strategy'
involved a kind of honesty in its separation of the two functions and
has led to a series of buildings characterised by their surface articula-
tion - Venturi accepts that the architect often controls only the build-
ing's skin, so he treats it as a screen for the display of surface pattern.
The more'recent buildings at Princeton, such as Wu Hall from the early
J980s, and the lSI Building in Philadelphia, from 1978-79, show the
implications of this approach to the decoration of surface. Another
building which plays with the concept of the "empty" signifier is the
Benjamin Franklin Museum which stands on the site of his former
house. Instead of rebuilding the house from historical records, an out-
line of its form has been created in white-painted steel. This is an
extreme example of a building that tries to deny its own substance,
150 Building Ideas
4 Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown - Research laboratories, Princeton
University, 1986. (Alistair Gardner)
5 Venturi, Rauch and Scott-Brown - Institute for Scientific Information,
Philadelphia, 1978-79. (Alistair Gardner)
,[
I
152 Building Ideas
making great play of the fact that it is merely trying to refer to some-
thing else.
The problem with this reduction of architecture to decoration is that
people still have to inhabit the internal spaces of the "shed". Another
architect who has also tried to make sense of this dilemma, and who
shares the concern with history expressed by Venturi, is fellow
American Michael Graves. Graves became known in the 1970s as one
of the famous New York Five, after the book Five Architects published
in 1972. At this stage, paradoxically, his work showed pronounced
"syntactic" tendencies, being for the most part a revival of 19205
modernist forms. Beginning with the abstract geometric language of
Le Corbusier's "purist" villas, Graves was just beginning to experiment
by adding colour and fragmenting forms.
Following a period of study in Rome at the American Academy and
the phenomenological influence of his colleague Peter Carl, his build-
ings also began to include more obviously figurative elements, along
with the explicit quotation of historical references. In the essay
accompanying his work, published in 1982, he made use of the lan-
guage analogy to illustrate his interest in meaning. By distinguishing
between the everyday and the poetic dimensions of language, he was
also echoing Broadbent's division between syntactic and semantic:
When applying this distinction of language to architecture, it could be
said that the standard form of building is its common or intemallanguage
- determined by pragmatic, constructional and technical requirements.
In contrast, the poetic fonn of architecture is responsive to issues exter-
nal to the building, and incorporates the three-dimensional expression of
the myths and rituals of society. 17
Graves went on to admit that both dimensions of meaning are essen-'
tial, but he concentrates on the latter as a reaction to its neglect in
mainstream modernism. This poetic, or external, language is depend-
17 Michael Graves. "A Case for Figurative Architecture", in Wheeler, Amell and Bickford
(eds), Michael Graves: Buildings and Projects 1966-81, Rizzoli, New York, 1982. pp
11-13. Reprinted in Kate Nesbitt (ed.), Theorising a New Agenda for Architeclltre:
An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-95. Princeton Architectural Press,
Princeton, 1996, pp 86-90.
6 I\1iChael Graves - Humana
Building, Louisville, Kentucky,
7 Michael Graves - Humana
Building, Louisville, Kentucky,
ent on associational readings, where both figurative and anthropo-
morphic references are of major significance.
Graves blamed the lack of this kind of reference for the alienation
of modernist space, as he claimed that buildings no longer acted as
mediators between human beings and their environment:
All architecture before the modem movement sought to elaborate the
themes of man and landscape. Understanding the building involves both
association with natural phenomena (for example, the ground is like the
floor), and anthropomorphic allusions (for example, a column is like
a man). These two attitudes within the symbolic nature of building
were probably originally in part ways of justifying the elements of
architecture in a pre-scientific society. However, even today, the same
metaphors are required for access to our own myths and rituals within
the building narrative. 18
,. Michael Graves, "A Case for Figurative Architecture", in Kate Nesbin (ed.), Theorisirlg
a New Agenda for Architectllt'e: An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-95.
Princeton Architectural Press, Princeton, 1996, p 88.
154 Building Ideas
8 Michael Graves - San Juan Capistrano Library, California, 1982.
( eil Jackson)
9 Michael Graves - Sanjuan Capistrano Library, California, 1982.
(Neil Jackson)
The fact that building elements are nameable objects, such as arch, col-
umn and floor, meant that they were also memorable to the building
user as a way of establishing a sense of place. Graves felt this quality
had been lost in the abstractions of modernist geometries, where
points, lines and planes no longer allowed this kind of reading. The
shortcomings in Graves' buildings, however, result from a different
kind of abstraction, where the abrupt shifts of scale disrupt conven-
tional expectations. The curious combination of historical quotations,
whose volumetric quality is denied by the thinness of their construc-
tion, results in a feeling of superficial unreality that belies the gravity of
Graves' theoretical position.
156 Building Ideas
Semantics or Syntactics? - The Meaning of Structures
There is a distant echo in Graves' thinking of some phenomenologiCal
themes and it is perhaps no surprise to find Norberg-Schulz writing
positively of Graves' work.
19
In an essay on figurative architecture,
published in 1985, he claimed that many ideas in postmodernism were
actually implicit within modernism. On the issue of materiality, how-
ever, this comparison appears tenuous, as the understanding of
Graves' work is predominantly visual and intellectual - a consequence
of the structuralist principle of the "immateriality" of the sign. Another
way of interpreting a possible continuity with modernism is to return
to the syntactic analysis of the language of architecture. It is perhaps
here among the work of a group of late-modernists that the future
potential of linguistics might still become apparent. In fact, one of the
earliest manifestations of structuralist thinking in architecture emerges
within modernism in the work of Aldo van Eyck. The Dutch architect,
educated in England, has written widely on his work and was part of
the Team X group of post-war architects that were mentioned in
Chapter 1. In the 1950s van Eyck and the Team X group were heavily
critical of the modernist city and its tendency to erase the past. Rather
than preserving ancient fabrics for the sake of sentiment or nostalgia,
van Eyck attempted to draw out the underlying principles of tradition-
al forms. By identifying the common characteristics in the architec-
tures of the past he hoped to arrive at a "synchronic" series of timeless
formal principles:
Man after all has been accommodating himself physically in this world for
thousands of years. His natural genius has neither increased nor
decreased during that time. It is obvious that the full scope of this enor-
mous environmental experience cannot be combined unless we tele-
scope the past. . . . I dislike a sentimental antiquarian attitude toward
the past as much as I dislike a sentimental technocratic one toward the
future. Both are founded on a static, clockwork notion of time (what anti-
'0 Christian Norberg-Schulz, "On the Way to Figurative Architecture", in Architecture:
Meaning and Place, Selected Essays, Rizzoli, New York, 1988, pp 233-45.
quarians and technocrats have in common) so let's start with the past for
a change and discover the unchanging condition of man.
20
Van Eyck boiled down these formal principles into the concept of
'twin-phenomena", which echoes Saussure's analysis of language as
being fundamentally a system of differences. In van Eyck's case these
differences were based on the qualities of architectural space and were
defined as a series of binary terms with contrasting characteristics.
These included open-closed, dark-light, inside-outside, solid-void
and unity-diversity, all of which, van Eyck maintained, should be seen
as inseparable pairs. Architecture should act as the mediator, keeping
the dualities in "equipoise":
All twin-phenomena together form the changing fabric of this network -
and the constituent ingredients of architecture. Though different, each of
them, they are at the same time - this is the point - also reciprocally open
to each other. Far from being mutually exclusive or independent, they
merge, lean on each other. Equality is their cardinal common denom-
inator. Their very essence is in fact, complementary, not contradictory.21
Perhaps the best illustration of van Eyck's structuralist method is the
orphanage be designed on the outskirts of Amsterdam, completed in
1960. The building shows the possibilities of van Eyck's "syntactic"
approach to architecture, where a complexity of spaces results from a
comparatively small number of components. The basic modules that
have been developed to satisfy the accommodation requirements are
repeated and rearranged to create an interesting hierarchy of spaces.
Circulation routes and spaces are made to overlap around doorways
and the inside-outside theme is also evident in the use of courtyards
and full-height glazing.
1<1 Aldo van Eyck, "The Interior of Time", in Forum, July 1967, pp 51-4. Quoted in
Kenneth Frampton, Modem Architecture: a Critical History, Thames and Hudson,
London, 1992, p 298.
11 Aldo van Eyck, "Building a House" in Hennan Hertzberger et at., Aida van Eyck.
Stichting Wonen, Amsterdam, 1982, p 43.
I!
158 Building Ideas
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(Redrawn by the author, after Aldo van Eyck)
Due to the repetition of its constructional elements and the strong
aesthetic of repeated units, the scheme still retains the mass-produced
quality of many of the early modernist "industrialised" buildings. This
problem has been addressed by a former colleague of van Eyck, fellow
Dutch architect Herman Hertzberger, who was heavily influenced by
structuralist thinking. The key issue for Hertzberger was the problem
of engaging with the building user and how to prevent the feeling of .
alienation implied by the abstract language of syntactic structures. In
the Centraal Beheer office building built in 1974, he adopted a similar
approach to van Eyck's orphanage in developing a structural module
as a repeatable unit. The units accommodate a series of open-plan
o
11 AIda van Eyck - Hubertus House for Single Mothers, Amsterdam,
offices which are laid out on a tartan grid, but the real success of the
spaces themselves depends on the way in which they are interpreted
by the building's users:
What we must look for in place of prototypes which are collective
interpretations of individual living patterns, are prototypes which make
individual interpretations of the collective patterns possible.
22
At Centraal &heer the basic structure is seen as a "language system"
which allows flexibility in its interpretation, whereas individual acts of
22 Herman Hertzberger, quoted in Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture: a Critical
History, Thames and Hudson, London, 1992, p 299.
II
160 Building Ideas
12 AIda van Eyck - Hubertus House for Single Mothers, Amsterdam,
T
13 Hennan Hertzberger - LiMa Housing, Berlin-Kreuzberg, 1982-86.
(Alistair Gardner)
14 Hennan Hertzberger - Centraal Beheer Offices, Apeldoorn, The
etherlands, 1968-72. (Alistair Gardner)
162 Building Ideas
15 Herman Hertzberger - Centraal Beheer Offices, Apeldoom, The
Netherlands, 1974: Upper level plan. (Redrawn by the author, after Herman
Hertzberger)
"speech" take place when specific activities begin to colonise a space.
Likewise at the Utrecht Music Centre where Hertzberger employs a
similar analogy for his column system, although here the architecture
is made more expressive in its elaboration of the basic unit:
" , The column system forms a minimum system of arrangement that allows
great freedom when it comes to filling it in, and that is able to coordinate
the large variety of parts issuing from the highly complex program. While
ensuring the unity of the whole, the column system is an encouragement
to shape every spot according to the requirements of each particular
situation. 23
By this means he hoped to engender a sense of identity between
user and space, based on the "colonisation" of the individual's envi-
ronment, which the building itself sets out to encourage. To assist this
process of appropriation a series of clues is prOVided by the architect
- places to sit, to display objects and the use of modularised furniture
which can be moved around are all attempts to inspire involvement
between the often passive inhabitant and his/her physical environ-
ment. While Michael Graves had opted for a semantic solution, offer-
ing familiar forms and historical references, Hertzberger had proposed
a more open and dynamic process of bodily engagement through the
building's use. That patterns of use engender meanings has already
been mentioned in our discussion of language, but with the elements
of architecture the same could be argued, as did Roland Barthc:s with
the Eiffel Tower. He saw the Tower as a raw piece of technology
w:hich acted as an idealised "empty" sign - an ideal model of the
"neutral" signifier to which various meanings could easily attach them-
selves. Barthes model of the "active" reader - engaged in a creative
process of reinterpretation - could also be applied to Hertzberger's
ideal inhabitant, as a kind of bricoleur effectively remaking the
building.
Another alternative to Graves' semantic version of structuralist
thinking came from his fellow New York Five members, Richard Meier
and Peter Eisenman. Meier has gone on to develop his approach based
on an abstract geometry of "white" forms through a series of larger
scale projects for museum and gallery buildings, such as the Atheneum
23 Hennan Hertzberger, "Building Order" in VIA, No, 7, 1984, P 41. Revised version
included in Hennan Hertzberger. Lessons for Students in Architecture, translated by
Ina Rike, Uitgeverij 010. Rotterdam, 1991, pp 126-45,
I
,I
Ii
I
;
J
I
f
!
I I
164 Building Ideas
_:l\ _1.
16 Gusrave Eiffel - Eiffel Tower, Paris, 1889, (Alisrair Gardner)
17 Richard Meier - Atheneum, New Harmony, Indiana, 1975-79.
(Tonarhan Hale)
T
18 Richard Meier - High Museum of Art, Atlanta, 1980-83. (Jonathan Hale)
II
I
166 Building Ideas
....
III
19 Richard Meier - High Museum of Art, Atlanta, 1980-83: Interior
circulation (Jonathan Hale)
T"
I
at New Harmony and the High Museum in Atlanta. While these later
works dealt with movement and the idea of the "architectural prome-
nade" they held back from a truly rigorous engagement with the disci-
plines of syntactic structures. Eisenman, on the other hand, makes
explicit use of these ideas, such as in the complex formal systems and
transformations in "House VI". The basic principle in Eisenman's work
is similar to that seen with Hertzberger, where the meaning of the form
is initially somewhat arbitrary, but while in Hertzberger's case signifi-
cance arises out of use-patterns, in Eisenman's work it is even more
elusive. Where "meaning follows function" in Hertzberger's buildings,
"function follows form" with Eisenman. As he writes of it himself in
deScribing "House I" in the essay included in the book Five Architects:
House I posits one alternative to existing conceptions of spatial organisa-
tion. Here there was an attempt, first, to find ways in which form and
space could be structured so that they produce a set of formal relation-
ships which is the result of the inherent logic of the forms themselves,
and, second, to control precisely the logical relationships of those
forms. 24
.He goes on to discuss the distinction in architecture between
the real structure of the building and the implied structure of form -
the latter providing a potentially "deep-structural" system which he
claims might provide new potential to receive meanings.
Throughout these early projects he considers architecture as an
autonomous discipline and explores the code by which forms are com-
bined. This syntax then generates a series of transformations which
forms a system of compositional principles. As one critic wrote in
describing this process:
Eisenman's early work thus incorporates two standard structuralist
principles: the bracketing off of the context, both physical and historical,
24 Peter Eisenman, "Cardboard Architecture", in Five Architects: Eisenman, Graves,
Gwathmey, Hejduk, Meier, Oxford University Press, New York, 1975. Panially
reprinted in 1 7 ~ e o r i e s and Manifestoes oj Contemporaryl Architecture, Jencks and
. Kropf (eds), Academy Editions, London, 1997, p 241.
I
I
Ii
II
168 Building Ideas
and, with that, the bracketing off of the individual subject, in favour of a
notion of an intersubjective architectural system of signification that, like
language, pre-dates any individual and is much less his or her product
than he or she is the product of it.
2s
Hence the difficulty for the outsider in interpreting Eisenman's code,
as the language is inevitably internal to the discipline. By the same
token, as the philosopher Andrew Benjamin has pointed out,26 this
notion of pre-existing "impersonal" structures is a key component of
the idea of tradition. By actively engaging with the very history of the
discipline at this deeper and most universal of levels, Eisenman is
potentially producing a more meaningful kind of discourse, based as it
is on architecture's fundamental components.
It is here where poststructuralism, in its reassessment of these ideas,
intersects with deconstruction in terms of its engagement with tradi-
tion. As Eisenman's architecture begins to show, in its abstract formal
language, there is still much to be gained from an understanding of
"deep structures" of form. This theme of underlying forces and how
they influence our understanding will resurface again in Chapter 5 and
this book's conclusion - firstly as a component of the political analysis
of buildings and finally as part of the general field of interpretation.
Background
Roland Barthes, Mythologies, translated by Annette Lavers, Harper
Collins, London, 1973.
Terry Eagleton,"Structuralism and Semiotics", in Literary Theory: An.
Introduction, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1983, pp
91-126.
2S K. Michael Hays, "From Structure to Site to Text: Eisenman's Trajectory", in Thinking
tbe Present: Recent American Arcbitecture, Hays and Burns (eds), Princeton
Architectural Press, New York, 1990, p 62.
26 See Chapter 2.
T
Richard Kearney, "Ferdinand de Saussure", "Claude Levi-Strauss" and
"Roland Barthes", in Modern Movements in European Philosophy,
. Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1986.
Claude Levi-Strauss, "The Structural Study of Myth", in Structural
Anthropology, Basic Books, New York, 1963, pp 206-31.
Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, translated by
Wade Baskin, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966.
Foreground
Roland Barthes, "Semiology and the Urban", in Neil Leach (ed.),
K. Michael Hays, "From Structure to Site to Text: Eisenman's
Trajectory", in Thinking the Present: Recent American
; Architecture, Hays and Burns (eds), Princeton Architectural Press,
New York, 1990, pp 61-71.
Herman Hertzberger, "Building Order" in VIA, No.7, 1984 revised ver-
sion included in Herman Hertzberger, Lessons for Students in
Architecture, pp 126-45, translated by Ina Rike, Uitgeverij 010,
Rotterdam, 1991.
Charles Jencks, The Language ofPost-Modern Architecture, Academy
Editions, London, 1978.
Robert Venturi et al., Learning from Las Vegas, MIT Press,
Readings
Geoffrey Broadbent, "A Plain Man's Guide to the Theory of Signs in
Architecture", in Architectural Design, No. 47, 7-8/1978, pp
474-82. Reprinted in Kate Nesbitt (ed.), Theorising a New Agenda
for Architecture: An Anthology of Architectural Theory 1965-95,
Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 1996, pp 124-40.
Mario Gandelsonas, "Linguistics in Architecture", in Casabella, No.
374, 2/1973. Reprinted in K. Michael Hays (ed.), Architecture
Theory Since 1968, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, pp 114-22.
Michael Graves, "A Case for Figurative Architecture", in Wheeler,
170 Building Ideas
Amell and Bickford (eds), Michael Graves: Buildings and Projects
1966-81, Rizzoli, New York, 1982, pp 11-13. Reprinted in Kate
Nesbitt (ed.), Theorising a New Agenda for Architecture: An
i
5
POLITICS AND ARCHITECTURE
,',
The Marxist Tradition
~ s we saw in Chapter 4 the inspiration for the structuralist method was
the search for the deeper forces that affect our understanding.
According to Levi-Strauss, the great propagandist of structuralist ideas,
his particular motivation grew from three distinctly different sources -
the disciplines of geology, Marxism and psychoanalysis. The common
tnread linking all three is the fundamental principle that what appears
on the surface is controlled by deeper forces from within. In this
chapter the latter two fields will be discussed in relation to architec-
ture, and the connections with structuralist thinking will become
significant in several ways. TI1ree important thinkers in the philosoph-
ical development of the twentieth century have all worked with
structuralist principles in their own particular disciplines: Louis
Althusser on the structures of ideology, Jacques Lacan on the struc-
tures of the unconscious and Michel Foucault on the structures of
power. All three philosophers were born in France and all three died
in the 1980s.
, To appreciate further the significance of these connections between
disciplines, it will be important to understand the broader background
to these issues; firstly, the question of politics and its underlying influ-
ence on architectural theory, for which we will have to look back
to the philosophical "revolution" of the nineteenth century; and
secondly, the notion of the unconscious and its unseen influence on
172 Building Ideas
our social behaviour, and particularly the way psychoanalysis has been
taken up in a political context. While the two fields seem separate
when briefly summarised in this way, the underlying themes that could
be said to link them should become apparent on closer study.
A major theme in the traditional debate over the relationship
between architecture and society is the political potential of art in
general as a means of critique or social comment. As we saw in Part 1,
the view of architecture as a creative art could be seen as an implied
critique of technological determinism - a protest at the reduction of
architecture to the impoverished practice of "shelter-engineering".
In a more specifically political sense this chapter will consider the
status of architecture in society in relation to the dominant political
paradigm of the Western capitalist liberal democracy. Under the pres-
ent system a great deal of political power seems to lie with the vast
multinational corporations, as they threaten to engulf the world with a
"culture" of blandness and uniformity. Companies like the Disney
Corporation, Coca Cola and Sky TV are fast becoming the great new
world powers, as they expand their influence across the globe and
threaten the survival of local cultures. In this context, social responsi-
bility usually involves resistance to these globalising forces, although
all varieties of ideological "distortion" are seen as targets for the
political artist.
From Marx to Marxism
The school of thought that today believes in the critical capaCity of the
work of art - for exposing the underlying structures of political control
and economic power - still for the most part draws its theoretical
model from the work of Karl Marx, in addition to its various rework-
ings by his more recent interpreters. The key issue is the idea of archF
tecture as a mode of "resistance" and transformation, with the power
to effect change through its direct impact on the environment. As
Marx pointed out, in one of his earliest writings: "Philosophers have
only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point, however, is to
T
Politics and Architecture ' 173
change it."j To begin to understand the work of Marx and the reason
fbr his significant and lasting influence, it is necessary to consider a few
of his key concepts before discussing their broader impact.
In approaching Marx's philosophy it is important to understand his sit-
uation in history, as a student in Berlin in the aftennath of Hegel's domi-
nating influence. Marx arrived in Berlin in 1836, just five years after the
great philosopher had died. Hegel had been teaching in Berlin as a pro-
fessor of philosophy since 1818 and had left a huge and lasting legacy
which the next generation now had to deal with. For Marx and a group
of colleagues who called themselves the Young Hegelians, the emphasis
was on trying to locate the weak points in the great edifice of Hegel's sys-
tem. We have seen in Chapter 1 how Hegel had constructed a historical
philosophy which presented the whole course of history as the quest for
absolute knowledge. Hegel had shown the force behind this process to
be the emerging "world-spirit", an "idea" attempting to express itself in
the physical fonns of the visible world. The culmination of Hegel's his-
tory took place in the mind of the philosopher, being the ultimate
manifestation of "spirit" as it comes to its own self-understanding. This
idealism has gone down in history as one of Hegel's grandest conceptions
and it is this great historical principle that soon attracted Marx's attention.
Rather than tinker with the minutiae in attempting to refine Hegel's
system, Marx set out to attack its foundations by questioning its most
basic assumptions. He dismissed philosophical history as a dry aca-
demic abstraction, cut off from the real history of everyday conditions
and experience:
The Hegelian philosophy of history is the last consequence, reduced to
its 'finest expression', of all this German historiography, for which it is
not a question of real, nor even of political, interests, but of pure
thoughts, which consequently must appear to Saint Bruno, as a series of
'thoughts' that devour one another and are finally swallowed up in 'self-
consciousness' .
2
I Karl Marx, Theses on Feuerbach. Reprinted in 17Je Marx-Engels Reader, Robert C
Tucker (ed.), Norton & Company, New York, 1978, p 145.
2 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology. Reprinted in The Marx-Engels
. Reader, Robert C Tucker (ed.), Norton & Company, New York, 1978, p 166.
174 Building Ideas
It was consciousness that became the great pivot-point for Marx,
about which he tried to turn Hegel's philosophy on its head, although
more accurately he described it as standing Hegel on his feet. He felt
that the idealist approach had tried to build a philosophy from ideas,
while he was attempting to reverse this and build an alternative from
experience. Hegel had, according to Marx, simply inverted the real
course of history, so to correct this Marx constructed a system more
closely modelled on reality. He did borrow, however, Hegel's dialecti-
cal model, where progress is described as an interplay between con-
sciousness and reality. Where in Hegel this process leads to a refine-
ment of concepts, with Marx it transforms the material conditions of
reality. In Marx's terms this amounted to a "dialectical materialism",
although he himself only ever referred to it as the "materialist concep-
tion of history". As he wrote in 1859, in one of his few philosophical
works to be published during his lifetime:
The mode of production of material life conditions the social, political,
and intellectual life-process in general. It is not the consciousness of men
that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that
determines their consciousness.;
Marx seemed to suggest that as individuals we are restricted in our
actions due to the presence of an unseen structure that appears to limit
the mind's potential for free thinking. In a model comparable to the
structuralist conception of the underlying systems of language, Marx
set out the means by which this deterministic process might take
place:
In the social production of their life men enter into definite relations that
are indispensable and independent of their will, relations of production
which correspond to a definite stage of development of their material
productive forces. The sum total of these relations of production consti-
~ Karl Marx, Preface to A Contribution to the Critique ofPolitical Economy. Reprinted
in The Marx-Engels Reader, Robert C. Tucker (ed.). Norton & Company. New York.
1978, p 4.
1
Politics and Architecture 175
i tutes the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which
rises a legal and political superstructure and to which correspond definite .
! forms of social consciousness.
4
This is the now classic description of the "base and superstructure"
model, depicting the geological conception of history that Claude Uvi-
Strauss was so enamoured with. The base consists of two components,
firstly the "forces of production", being the raw materials, machinery
and labour required for producing industrial goods. The second part he
called the "relations of production", referring to the ways in which the
work is organised, such as in the typical pyramidal structure of the cap-
italist corporate hierarchy.
The superstructure which rises out of this base and which is, in
Marx's terms, determined by it, consists of the social, political and legal
institutions that make up the society's "consciousness". Quite how
deterministic Marx meant this model to be is still the subject of much
argument among scholars. Marx does, however, suggest a direct link
between the two components of the base, when he says "the hand-mill
will give you a society with the feudal lord, the steam-engine a society
with the industrial capitalist".
5
This presents a slightly caricatured
version of Marx's thinking on the process of history which, in the case
of the base and superstructure relationship, was more complex than
first appears. In fact the reasoning behind Marx's call for philosophers
to change the world lies with the problem caused by one section of
society being exploited by another. In Marx's model the class that con-
trols the base thereby also controls the superstructure, and under cap-
italism this meant the working classes being locked into their relations
of production. With the institutions of the superstructure being con-
trolled by the bourgeoisie, this meant that the workers were prevent-
ed from gaining any understanding of their exploitation. Various corol-
laries to this scenario soon followed in Marx's thinking, as he set out
, Karl Marx, Preface to A Contribution to the Critique oJPolitical Economy. Reprinted
in The Marx-Engels Reader, Robert C. Tucker (ed.), Norton & Company, New York,
1978, p 4.
S Quoted in David Mclellan, Karl Marx, PengUin, New York, 1975, p 40.
176 Building Ideas
the possibilities for revolution based on his analysis of historical
progress. He saw that in the civilisations of the past a particular socie-
ty would tend to collapse when the "contradictions within the system
had broken out onto the surface. As he wrote at the beginning of his
famous work, The Communist Manifesto:
The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class strug-
gles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-
master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in
constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now
hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolu-
tionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the
contending classes.
6
Besides the continuing exploitation of one class by another, in mod-
em society a new danger had arisen inside the system. As a conse-
quence of the division of labour within the capitalist mode of produc-
tion, the new industrialised worker had now become "alienated from
his work. By breaking up industrial processes into a series of spe-
cialised components, capitalism had robbed ordinary workers of any
meaningful connection with their work. As Marx somewhat lyrically
described it, referring to a previous system of production:
Supposing that we had produced in a human manner; each of us would
in his production have doubly affirmed himself and his feUow men. I
would have objectified in my production my indiViduality and its peculi-
arity and thus both in my activity enjoyed an individual expreSSion of my
life and also in looking at the object have had the individual pleasure of
realising that my personality was objective, visible to the senses and thus
a power raised beyond aU doubt.7
6 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. The Communist Manifesto, Eric Hobsbawm (ed.).
Verso. London, 1998, pp 34-5.
7 Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophical ManUScripts. Quoted in David Mclellan,
Karl Marx. Penguin, New York, 1975. pp 31-2.
c
The real importance of this process is as part of the worker's "self-
creation", where the personality of the producer is invested in their
product - this existentialist idea also anticipates the work of William
Moms, the pioneer English socialist and leader of the Arts and Crafts
movement. Instead, the industrial product has become a mere
anonymous commodity, prized for its "exchange-value" rather than
any "use-value" in itself, and the worker, at the same time, becomes
commodified under this sytem, valued as a labour resource rather than
a unique human being.
Not surprisingly, perhaps, Marx's political views brought him into
early conflict with academia and even his work as a journalist was soon
suppressed by the Prussian state. In 1843 he moved to Paris in search
of more progressive surroundings, where he met a fellow German,
Friedrich Engels, who became his lifelong collaborator. Engels, who
had been working in his family's textile business in Manchester, gave
Marx some first-hand experience of capitalism, as well as much-need-
ed financial support. In Paris his radical journalism met with further
opposition from the government and he was forced to move to
Brussels until the onset of the German revolution of 1848. By this time
he had written the famous Communist Manifesto for the Communist
League he had helped establish there. The revolution in Germany col-
lapsed in 1849 and he then moved back from Cologne to Paris before
finally settling down to live in London. It was only after his death in
1883 that his more famous philosophical writings began to appear in
print, with the exception of the first volume of his study of Capital
which he did see published in 1867.
Though Marx accepted that capitalism had produced many benefits
for society, such as much greater prosperity through an increase in
productiVity, he saw no reason for the unfair "relations of production",
where a minority seemed at liberty to exploit the labour of the major-
ity. As a final stage in the development of an "ideal" society, one With-
out class divisions or destructive "antagonisms", he predicted a social
revolution that would resolve these contradictions and create a new
system of common ownership of the means of production:
178 Building Ideas
The monopoly of capital becomes a fetter upon the mode of production,
which has sprung up and flourished along with, and under it.
Centralisation of the means of production and socialisation of labour at
last reach a point where they become incompatible with their capitalist
integument. This integument is burst asunder. The knell of capitalist
private property sounds."
The remaining difficulty for Marx's theory was explaining why this
revolution had not taken place - why the conflicting elements in soci-
ety were being held together in equilibrium. He came up with the con-
cept of "ideology" to explain why this was the case, and it is here that
Marx's base and superstructure model becomes a good deal more
refined - although he also falls back on a metaphor, in one of his earlier
formulations:
If in all ideology men and their circumstances appear upside-down as in
a camera-obscura, this phenomenon arises just as much from their
historical life-process as the inversion of objects on the retina does from
their physical life-process ... The phantoms formed in the human brain
are also, necessarily, sublimates of their material life-process, which is
empirically verifiable and bound to material premises. Morality, religion,
metaphysics, aU the rest of ideology and their corresponding forms of
consciousness, thus no longer retain the semblance of independence.
9
This "false consciousness" as Engels called it is promoted by the
institutions of the superstructure, which ensure that the contradictions
within society are accepted as immutable natural principles - thus a
dominant mythology supports the status quo (much as Roland Barthes
described it in Chapter 4). This mythology serves to suppress the two
great conflicts in society - between the worker and the product,
which has now become an "alien" object, and between the individual
and the community, due to the laws of private property - and this pre-
8 Karl Marx, Capital, Volume 1. Reprinted in The Marx-Engels Reader, Robert C.
Tucker (ed.), Norton & Company, New York, 1978, p 438.
9 !Uri Marx and Friedrich Engels, The German Ideology. Quoted in David Mclellan
(ed.), The Thought oJKarl Marx, Macmillan, London, 1995, p 159.
r
I
vents, according to Marx, the workers' consciousness oftheir-exploita-
tion; thus the revolutionary impulse is never allowed to break through..
The concept of ideology shows the dialectical nature of Marx's
thinking, and proVides the necessary refinement to the deterministic
model of history. The issue centres on his intention to change, rather
than merely interpret, the conditions of society, with the question now
being, where do you begin - to change consciousness or to change
conditions? According to Marx's more humanistic earlier writings, it is
the former activity that becomes a priority for the philosopher. Seeing
beyond the ideological "illusion" that prevents awareness of political
injustice also becomes a major theme in later Marxist thinking - cen-
tred on the question of cultural activity as a means of exposing ideolo-
gy to the process of critique.
Marxist Interpretation - Lukacs, Gramsci and Benjamin
Marx's early works only began to appear in print around 1930, with his
Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts making most impact. One
writer who had anticipated some of the themes contained in these
early writings was the Hungarian philosopher and literary critic, Georg
lJulcics. Lukacs contested the empirical, "scientific" interpretation of
Marxism that had been promoted by Engels following Marx's death.
Anticipating Thomas Kuhn, on the principle of the paradigm, he
writes:
The blinkered empiricist will of course deny that facts can only become
facts within the framework of a system - which will vary with the knowl-
edge desired. He believes that every piece of data from economic life,
every statistic, every raw event already constitutes an important fact. In
so doing he forgets that however simple an enumeration of 'facts' may be,
however lacking in commentary, it already implies an 'interpretation'. 10
10 Georg Lukacs, History and Class Consdousness: Studies in Marxist Dia.lectics, trans-
Iated by Rodney livingstone, Merlin Press, London, 1971. p 5.
~ I
I
180 Building Ideas
This kind of mechanical understanding meant the laws of society had
come to be accepted as beyond man's control, whereas Lukacs restored
the importance of the concept of alienation as a way of explaining how
this ideological illusion had come about. In his History and Class
Consciousness (1923), he attempted to reinterpret Marx in terms of the
philosophy of Hegel, by reinstating the creative role of the collective
human consciousness. He coined the term "reification" (meaning "turn-
ing into a thing") to explain what happens to human consciousness in
the alienating conditions of modem industrial capitalism. This idea mir-
rors Marx's concept of the "fetishisation" of commodities, where an
analogous process of transformation occurs in reverse. In Marx's terms,
the product of alienated labour takes on an almost magical existence of
its own, like the fetish-objects used in many archaic religiolL'> rituals,
which were endowed with quasi-human capabilities. When the product
enters the market place it acquires its own exchange-value and enters
into a "society" of relations with other commodities. Marx saw this as
elevating the object above humanity, at the same time as the worker
was reduced from a human being to a commodity.
Lukacs used this notion to explain how Marxism itself had been dis-
torted as later writers had reduced the human element in Marx's think-
ing. Instead of the inevitable revolution that Marx had seemed to fore-
cast, based on the inexorable growth of new conditions leading to a
necessary change of consciousness, Lukacs reinstated the dialectic
between the two terms, with the responsibility for change resting on
the shoulders of the workers:
The truth that the old intuitive, mechanistic materialism could not grasp
turns out to be doubly true for the proletariat, namely that it can be trans--
formed and liberated only by its own actions, and that the 'educator must
himself be educated'. The objective economic evolution could do no more
than create the position of the proletariat in the production process....
But the objective evolution could only give the proletariat the opportuni
ty and the necessity to change society. Any transformation can only come
about as the product of the - free - action of the proletariat itself. II
II Georg Lulcics, History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics, trans-
lated by Rodney Uvingstone, Merlin Press, London, 1971, pp 208-9.
Afurther refinement of the "vulgar" Marxist understanding of history
came from the Italian philosopher, Antonio Gramsci, who was also
active in the Communist party around the time of World War 1.
Following the failure of the Communists to take power after the war,
Gramsci was imprisoned by the Fascists in the late 1920s. While
detained he was allowed to write, and composed a series of Prison
Notebooks, which were published after his death following his release
in 1937. Gramsci's contribution to Marxist thinking echoes that of
Lukiics, although he develops the problem of ideology into the field of
popillar culture. He uses the concept of hegemony to describe the per-
vasive presence of ideology, and to explain why Marx's "base and
superstructure" notion is too simplistic when taken literally. Again he
deVelops a dialectical relationship between the two components of
Marx's model, and shows how the institutions of the superstructure
actually serve to support the base. This takes place at the level of ideas,
through the process of dissemination carried on by the state which, by
controlling the supply of information, is able to condition a great deal
of what people think. According to Gramsci, class interests present
themselves as cultural phenomena and it is these in turn that become
reified into seemingly "natural" principles. This second nature that is
created, as a cocoon around society, prevents anyone seeing outside it
to a possible alternative system. As he wrote in the Prison Notebooks
on the "educative" role of the state:
... One of its most important functions is to raise the great mass of the
: .
population to a particular cultural and moral level, a level (or type) which
corresponds to the needs of the productive forces for development, and
hence to the interests of the ruling classes. The school as a positive educa-
tive function, and the courts as a repressive and negative educative func-
tion ... (and) in reality, a multitude of other so-<:alled private initiatives
. and activities tend to the same end - initiatives and activities which
form the apparatus of the political and cultural hegemony of the ruling
classes. 12
12.Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Ptison Notebooks, translated by Hoare and
NoweU-Smith, Ulwrence and Wishart, London, 1971, p 258.
182 Building Ideas
Another radical thinker to suffer persecution by the Fascists was the
German writer Walter Benjamin, forced to flee to Paris in the 1930s.
Benjamin also worked with Marxist themes in the context of pOpular
culture, conducting a detailed study of the Parisian arcades as vehicles
of nineteenth century commodity capitalism. As Susan Buck-Morss
explained in her book on the unfinished Arcades Project:
... the key to the new urban phantasmagoria was not so much the com-
modity-in-the-market as the commodity-<>n-display, where exchange-value
no less than use-value lost practical meaning, and purely representational
value came to the fore. Everything desirable, from sex to social status,
could be transformed into commodities as fetishes-<>n-display that held
the crowd enthralled even when personal possession was far beyond
their reach. Indeed, an unattainably high price-tag only enhanced acom-
modity's symbolic value. 13
At the same time, with the arcades a new architecture had evolved in
iron and glass, which eroded the distinction between inside and out-
side space. TIlis perfectly suited the status of the new "commodity
fetish", which relied on a similar breakdown between consumer and
consumed - the disorientation at work in the new space of the arcade
served to support this confusion between subject and object. For
Benjamin this was exemplified in the figure of the prostitute, a charac-.
teristic combination of seller and product.
Another inhabitant of the arcades who became important in
Benjamin's thinking was the flaneur, or urban "wanderer" who resis-
ted the temptations of consumption by his ceaseless Window-shopping
and seemingly aimless movement. Benjamin appropriated this kind of
activity as a model of resistance to commodification, suggesting that as
theflaneur assembles impressions of the city, the artist should assem-
ble "found" objects. He took this approach himself, in his work on t ~ e
Arcades Project, and he describes it in his own words as:
13 Susan Buck-Morss, The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades
Project, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA., 1989.
....
1
... the attempt to capture the portrait of history in tbe most insignificant
" representations of reality, its scraps as it were. 14
.' In his essay on the philosophy of history he took a similarly radical
view, recommending the revision of the grand narratives - or the "his-
tory of the victors" - in favour of the "forgotten" history of ordinary
lives:
" According to traditional practice, the spoils are carried along in the pro-
. cession. They are called cultural treasures, and a historical materialist
:, views them with cautious detachment, For without exception the
: cultural treasures he surveys have an origin which he cannot contemplate
without horror. They owe their existence not only to the great minds and
talents who have created them, but also to the anonymous toil of their
contemporaries. There is no document of civilisation which is not at the
same time a document of barbarism. I;
In Benjamin's conception of an alternative writing of history, the pop-
ular culture of the arcades would have played a significant role. There is
atso a nagging ambiguity, however, in much of Benjamin's thinking,
between a nostalgia for the traditional "crafts", such as storytelling,
painting and theatre, and the excitement at the prospect of a liberating
politics being ushered in by the new arts of photography and cinema.
This is especially evident in what is perhaps his single most famous
essay, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction".
The Critique of the "Culture Industry" - Ideology and the
Frankfurt School
In contrast to Benjamin's studies of "low-cultural" resistance, and
Gramsci's active involvement with Communist politics at party level,
14 Walter Benjamin, Illuminations, translated by Harry Zohn, Schocken Books, New
York, 1968, p 11.
I; Walter Benjamin, "Theses on the Philosophy of History", in fl/uminations, translated
by Harry Zohn, Schocken Books, New York, 1968, p 256.
184 Building Ideas
the work of the Frankfurt School provides an alternative, more abstract
approach, with its strategy of theoretical analysis and an emphasis On
"high-cultural" critique. The Institute for Social Research (as it was
originally titled) started life in Frankfurt in 1923, although it Soon
moved from Germany following Hitler's rise to power, to restart at
Columbia University in New York. The leading figures in the Frankfurt
School (who incidentally supported Benjamin with the payment of a
stipend and the offer of teaching in New York) were Max Horkheimer
and Theodor Adorno - as mentioned in Chapter 1, discussing the "ide-
ology" of functionalism in architecture. Adorno's studies in modernist
music and his general interest in avant-garde culture left him unsym-
pathetic to the critical possibilities of more populist forms of art. This
is in marked contrast to Walter Benjamin, with whom he frequently
argued on this point, who rated the accessibility of a Charlie Chaplin
film over the obscurity of a Dadaist performance.
Adorno and Horkheimer collaborated on an important work entitled
the Dialectic of Enlightenment, which extended the debate on ideol-
ogy begun by Lulcics and Gramsci. They were also inspired by the
writings of the sociologist Max Weber and his work on the historical
development of what he called the "capitalist spirit". Weber had
claimed the origin of capitalism lay in the Protestant work ethic, the
doctrine of selfless asceticism preached by northern European
churches. This has led, according to Weber, to the triumph of ration-
ality in the quest for efficiency above all other concerns:
Now the peculiar modem Western fonn of capitalism has been, at first
sight, strongly influenced by the development of technical possibilities.
Its rationality is today essentially dependent on the calculability of the
most important technical factors.... On the other hand, the develop-
ment of these sciences and the technique resting upon them, now
receives important stimulation from these capitalistic interests in 'its prac- .
tical economic application, 16
16 Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit oj Capita/ism, translated by Talcott
Parsons, Routledge, London. 1992, p 24.
1
, The "iron cage" of modernity that Weber was attacking was also the
target of Adorno and Horkheimer, in terms of its basis in enlighten-
ment rationality. In their book, they described the workings of what
they termed the "culture industry", where enlightenment had become
"mass-deception" through the products of technological culture.
Where Hollywood movies, pulp fiction, popular music and so on are
aU produced under the aegis of capitalist financing and marketing sys-
tems, any form of resistance is prevented from ever reaching a mass
audience by the mechanisms which are set up to distribute the domi-
nant messages. As they describe it, this homogenisation is driven ulti-
mately by technical imperatives:
Interested parties explain the culture industry in technological terms. It
is alleged that because millions participate in it, certain reproduction
processes are necessary that ineVitably require identical needs in innu-
merable places to be satisfied with identical goods. The technical contrast
between the few production centres and the large number of Widely dis-
persed consumption points is said to demand organisation and planning
by management. . .. The result is the circle of manipulation and retroac-
tive need in which the unity of the system grows ever stronger. 17
To try to escape this manipulation they recommended the strategy of
"negation" and "transcendence", where the former involved a critique
of the system and the latter an attempt to see beyond it.
To step outside the process of conditioning is the fundamental prob-
lem for the radical philosopher; how to prevent any revolutionary
thinking being merely absorbed within the present system. If there is
no "Archimedean point" from which a neutral observer can merely
observe - uncontaminated by the distorting filter of ideological influ-
ence upon their thinking - how can a strategy of resistance begin to
suggest alternative ways of living, and thereby succeed in persuading
the masses to demand the changes necessary to achieve it? Another
member of the Frankfurt School who tried to address this intractable
17 Theodor W. Adorno and Max Horkheimer, Dialectic of Enlightenment, translated by
John Cumming, Verso, London, 1979, p 121.
186 Building Ideas
problem was the German philosopher Herbert Marcuse, who also
despaired of the "culture industry". As he wrote in One-Dimensional
Man (1964), which also had a great influence on the student protests
a few years later:
The means of mass transportation and communication, the commodities
of lodging, food and clothing, the irresistable output of the entertainment
and infonnation industry carry with them prescribed attitudes and habits,
certain intellectual and emotional reactions which bind the consumers
more or less pleasantly to the producers and, through the latter, to the
whole. The products indoctrinate and manipulate; they promote a false-
consciousness which is immune against its falsehood. 18
Marcuse, in his earlier work, had also combined these Marxist
themes with a reworking of various ideas he had discovered from his
study of psychoanalysis. Beginning with the pioneering work of the
Viennese doctor, Sigmund Freud, Marcuse developed the notion of the
unconscious into a tool of political analysis. In the effort to decode
ideologies and escape their insidious influence, Freud's "topological"
model of the human psyche provided another possible mechanism. As
Levi-Strauss had indicated by his comparison of "geology, Marxism and
psychoanalysis", the base-superstructure model of Marxism was mir-
rored in Freud's diagram of the structure of the mind. The uncon-
scious-conscious split was modified in Freud's later work to become a
three-part system of relations between super-ego, ego and id. The id,
or "it", at the base, is seen as the primordial source of our instincts and
these are repressed by the authority of the super-ego to prevent them
from upsetting the "social" functioning of the ego (or "I" - the con-
scious self). This domination of the instinctual desires by the action of.
the super-ego involves a process of repression that echoes that of the
capitalist system over the worker. The psychological process of i n t e r ~
nalisation of the childhood figures of authority, such as when the
mature adult's "super-ego" stands in for the absent parent, appears to
18 Herbert Marcuse, One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced
Industrial Society, Beacon Press, Boston, 1991, p. 12.
1
prepare the individual ego for the relations of domination within soci-
ety, and to repress the individual instinct for freedom and liberation. '
, In Freud these repressed desires re-emerge in alternative guises,
such as in dream images, "Freudian" slips of the tongue, or, more seri-
ously, in neuroses. In Eros and Civilisation Marcuse attempted a psy-
choanalysis of capitalism, identifying what he called a repressed life-
impulse ("eros") forced into the service of capitalist production. TIlis
was a more general application of what Weber had described as the
Protestant work ethic behind the success of capitalism, but it carried
with it the implication that repressed desires might once again be
unleashed. The realm in which these desires could be expressed was,
for Marcuse, that of artistic activity, where images of a non-repressive
society might yet inspire the kind of revolution needed to fulfil them.
As he wrote, quoting Adorno, on art as a realm of critique:
Art is perhaps the most visible 'return of the repressed', not only on the
individual but also on the generic-historical level. The artistic imagina-
tion shapes the 'unconscious memory' of the liberation that failed, of the
promise that was betrayed, ... Art opposes to institutionalised repression
'the image of man as a free subject; but in a state of unfreedom art can
sustain the image of freedom only in the negation of unfreedom'.19
TIlis positive conclusion on the function of art in the Frankfurt
School's thinking on ideology was further supported by Marcuse's later
book The Aesthetic Dimension which was published in '1978, the year
before his death.
Ideology in France - Althusser, Foucault and Debord
Of the more recent attempts to come to terms with ideology, not all
have remained faithful to Marx's thinking - in particular the work of
the French philosopher Michel Foucault, who was a student of Louis
19 Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilisation: A Philosophical InqUiry into Freud,
Routledge, London, 1987, p 144.
188 Building Ideas
Althusser. Althusser had tried to redefine ideology as solely a result of
material practices, taking the opposite, "scientific" view of Marx from
that of the Frankfurt School, seeing him purely as a materialist philoso-
pher. Ideology, for Althusser, did not originate with ideas, but rather at
the level of inherited structures, like language, and this was to a large
extent due to the influence of structuralist thinking. This view had a
significant impact on the understanding of the human subject, who
was reduced to a transient "effect" of these pre-existing structures - as
Barthes and Derrida had already begun to suggest, the individual is
always locked within these various networks of representation.
It was this "construction" of the subject through the action of larger
forces that attracted the interest of Foucault, who became obsessed
with the study of institutional practices and the surreptitious exercise
of power. He was determined to identify in the concrete evidence of
history the "inscription" of these impositions of power and he did this
through the study of knowledge, as well as institutions such as hospi-
tals and prisons. This is how he described his work, looking back on
his career:
My work has dealt with three modes of objectification which transfonn
human beings into subjects. The first is the modes of enquiry which try
to give themselves the status of sciences; for example, the objectivising
of the speaking subject in grammaire generate, philology and linguistics
... In the second part of my work, I have studied the objectivising of the
subject in what I call 'dividing practices'. The subject is either divided
inside himself or divided from others ... Examples are the mad and the
sane, the sick and the healthy, the criminals and the 'good boys'. Finally,
I have sought to study ... the way a human being turns him, or herself,
into a subject. For example I have chosen the domain of sexuality - how
men have learned to recognise themselves as subjects of 'sexuality' ...20
Foucault takes great pains to re-problematise these oppositions, to
show how they are artificially constructed to appear as "natural" prin-
20 Michel Foucault. "The Subject and Power", quoted in Richard Kearney, Modem
Movements in European Philosophy, Manchester University Press. Manchester,
1986. pp 296-7.
1
I
ciples - much as poststructuralism has attempted to do with the bina-
ry oppositions of structuralism, as a way of opening up the possibilities
of meaning.
In Foucault's earlier work he also questioned the view of history as
a linear development and suggested instead a model of change through
"epistemological breaks" - similar to Thomas Kuhn's notion of scien-
tific paradigms, though applied at a more general level across the field
of knowledge as a whole. In his later writing he considered the place
of the individual subject within the institutionalised power-relations of
society. His description of the all-encompassing presence of power in
society is reminiscent of the Marxist definitions of ideology (although
he vehemently denied any specifically Marxist sympathies, as he also
denied subscribing to the structuralist school of thought):
Power's condition of possibility ... is the moving substrate of forced rela-
tions which, by virtue of their inequality, constantly engender states of
power, but the latter are always local and unstable. The omnipresence of
power: not because it has the privilege of consolidating everything under
its invincible unity, but because it is produced from one moment to the
next, at every point, or rather in every relation from one point to another.
Power is everywhere not because it embraces everything, but because it
comes from everywhere.
21
A concrete example of this process in action comes in his essay on
the "Panopticon", the building devised by Jeremy Bentham, the eigh-
teenth century prison reformer. This theatre-like circular structure
with an outer ring of prisoners' cells could be policed from a central
watch tower, by a single person able to see all round. The sensation of
being under surveillance meant that the inmates would "police" them-
serves and thus the very fabric of the building itself ensured the effi-
cient operation of the disciplinary system. Foucault uses the example
of the Panopticon as an extreme case of a general phenomenon, such
as he sees in other institutional buildings such as hospitals, factories
21. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction, translated by
. Robert Hurley, Vintage Books, New York. 1990, p 93.
190 Building Ideas
and schools. As he describes it in Discipline and Punish, his influen-
tial book from 1975:
This was the problem of the great workshops and factories, in which a
new type of surveillance was organised.... what was now needed was
an intense, continuous supervision; it ran right through the labour
process; it did not bear - or not only - on production (the nature and
quality of raw materials, the type of instruments used, the dimensions and
quality of its products); it also took into account the activity of the men,
their skill, the way they set about their tasks, their promptness, their zeal,
their behaviour.
22
Foucault sees this process of imposing a generalised disciplinary
order as part of the organisation of cities as well as individual buildings.
As he pointed out in a later interview, published as "Space, Knowledge
and Power", this process began to become formalised at the end of the
eighteenth century:
One begins to see a form of political literature that addresses what the
order of a society should be, what a city should be, given the require-
ments of the maintenance of order; given that one should avoid epi-
demics, avoid revolts, pennit a decent and moral family life, and so on. In
terms of these objectives, how is one to conceive of both the organisa-
tion of a city and the construction of a collective infrastructure?23
Against Althusser's materialism Foucault is willing to admit that there
is still a dialectical relationship between objects and ideas. This is
important in his thinking on the status of architecture, and the inter-
play between buildings and the spatial practices they accommodate.
Later in the interview that was quoted above, he was asked about
the relationship between architecture and freedom:
22 Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, translated by Alan
Sheridan, Vintage Books, New York, 1995, p 174.
23 Michel Foucault, Space, Knowledge and Power", interview with Paul Rabinow.
Reprinted in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997, pp
367-68.
I do not think it is possible to say that one thing is of the order of 'libera-
tion' and another is of the order of 'oppression' .... a concentration
camp . . . is not an instrument of liberation, but one should still take
into account - and this is not generally acknowledged - that, aside from
torture and execution, which preclude any resistance, no matter how
terrifying a given system may be, there always remain the possibilities of
resistance, disobedience and oppositional groupings.
And at the same time, freedom cannot be guaranteed by the physical
fonn of buildings either:
'. The liberty of men is never assured by the institutions and laws that are
intended to guarantee them. This is why almost all of these laws are capa-
ble of being turned around.... I think that it can never be inherent in the
structure of things to guarantee the exercise of freedom. The guarantee
of freedom is freedom.
Having said this, Foucault does preserve a vital role for the
creativity of the architect, when the liberating intentions of the
designer "coincide with the real practice of people in the exercise of
their freedom". 24
On this issue of practice as a mode of resistance to ideology, the
French thinker, Guy Debord, also made a decisive contribution.
Debord returned to the problem of reification as set out by Lukacs, to
develop a remarkable set of observations on the state of society in the
1960s. Published as Society of the Spectacle in 1967, the book had a
direct impact on political activities as well as a more enduring influ-
ence on later Marxist thinking. Debord extended Lukacs' notion of the
commodity as fetish - the phenomenon of workers reduced to
"objects" and objects become alive with "magical" qualities - to sug-
gest that a further stage of confusion between the realms of the ideal
and the material had resulted from the "image" of the commodity com-
ing to dominate instead:
24 Michel Foucault, "Space, Knowledge and Power", interview with Paul Rabinow.
Reprinted in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge, London, 1997, pp
371-2.
192 Building Ideas
This is the principle of commodity fetishism, the domination of society
by 'intangible as well as tangible things', which reaches its absolute
fulfillment in the spectacle, where the tangible world is replaced by a
selection of images which exist above it, and which at the same time are
recognised as the tangible par exce/lence.
25
As part of Debord's resistance to this condition he fonned the
Situationist International, a group of writers and artists committed to
new modes of experience, which produced the journal of the same
name in the late 1950s and through the 1960s. Alongside the sponta-
neous reappropriations of public space, such as in performance-art
"happenings", which they referred to as "situations", they were also
influenced by Benjamin's description ofthejlaneur and developed the
"Theory of the Derive" in response to this idea:
Among the various situationist methods is the derive [literally: 'drifting'],
a technique Q2)transient passage through varied ambiences. The derive
entails playful-constructive behaviour and awareness of psychogeo-
graphical effects.
26
The paradoxical role that vision plays in the understanding of "psy-
chogeography" has led more recent French critics to take a less con-
demning view of the image. Jean Baudrillard in particular has become
fascinated by the "autonomy" of the sign and the way in which sign
value has taken precedence over exchange value. In his early work he
combined a Marxist approach with Saussure's analysis of the sign, to
show how the spectacle of "image consumption" had grown out of the
detachment of signifier from referent. In his later writings he went on
to celebrate this new culture of "simulation", although without the
political agenda of his earlier, more critical work.
" Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle, Black and Red, Detroit, 1983, 36.
26 Guy Debord, "The Theory of the Derive"', Intemationale Situationnisfe, No.2,
December 1958. Reprinted in Ken Knabb (ed.), Situationist International
Anthology, Bureau of Public Secrets, Berkeley, CA, 1981, P 50.
,
The Marxist Critique in Architecture - Tafuri and Jameson
The various modes of resistance that we have discussed so far towards
the dominant power structures and institutions of society would not
necessarily be ones that all architects would agree with - even, para-
doxically, the ones most politically engaged. The Italian historian,
Manfredo Tafuri, who was deeply influenced by Marxist ideas, doubt-
ed that architects on their own could achieve very much in the
absence of a general revolution in SOCiety. As he wrote in an essay from
1969 which was later expanded into the book Architecture and
Utopia, he felt that the social intentions of architecture seen in the
Utopian projects of early modentism had been co-opted by the all-
pervading machinery of capitalism. He blamed this on the ideology of
instrumental rationality, much as Adorno and Horkheimer had previ-
ously done, as this was part of the enlightenment origin of modernism
that had "naturalised" the basic principles of capitalism. Architectural
practice today could not escape this hegemony, and would always end
up colluding with the progress of the capitalist project, therefore the
only positive role for an architecture that was opposed to this ideolo-
gy was not in the world of practice but in the realm of Critique:
It may even be that many marginal roles exist for architecture and plan-
ning. Of primary interest to us however, is the question of why, until
now, Marxist-oriented culture has very carefully, and with an obstinacy
worthy of better causes, denied or concealed the simple truth that. just
as there can be no such thing as a political economics of class, but only a
class Critique of political economics, likewise there can never be an aes-
thetics, art or architecture of class, but only a class critique of aesthetics,
art, architecture and the city.27
On a more positive note, Tafuri does recognise the potential of
the "critical" architectural project to pOint to an alternative mode
Z7 Manfredo Tafuri. "Toward a Critique of Architectural Ideology". ConfrojJiano [,
January-April 1969. Reprinted in K. Michael Hays (ed.), At'chitecture Theot:v Since
1968, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, P 32.
194 Building Ideas
1 AIda Rossi - "Architettura Assassinata", 1974-75
of practice. In the introduction to the book version of the essay quot-
ed above, he does take care to deny the charge of forecasting the
"death of architecture" - implied by AIdo Rossi's famous drawing made
in response to the original publication. In fact he comes down in sup-
port of more "autonomous" architecture - such as was discussed in
Chapter 2 of this book, in terms of a critique of rationality - though
here employed as the only alternative now that capitalism has disem-
powered a revolutionary architecture:
What is of interest here is the precise identification of those tasks which
capitalist development has taken away from architecture. That is to say
what it has taken away in general from prefiguration. With this, one is led
almost automatically to the discovery of what may well be the 'drama' of
T
2 Paolo Soleri - "Arcosanti", Arizona, 1969 onwards. (Neil Jackson)
196 Building Ideas
architecture today: that is, to see architecture return to pure architecture,
to form without utopia; in the best cases to sublime uselessness.
28
At this point Tafuri's argument could be compared with our earlier
conclusion on the critical capacity of a r c ~ c t u r e as discussed in
Chapter 2. Tahlri, at the same time, seems reluctant to admit that while
this may be effective against an architectural ideology, this should not
be confused with ideology in general:
To the deceptive attempts to give architecture an ideological dress, I shall
always prefer the sincerity of those who have the courage to speak of that
silent and outdated 'purity'; even if this, too, still harbours an ideological
inspiration, pathetic in its anachronism.
29
In contrast to this pessimistic conclusion, the Marxist critic Fredric
Jameson has recently offered a more hopeful response. He has specifi-
cally tried to transcend Tafuri's "peculiarly frustrating position"30 and
propose a more 'positive agenda for architecture as a means of orienta-
tion within the homogenised environment of a global "late-eapitalism".
Jameson borrowed a notion from Kevin Lynch's book The Image of
the City in order to develop a political version of what Lynch had
termed the technique of "cognitive mapping". This originated from
research on how people construct mental maps in order to navigate
particular routes and areas within confusing urban environments. To
Jameson this became a way of describing a possible Marxist aesthetic,
whereby political opposition might be similarly orientated within the
hegemony of capitalism:
... in which we may again begin to grasp our positioning as individual
and collective subjects and regain a capacity to act and struggle which is
28 Manfredo Tafuri, Architecture and Utopia: Design and Capitalist Development,'
translated by Barbara Luigia La Penta, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 1976, pix.
29 Manfredo Taturi, Architecture and Utopia: Design and Capitalist Development,
translated by Barbara Luigia La Penta, MIT Press, Cambridge. MA, 1976, P ix.
30 Fredric Jameson. "Is Space Political", in Cynthia Davidson (ed.), Anyplace, MIT Press.
Cambridge, MA. Reprinted in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture, Routledge.
London. 1997. p 259.
1
at present neutralised by our spatial as well as our social confusion. The
political fonn of postmodemism, if there ever is any, will have as its voca- .
tion the invention and projection of a global cognitive mapping, on a
social as well as a spatial scaleY
Jameson likewise imagined the Utopian project to be a key compo-
nent of this "counterhegemony", suggesting alternative ideas and prac-
tices of space against which society could develop new demands of the
present system. It is here that his thinking overlaps most directly with
Tafuri, although at the same time he also refers back to Marx's writings
- particularly the way the new emerges from within the old:
Such figures suggest something like an enclave theory of social transition,
according to which the emergent future ... is theorised in tenns of small
yet strategic pockets or beach-heads within the older system. The essen-
tially spatial nature of the characterisation is no accident and conveys
something like a historical tension between two radically different
types of space, in which the emergent yet more powerful kind will
gradually extend its influence and dynamism over the older form, fanning
out from its initial implantations and gradually 'colonising' what persists
around it.J2
Towards a Marxist Practice - Lefebvre and De Certeau
The theme of revolution at the small scale - almost by stealth as
opposed to sudden transformation - has also been a powerful influ-
ence in grass roots architectural practice, as part of a movement to
democratise the process. As a contrast to the critique implied by the
"pure architecture" mentioned by Tafuri, discussed at the end of
Chapter 2 and returned to in Chapter 4, this section will conclude with
3\ Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, TIJe Cultural Logic of Late-Capitalism, Verso,
London, 1991, p 54.
.\2 Fredric Jameson, "Architecture and the Critique of Ideology", in Joan Ockman (ed.),
ArcIJitecture, Criticism, Ideology, Princeton Architectural Press, Princeton, 1985.
Reprinted in K. Michael Hays (ed.), Architecture Theory Since 1968, MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1998, P 453.
198 Building Ideas
~ )
. I
a brief illustration of another approach towards the problems of polito
ical change. The notion of direct action in order to change conditions
- as opposed to the Utopian strategy of beginning with a revolution in
consciousness - has resulted in various attempts by architects to act as
intermediaries or "enablers", reorganising the process of building
through community participation. The philosophical background to
tbis approach can be found in various sources, particularly the French
tradition of political activism which became significant during the stu-
dent revolts of the late 196Os.
Henri Lefebvre is perhaps the most intriguing of those directly
involved with the French student protests and his major work, The
Production of Space, shows the implications of his grass roots activi-
ty. There is a richness and complexity in Lefebvre's thinking due to a
wide range of philosophical influences, particularly his innovative
combination of phenomenological and Marxist themes, which gave his
work a strong connection to everyday life. His major target was what
he called "abstract space" which he felt modern architecture had pro-
duced under capitalism, and he was likewise critical of postmodernist
semiotics which he felt relied too heavily on purely visual imagery. As
the critic Michael Hays has written, introducing Lefebvre's work:
Abstract space is at once fragmented and homogeneous; capitalism com-
partmentalises and routinises all activity, ... Such contradictions cause
differences to assert themselves even as abstract space tends to dissolve
all difference. And it is precisely the instability of abstract space that
produces the potential to resist its domination, to produce an 'other'
space, by what Lefebvre calls the 'appropriation' of space from its
alienation in capitalism - 'the "real" appropriation of space, which is
incompatible with abstract signs of appropriation serving merely to mask
domination'.33
The kind of activity Lefebvre was referring to involved a shift of
architectural interest from the large scale of strategic planning to the
J3 K. Michael Hays, Architecture Theory Since 1968, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998,
P 175.
1
level of everyday "tactics". This difference was theorised more specifi-
cally in the work of Michel de Certeau, who was also influenced by
Lefebvre's writing on everyday life, in the development of his notion
(with reference also to Foucault) of an "anti-disciplinary" practice of
resistance to authority:
Many everyday practices (talking, reading, moving about, shopping,
cooking, etc.) are tactical in character. And so are, more generally, many
'ways of operating'; victories of the 'weak' over the 'strong' (whether the
strength be that of powerful people or the violence of things or of an
imposed order, etc.), clever tricks, knowing how to get away with things,
'hunter's cunning,' ... The Greeks called these 'ways of operating' metis.
But they go much further back, to the immemorial intelligence displayed
in the tricks and imitations of plants and fishes. From the depths of the
oceans to the streets of modem megalopolises, there is a continuity and
permanence in these tactics.
34
This idea of appropriation is described by de Certeau as a mode of
resistance to the dominant practices of capitalism in modem society.
This also parallels an idea of Barthes on the subversion of dominant dis-
courses, and the ways in which the active reader reappropriates a text
- as de Certeau would have it, reading as "poaching" - or meandering
through a text like Benjamin's wanderingjlaneur. This technique of
creative reading, which becomes almost an act of rewriting, is likened
by de Certeau to the inhabitation of space, and he also connects this
idea with improvisation in poetry:
This mutation makes the text habitable, like a rented apartment. It trans-
fonns another person's property into a space borrowed for the moment
by a transient. Renters make comparable changes in an apartment they
furnish with their acts and memories; as do pedestrians, in the streets
they fill with their desires and goals The ruling order serves as a sup-
port for innumerable productive activities, while at the same time blind-
ing its proprietors to this creativity . . . Carried to its limit this order
34 Michel de Ceneau, The Practice of Everyday Life, translated by Steven Rendall.
University of california Press, Berkeley, CA. 1984. P xx.
200 Building Ideas
3 Paolo Soleri - "Arcosanti", Arizona, 1969 onwards. (Neil]ackson)
would be the equivalent of the rules of metre and rhyme for poets of ear-
lier times: a body of constraints stimulating new discoveries, a set of rules
with which improvisation p l a y s . 3 ~
This notion of improvisation recaUs the architectural intentions of
Herman Hertzberger, who also attempted to inspire this kind of engage-
ment between buildings and their users. A more extreme example of
-" Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, translated by Steven Rendall,
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1984, pp xxixxii.
1
4 Christopher Alexander et al. - Sala House, Albany, California, 1982-85.
(Neil Jackson)
this can be seen in the involvement of users in design, and there are
several cases worth considering, particularly for their curiously similar
formal characteristics. These range from whole cities constructed by
their inhabitants, such as Paolo Soleri's momunental Arcosanti, down to
the one-off house built by the client, with the architect acting as an on-
site advisor. This latter scenario has been championed by Christopher
Alexander, who started life as a mathematician, and then went on to
analyse the process of design through a system of numerical variables.
In his later work this approach softened somewhat into the more flexi-
ble method of designing with Patterns, which he then developed into
a handbook or manual, which could be used by anyone to design a
building to their own requirements. At the Sala House in California this
was applied to a single family dwelling, but he has also worked on
larger scale developments, such as a college campus in Japan. In
202 Building Ideas
5 Christopher Alexander et at. - Sala
House, Albany, California, 1982-85:
Interior. (Neil Jackson)
6 Christopher Alexander et at. - Sala
House, Albany, California, 1982-85:
Interior. (Neil Jackson)
discussing the Eishin campus, constructed in 1985, Alexander presents
the project as a kind of civil war between two competing systems of
building. The first - "world system A" - is based on his use of the
Pattern Language, and the second - "world system B" - the conven-
tional, professionally organised, construction process.
World system A is based on human feelings. It is engaged in trying to cre-
ate a world in which human feeling comes first, ... and in which whole-
ness (and) rightness, ... is the quality in the world, which embodies and
depends on human feeling at every point. World system B is based on
mechanical and unfeeling processes. It poses a world of money, oppor-
tunity and power, in which ultimate things - wholeness and spirit - are
relegated to a very distant place.
36
'16 Christopher Alexander, "Battle: The History of a Crucial Clash Between World-System
A and World-System B", inJapan Architect. Tokyo, August 1985, P 35.
,
7 Christopher Alexander et at. - Mexicali Housing, Mexico, 1976. (Neil
Jackson)
Aside from the questionably "spiritual" qualities that might be pres-
ent in Alexander's architecture, in the context of modern Japan this
project was seen as a threat to the economic system. In Alexander's
words this confrontation takes on the scale of a heroic encounter, but
it does show the consequences of any attempt to subvert the system:
We see the Japanese (construction) companies aware, for the first time,
of the fact that our intention to implement system A, might have serious
consequences for their own future in Japan. What we were doing, ... in
its pure form posed a threat to the whole Japanese construction industry.
. . . They therefore set out to ensure that it must fallY
37 Christopher Alexander, "Battle: The History of a Crucial Clash Between World-System
A and World-System B", in]apan Architect, Tokyo, August 1985, P 19.
204 Building Ideas
8 Christopher Alexander et at. - Mexicali Housing, Mexico, 1976. (Neil
Jackson)
The project did in fact go ahead, amidst much acrimony and confusion,
and the buildings achieved a level of craftsmanship not always attained
in Alexander's work. His smaller scale projects by contrast often rely
on self-build construction, such as the community housing project
built for a small town in Mexico. This project was described in the
book called The Production of Houses (1985), which formed a real
"construction manual" as a counterpart to the earlier design guide.
Throughout all this work the intention was to hand over the "means of
production", such that the worker might be relieved of the alienation
Marx had described. As yet there has been no larger scale "revolution" '.
due to the lack of a mass response from the wealthy populations of the
Western world.
This sort of project has also been carried out on various scales in
Europe, such as in the work of the German architect, Frci Otto, and the
1
9 Frei Otto et al. - Okb House, Berlin, 1990. (Neil Jackson)
Austrian, Lucien Kroll. Both men have been concerned. to encourage
direct user-participation, leading to an architecture of often chaotic
and somewhat over-eomplex forms. The individual involvement in
design that these buildings encourage can be seen quite clearly in their
visual expression, which becomes symbolic of the architect stepping
back from control of production. As Kroll writes of his own work and
its grand agenda, which is tempered at the same time with a degree of
resignation:
In order to create a type of politics unrealisable at present, we are trying
out in advance the different methods which might one day bring about
the political situation we have in mind. This is simply a question of sug-
gesting prototypes ... and of taking note of their possibilities or draw-
backs. We have never imagined that we could bring about revolution
206 Building Ideas
10 Frei Otto et al. - Oka House, Berlin, 1990. (Neil Jackson)
,
11 Ralph Erskine - Byker Wall Housing, Byker, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
1%9-80. (Alistair Gardner)
208 Building Ideas
with pockets of alternative architecture, which, to make a revolutionary
impact, would have to infiltrate the existing constraints.
38
In Britain in the 1980s this approach gained a strong following under
the banner of "community architecture", and with the sponsorship of
the Prince of Wales. One of the best known and most successful exam-
ples of this is the Byker Wall housing in Newcastle, where an existing
community was transplanted into a range of individually tailored
house-types. Its architect, Ralph Erskine, part of the post-war Team X
group, is still pursuing these methods in his later work alongside his
other, ecological, concerns. The ongoing project for the Millenium
Village at Greenwich in London, will perhaps be Erskine's last attempt
to transform the provision of housing.
On the wider scale in architectural theory, a range of other "revolu-
tionary" agendas have also come into prominence in the last ten years
or so. In particular, the environmental movement, under the slogan of
"green architecture", has again challenged the traditional priorities of
capitalism with a new emphasis on ecological concerns. In a similar
sense, a change of consciousness has also been sought on another
level, in the emerging influence of feminist theory and the concept of
"gendered space". Afurther parallel exists here with the agenda of pre-
vious political projects, in terms of a return of repressed forces which
are now beginning to find a voice.
Quite how much architectural design can achieve by way of change
- particularly with its emphasis on form as opposed to social context
- throws up a whole series of questions concerning other interrela-
tionships, which many philosophers have already suggested in their
thinking. As Mary Mcleod has pointed out in a controversial essay on
this subject, it is the coincidence of many force5 that must be manipu-
lated to achieve an effect:
}II Lucien Kroll, "Architecture and Bureaucracy", in Byron Mikellides (ed.), Architecture
for People: Explorations in a New Humane EnVironment, Studio Vista, London,
1980, pp 162-3.
12 Ralph Erskine - Byker Wall Housing, Byker, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
210 Building Ideas
Both the historicist and the poststructuralist tendencies correctly pointed
to the failures of the modern movement's instrumental rationality, its
narrow teleology, and its overblown faith in technology, but these two
positions have erred in another direction in their abjuration of all realms of
the social and in their assumption that form remains either a critical or
affirmative tool independent of social and economic processes. That con-
temporary architecture has become so much about surface image and play,
and that its content has become so ephemeral, so readily transformable
and consumable, is partially a product of the neglect of the material dimen-
sions ... - programme, production, financing and so forth - that more
directly invoke questions of power. And by precluding issues of gender,
race, ecology and poverty, postmodernism and deconstructivism have also
forsaken the development of a more vital and sustained heterogeneity.39
This view implies that we are still caught up in the dilemma sug-
gested by Le Corbusier, when in 1923 he presented architecture as an
alternative to revoh;ltion.
40
It should be clear from the modes of resist-
ance set out by recent Marxist philosophers that the real "revolutions"
take place at the level of spatial practice. The strategy of subverting the
dominant paradigms through the unofficial use of various tactics -
such as improvising with "found" objects, technology transfer and
"poaching" of spaces, .as de Certeau remarked - provides a range of
possibilities for the enlightened consumer to step outside the com-
modification process. The more the strategies of coercive advertising
and media manipulation are exposed by political artists, commentators
and critics, the more informed people might become in the choices
they make regarding their economic and cultural conditions. As a
method of criticism of the art and architecture produced under capi-
talist conditions, the contextual background to the particular work
becomes of paramount importance to the Marxist view. However, as
Foucault and Derrida have suggested in the notion of the cultural
~ 9 Mary Mcleod, "Architecture and Politics in the Reagan Era: From Postmodemism to
Deconstructivisrn", Assemblage, 8, February 1989. Reprinted in K. Michael Hays (ed.),
Architecture Theory Since 1968, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1998, P 6%-7.
40 Le Corbusier, Towards a New Architecture, translated by Frederick Etehells,
,
"text", all objects have a dual potential as modes of practice and modes
of critique. The merging of theory and practice into a broader, more
critical discipline, will be discussed in the conclusion of this book
under the general heading of "hermeneutics".
Background
Walter Benjamin, Illuminations: Essays and Reflections, translated by
Harry Zohn, Schocken Books, New York, 1968.-
Michel de Certeau, The Practice ofEveryday Life, translated by Steven
Rendall, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1984.
Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle, Black and Red, Detroit, 1983.
Terry Eagleton, "Conclusion: Political Criticism", in Literary Theory:
An Introduction, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1983,
pp 194-217.
David Hawkes, Ideology, Routledge, London, 1996.
Richard Kearney, "Georg Lukiics", "Walter Benjamin", "Herbert
Marcuse" and "Michel Foucault", in Modern Movements in
European Philosophy, Manchester University Press, Manchester,
1986.
David Mclellan, Karl Marx, Penguin Books, New York, 1975.
Karl Marx/Friedrich Engels, The Marx-Engels Reader, Robert C.
Tucker (ed.), Norton, New York, 1978.
Foreground
Christopher Alexander, The Production of Houses, Oxford University
Press, New York, 1985.
William McDonough, "Design Ecology, Ethics and the Making of
Things" and "Hannover Principles", in Kate Nesbitt (ed.),
Architectural Theory 1965-95, Princeton Architectural Press, New
York, 1996, pp 400-10.
-'
212 Building Ideas
Mary Mcleod, "Architecture and Politics in the Reagan Era: From
Postmodemism to Deconstructivism", Assemblage, 8, February
1989. Reprinted in K. Michael Hays (ed.), Architecture Theory
Manfredo Tafuri, Architecture and Utopia: Design and Capitalist
Development, translated by Barbara Luigia La Penta, MIT Press,
John F. C. Turner, Housing By People, Marion Boyars, London, 1976.
Readings
Michel Foucault, "Space, Knowledge and Power", interview with Paul
Rabinow. Reprinted in Neil Leach (ed.), Rethinking Architecture,
Routledge, London, 1997, pp 367-79.
Fredric Jameson, "Architecture and the Critique of Ideology", in Joan
Ockman (ed.), Architecture, Criticism, Ideology, Princeton
Architectural Press, New York, 1985. Reprinted in K. Michael Hays
(ed.), Architecture Theory Since 1968, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
1998, pp 442-61.
...,
Conclusion
Towards a "Critical" Hermeneutics
The use of the word "hermeneutics" in the title of this conclusion is
not meant to suggest another discipline which might replace all the
others. Hermeneutics today is a problematic ternl because of its
historical associations, but I am using it in the broadest sense to mean
the general practice of interpretation. Chapters 1 and 2 of this book set
out two contrasting schools of thought - two opposing views on the
question of meaning in architecture. The first assumes that architec-
ture has no meaning at all, except as a solution to the problem of
providing convenient sheltered space. The second approaches archi-
tecture as a pure artistic exercise, with its priority to communicate a
message rated above all other concerns.
Both positions do not, of course, exist in actuality. I have used these
ideas rather as interpretive frameworks - lenses through which to con-
sider various tendencies. The fact that they are only tendencies and that
architecture is always less straightforward should have become clearer
in the subsequent chapters on the various interpretive models. That
buildings always carry messages, whether intentionally or not, renders
architecture representational along with all human endeavours. As the
theatre director Peter Brook wrote, on the origin of dramatic art:
I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage. A man walks across
this empty space whilst someone else is watching him, and this is all that
is needed for an act of theatre to be engaged. I
l Peter Brook, The Empty Space, Atheneum, New York, 19<>8, p 9.
214 Building Ideas
Countless times in the course of a normal day, similar "acts of theatre"
take place, with architecture as an ever-present backdrop playing its
part in the drama.
How we understand these various languages of non-verbal commu-
nication has been the subject of the second part of this book. That we
do understand each other at aU, in our different modes of discourse, is
testament to the presence of various shared underlying structures.
With phenomenology, the problem centred on the notion of "inter-
subjectivity" and the extension of bodily experience beyond the indi-
vidual's perceptual realm. Structuralism appeared to offer a social con-
text for this experience, by embedding the individual in a network of
pre-existing codes and conventions. At the same time, structuralist
analysis failed to deal with historical change and the various brands of
political criticism were shown to address this more specifically. In this
conclusion we will consider further the whole question of historical
tradition and the role of hermeneutic practices in the understanding of
architecture. This is not to suggest that all these strategies could be
incorporated in a single discipline, merely to show the relative merits
of the different approaches to interpretation.
The critical element I have suggested in the title "critical hermeneu-
tics" should serve to highlight a problem that will become apparent in
the conventional understanding of the term. It is meant to suggest a
certain vigilance towards the conservative tendencies of hermeneutics,
and to restore the quality of questionableness with regard to historical
traditions. As the French philosopher Lyotard recom-
mended, in The Postmodern Explained: "Everything that is received
must be suspected, even if it is only a day old. "2
The Hermeneutic Tradition
The dictionary definition of the word "hermeneutics" states that it con-
cerns "interpretation, especially of scripture or literary texts". The
2 Jean-Franc;ois Lyotard, The Pos/modern Explained: Correspondence, /982-/985,
translated by Don Barry et at., University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1993, p 12.
1
Towards a Critical Hermeneutics 215
reference to scripture immediately highlights the religious origins of
the term, in both the Biblical and the ancient Greek practice of inter-'
preting the "word of God". It derives from the Greek term used for the
priest at the Delphic oracle, and also from Hermes, the wing-footed
messenger-god. Hermes is the Greek equivalent of the angel in
Christianity, the intermediary figure who communicates between
people and the gods. We previously met this figure in the structuralist
analysis of myth, as a device for explaining the causes of otherwise
mysterious events. In hermeneutics, the god Hermes could be seen as
a convenient metaphor, as a reminder of the idea that texts can be
understood as "messages". The fact that texts require interpretation at
all, as opposed to being merely carriers of neutral information, can also
be inferred from the great disputes over interpretation that have
marked the history of religions based on allegiance to a "founding doc-
ument". The fragmentation of the Christian church within the last few
hundred years is just one example of the scope for argument over the
meaning of the "word of God". More dramatically, the seventh centu-
ry split between Islam and Christianity, as well as the earlier Christian
divergence from the Judaic Old Testament traditions, also shows how
powerful the rewriting of texts can be when it is carried out under the
name of ever more authentic interpretation.
The transformation of hermeneutics from a theological to an aca-
demic practice occurred with the eighteenth century expansion of
scientific thinking in the humanities. As the contemporary French
philosopher Paul Ricoeur described, in his essay "The Task of
Hermeneutics", this could be seen as a shift from a regional to a gen-
eral hermeneutics:
Henneneutics was born with the attempt to raise (Biblical) exegesis and
(classical) philology to the level of a Kunstlehre, that is, a'technology',
which is not restricted to a mere collection of unconnected operations.
3
3 Paul Ricoeur, "The Task of Henneneutics", in Hermeneutics and the Human
Sciences, translated by John B. Thompson, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1981, p 45.
216 Building Ideas
Friedrich ScWeiermacher is the figure most often credited with this
innovation, a professor of theology who saw hermeneutics as a
method for eliminating misunderstanding. His view that the under-
standing of a text depended on an understanding of the author can be
seen as a consequence of Kant's notion of art as the product of indi-
vidual genius. This Romantic concept of the individual as the origin of
all meanings has been chaUenged, as we now know, by the twentieth
century philosophies of structure. However, in the early nineteenth
century rebellion against the constraints of classical traditions, a new
impetus was added to the search for reliable principles of interpreta-
tion. ScWeiermacher developed the notion of the "hermeneutic circle"
to describe the interpretation of a text based on the relationship
between part and whole. This could involve working from the details
in order to build up a sense of the whole or, more reliably, working
dialectically from both directions at once. Included in this process
would be a study of the author's intentions which would again be com-
pared with the actual content of the written text. The spatial figure of
the circle also suggests another factor, the idea of a tradition being
formed by a shared community of understanding. This again becomes
important in later versions of hermeneutics where the idea of belong-
ing becomes an influential theme.
This subjective approach was picked up by the next great innovator
in hermeneutics, another German, Wilhelm Dilthey, who was a pro-
fessor in Berlin from 1882. Dilthey opposed the philosophy of posi-
tivism that had foUowed the spread of science and instead tried to
define the "human sciences" as dependent on a fundamentaUy differ-
ent form of knowledge. He set out to do for the humanities what Kant
had done for science, in the sense of inquiring into the "conditions of
possibility of', not "pure" but historical reason. This was based on his
distinction between explanation and understanding, where the former
is the province of science and the latter of the humanities. Under-
standing for Dilthey was based on the historical context of the work,
although the emphasis, as with ScWeiermacher, was on the mental life
of the author. It was only in the twentieth century with Martin
Heidegger, in the book Being and Time, that the hermeneutic ques-
l
tion shifted dramatically once more. From being a questionof episte-
mology concerning the different modes of knowledge, the issue then
became one of ontology, or the fundamental nature of human being.
In Heidegger's work, understanding became the basic mode of being,
and he set out to describe the world in which this being is situated. In
Chapter 3 we discussed the general direction of Heidegger's work as
he progressed from an emphasis on the everyday "lifeworld" towards
the gradual privileging of language. The discussion of tools provides a
good example of the understanding of objects according to context,
with the hermeneutic circle in this case consisting of a network of
related practices. An object thereby becomes meaningful in relation to
other pieces of equipment and, in Heidegger's terms this opens up a
. world in which the object can be interpreted. There is also an antici-
patory dimension to this structure of contextual relations, in that it
necessarily precedes any particular object or act of perception. As
Heidegger writes in Being and Time, concerning this quality of pre-
existence:
Whenever something is interpreted as something, the interpretation will
be founded essentially upon fore-having, fore-sight, and fore-conception.
An interpretation is never a presuppositionless apprehending of some-
thing presented to us'
The emphasis on language as the "house of being" that becomes a
characteristic of Heidegger's later writing is one of the themes picked
up by his student, a fellow German, Hans-Georg Gadamer. In his major
work, Truth and Method, published in German in 1960, he provided
an in-depth history of hermeneutics as well as developing his own con-
tribution. Gadamer also picked up on Dilthey's notion of separating
explanation from understanding, claiming that the sciences' use of the
former relies on an alienation between object and observer. The ideal
of objectivity in the kind of knowledge sought by the sciences is seen
to be premised on a clear separation of interpreter from experiment.
4 Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, translated by John Macquarrie and Edward
Robinson, Harper & Row, New York, 1962, pp 191-2.
218 Building Ideas
The interpreter attempts to step outside the actual conditions of
the experiment in order to achieve a level of neutrality and repeatabil-
ity in their observations. Gadamer saw this condition of estrangement
between observer and observed as the exact opposite of the
experience of belonging that he felt was essential to hermeneutic
understanding.
It is here that Gadamer's thought becomes prone to the charge of
conservatism, because of his emphasis on the sense of belonging nec-
essary to his concept of interpretation. In fact, a brief definition makes
this point all too clear, when he claims that hermeneutics consists of:
"the bridging of personal or historical distance between minds ..."5
This emphasis on the mind of the author recalls Schleiermacher's
neo-Kantian notion, which held the genius or the individual to be the
sovereign creator of original meanings. This notion is somewhat rein-
forced by Gadamer's description of understanding as dependent on the
process of the "fusion of horizons". A person's horizon is the particu-
lar context in which the act of creation or interpretation takes place,
being analogous to Heidegger's idea of the network of equipment that
defines the tool. In a later essay, Gadamer emphasises this orientation
towards the past when he illustrates his notion of art as a symbolic
token of recollection:
What does the word 'symbol' mean? Originally it was a technical term in
Greek for a token of remembrance. The host presented his guest with the
so-called tessera hospitalis by breaking some object in two. He kept one
half for himself and gave the other half to his guest. If in thirty or fifty
years time, a descendant of the guest should ever enter his house, the
two pieces could be fitted together again to form a whole in an act of
recognition.
6
The "presence of the past" in Gadamer's concept of the experience
of art as recollection is also suggested in his support of Heidegger's
5 HaJ1s..Georg Gadamer, "Aesthetics and Henneneutics", in Philosophical Hermeneutics,
translated by David E. Linge, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1976, P 95.
6 Hans-Georg Gadamer, "The Relevance of the Beautiful", in The Relevance 0/ the
BeautifUl and other Essays, Robert Bernasconi (cd.), Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1986, p 31.
1
notion of language as the "house of being". He develops the idea of
language as the privileged vehicle of cultural tradition and focuses in
particular on writing as the ultimate conduit of historical truths:
Nothing is so purely the trace of the mind as writing, but nothing is so
dependent on the understanding mind either. In deciphering and inter-
preting it, a miracle takes place: the transformation of something alien
and dead into total contemporaneity and familiarity. This is like nothing
else that comes down to us from the past.... Buildings, tools, the con-
tents of graves - are weatherbeaten by the storms of time that have swept
over them, whereas a written tradition, once deciphered and read, is to
such an extent pure mind that it speaks to us as if in the present.'
This closing of the historical distance between the interpreter and the
author of the text is the point of weakness in Gadamer's theory accord-
ing to the criticism of Paul Ricoeur. He points out the necessity of
retaining a sense of "alienation" between ourselves and things, in
order to avoid the trap of believing that we can ever fully "recover" the
past.
Ricoeur goes on to point out, in the essay mentioned above, that it
is the very "tension between proximity and distance, which is essen-
tial to historical consciousness".8 Ricoeur develops this tension in his
own work by returning to a concept of Heidegger's, where he
describes the work of art as "opening up" or "revealing" a world. For
Ricoeur this is a world in front of the text, not the world of the author
behind it, and he saw the beginnings of this understanding in the earl-
ier thinking of Dilthey:
He indicated the direction in which historicism could overcome itself,
without invoking a triumphant coincidence with some sort of absolute
knowledge. But in order to pursue this discovery it is necessary to
7 Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, translated byJoel Weinsheirner and Donald
G. Marshall, Sheed & Ward, London, 1989. p 163.
8 Paul Ricoeur, "The Task of Hermeneutics", in Hermeneutics atld the Human
1981, p 61.
220 Building Ideas
renounce the link between the destiny of henneneutics and the purely
psychological notion of the transference into another mental life; the text
must be unfolded, no longer towards the author, but towards its imma-
nent sense and towards the world which it opens up and disclosesY
The "Conflict" of Interpretations
The historical context of Ricoeur's first encounter with the philosoph-
ical background of hermeneutics is important for an understanding of
the whole direction of his later work. It was during his imprisonment
by the Nazis in the course of World War 2, that he discovered the writ-
ings of philosophers such as Husserl and Heidegger and the tradition
of German historical scholarship. In making sense of the fact that
German politics was not the inevitable result of German tradition, he
also concluded that history must be continually open to reinterpreta-
tion. From this fact he developed the general principle of the "multi-
ple meanings" of language, which was a major contribution to the
Conflict of Interpretations and a basic principle of hermeneutics. He
was also critical of the idealist tendency in Husserl's work in phenom-
enology, which attempted to interpret a "true" reality which is imme-
diately apparent to the perceiving consciousness. Instead he insisted
on the inescapable nature of the ongoing "task" of hermeneutics,
which must be based on the suspicion of all immediately apparent
meanings. He supported this endeavour in the work of various philoso-
phers, who in their own different ways have developed a "hermeneu-
tics of suspicion". He included in this category some we have already
mentioned: Nietzsche's critique of the "genealogy" of rationality;
Marx's exposure of capitalist ideology; and Freud's unmasking of the
influence of the unconscious as it interferes in the everyday life of the
conscious mind.
9 Paul Ricoeur. 'The Task of Henneneutics", in Hermeneutics and the Human
1981,p53.
1
The instability of meaning in Ricoeur's notion of conflict was a
theme in the more recent work of the Italian philosopher, Gianni
Vattimo. Vattimo, who was also a student of Gadamer's, developed his
own version of the plurality that is characteristic of postmodernist
thinking. Just as Heidegger and, later, Derrida had developed a critique
of Western philosophy based on the misguided search for foundations
as the ultimate ground for absolute knowledge, Vattimo likewise char-
acterised the current state of postmodernism in philosophy as a period
of "post-foundationalism" or, more memorably, "weak thought". This
situation lends significance to a range of previously marginalised dis-
courses, such as Derrida makes clear in his discussion of fields not nor-
mally considered within philosophy. In The Truth in Painting Derrida
focuses on the relationship between the work of art and the "frame",
which turns out to be constitutive for the definition of art itself.
Vattimo likewise takes up this theme of the centrality of the apparent-
ly marginal, both in his discussion of architectural ornament and in
developing the concept of nihilism. Vattimo borrows this term from
Nietzsche, to denote the "de-centreing" of the experiencing subject
which, as we have mentioned already, has been a defining characteris-
tic of modern philosophy.
For Vattimo, as for Ricoeur, this alienation of the individual subject
from their position as "creator of meanings" has given new impetus to
the idea that hermeneutic experience is actually a fundamental "mode
of being". In a sense, our very existence demands a constant project of
interpretation, given that there is always some uncertainty in any act
of communication - whether the "interference" that phenomenology
describes between the body and the world; or the arbitrariness of the
signifier/signified pair defined by structural linguistics; or the invisible
filter of ideology between us and our social relations - each of the mod-
els we have discussed in this book sets out an approach to this situa-
tion. As Vattimo described the legacy that Heidegger has left for the
role of philosophy within the contemporary "alienated" world:
Hermeneutics is not a theory that opposes an authenticity of existence
founded on the privilege of the human sciences, to the alienation of the
222 Building Ideas
rationalised society; it is rather a theory that tries to grasp the meaning of
the transformation (of the idea) of Being that has been produced as a con-
sequence of the techno-scientific rationalisation of our world. 10
It should only be necessary here to say a few words about a "decon-
structive" hermeneutics as a critical strategy of interpretation by way
of conclusion. That the backward-looking emphasis in hermeneutics
can conceivably be transformed within a more future-oriented practice
is suggested by Derrida's affirmative attitude towards the past and his
desire to open up issues previously repressed by the "dominant" his-
tories. This dynamic approach to tradition also has a parallel with
psychoanalysis, in the Freudian technique of working through the
traumatic events of past experience. By taking up and restating the
archetypal figures from the history of thought - at the same time as
making explicit the basic ambiguities underlying their origin - the crit-
ical practice that Derrida advocates could also become a prelude to
Heidegger's "opening up":
This moment of doubling commentary should no doubt have its place in
a critical reading. To recognise and respect all its classical exigencies is
not easy and requires all the instruments of traditional criticism. Without
this recognition and this respect, critical production would risk develop-
ing in any direction at all and authorise itself to say almost anything. But
this indispensable guardrail has always only protected, it has never
opened, a reading. I 1
The taking up and challenging of traditions within architecture has
been an important element in each of the themes in this book. It is
hoped that as part of this ongoing process of critical assessment and
reinterpretation - necessitated by the role of buildings as "cultural
texts" - that enough will have been gained through the hermeneutic
10 Gianni Vattimo, Beyond Interpretation: The Meaning of Hermeneutics for
Philosophy, translated by David Webb, Polity Press, London, 1997, p 110.
\I Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology. translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns
Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 1976, P 158.
project if, as Heidegger reminds us, architecture has again become
"worthy of questioning". 12
Background
Terry Eagleton, "Phenomenology, Hermeneutics, Reception Theory",
in Literary Theory: An Introduction, University of Minnesota Press,
Minneapolis, 1983, pp 54-90.
Hans-Georg Gadamer, "Aesthetics and Hermeneutics", in Philosophical
Hermeneutics, translated by David E. Unge, University of California
Press, Berkeley, CA, 1976, pp 95-104.
Paul Hamilton, Historicism, Routledge, London, 1996.
Fredric Jameson, "On Interpretation", in The Political Unconscious:
Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act, Routledge, London, 1989, pp
17-102.
Jean-Franl;ois Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on
Knowledge, translated by Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi,
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1984.
Paul Ricoeur, "The Task of Hermeneutics", in Hermeneutics and the
Human Sciences, translated by John B. Thompson, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1981, pp 43-62.
Gianni Vattimo, Beyond Interpretation: The Meaning oj
Hermeneutics Jor Philosophy, translated by David Webb, Polity
Press, London, 1997.
Foreground
Alan Colquhoun, "From Bricolage to Myth, or How to Put Humpty-
Dumpty Together Again", in Essays in Architectural Criticism:
Modern Architecture and Historical Change, MIT Press, Cambridge,
12 Martin Heidegger. "Building. Dwelling. Thinking", in Poetry, Language, Thought,
translated by Albert Hofstadter. Harper & Row, New York, 1971. p 160. Reprinted in
Neil Leach (ed.). Rethinking Architecture, Routledge. London, 1997.
224 Building Ideas
MA, 1981. Reprinted in, K. Michael Hays (ed.), Architecture Theory
Peter Eisenman, "The End of the Classical: The End of the Beginning,
the End of the End", in Perspecta, 21, 1984. Reprinted in Kate
Nesbitt (ed.), Theorising a New Agenda for Architecture: An
Vittorio Gregotti, Inside Architecture, translated by Wong and
Zaccheo, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996.
Robert Mugerauer, Interpreting Environments: Tradition,
Deconstruction, Hermeneutics, University of Texas Press, Austin,
TX,1995.
Joseph Rykwert, "Meaning and Building", in Zodiac 6, 1957. Reprinted
in The Necessity of Artifice, Academy Editions, London, 1982, pp
9-16.
Dalibor Vesely, "Architecture and the Conflict of Representation" in
AA Files, No.8, January 1985, pp 21-38.
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Index
Adorno, Theodor 93-4, 184-5, 187,
193
Aesthetic Dimension, The (Marcuse)
187
aesthetics 41-2, 50-60, 63-5, 196
Alexander, Christopher 201-4
alienation 121, 176-7, 178, 204,
217
Althusser, Louis 171, 187-8, 190
analytical philosophy 67-8
Ando, Tadao 123
anthropology 3, 136-8
anthropomorphism 153
Arcades Project (W. Benjamin) 182
Archigram 15-18, 19, 23
Architecture and Utopia (Tafuri)
193
Architecture oj the City, The (Rossi)
145-6
Architecture: A Critical History
(Frampton) 121
Architecture: A Modern View
(Rogers) 11
Arcosanti (Soleri) 201
Aristotle 51-2
art 5, 32, 41, 47-8, 49, 51, 58-61,
63-4, 69, 93, 102, 126, 138, 172,
184, 187, 210, 219, 221
Art as Experience (Dewey) 106
Arts and Crafts Movement 177
Bachelard, Gaston 109-10, Ill,
133
Bacon, Francis 35-6, 37, 39
Bagsvaerd Church (Utzon) 116
Baird, George 147
Banham, Reyner 18, 23-4, 28-30
Barcelona Pavilion 1
Barthes, Roland 139-43, 144, 146,
163, 188, 199
base/superstructure 174-5, 178,
181, 186
Baudrillard, Jean 2, 192
Bauhaus 31-2
Baumgarten, Alexander 58
beauty 50, 52-3, 57-9, 63, 108
Being and Time (Heidegger) 98-9,
104,216-17
Benjamin, Andrew 87-9,168
Benjamin, Walter 182-4, 192, 199
Bentham, Jeremy 189
Bergson, Henri 106
Berkeley, George 53
Berlin Philharmonie (Scharoun)
69-70
body 35, 37, 39, 55, 98, 101,
104-7, 121-4, 131, 163,214,
221
"bracketing" 96, 116, 167-8
Braque, Georges 30, 69
Brook, Peter 213
236 Index
Brutalism 18
Buckminster Fuller, Richard 20,
23-6
Buck-Morss, Susan 182
"Building, Dwelling, Thinking"
(Heidegger) 102, 104
Burke, Edmund 58
Byker Wall (Erskine) 208
Capital (Marx) 177
Car!, Peter 152
Carpenter Centre (Le Corbusier)
126
Cartesian duality 38
Cassirer, Ernst 63-6
Centraal Beheer (Hertzberger)
158-2
Certeau, Michel de 199, 210
Chalk, Warren 17
Chaplin, Charlie 184
Characteristics (Shaftesbury) 57
Chora L Works (Eisenman &
Derrida) 3
cognitive mapping 196--7
Collage City (Rowe & Koetter)
146
commodity fetish 180, 182, 191-2
Communist Manifesto, The (Marx)
176,177
community architecture 208
Complexity and Contradiction in
Architecture (Venturi) 145
Comte, Auguste 48
Conflict of Interpretations, The
(Ricoeur) 220
Coop Himmelblau 72
Copernicus 34
Course in General Linguistics
(Saussure) 133
Crisis of the European Sciences, "flJe
(Husser!) 97
critical regionalism 121
Cubism 30,69
culture industry 185
Dada 184
Dasein 98
De Stijl, 69
Debord, Guy 191
Deconstruction 63,67, 77, 98, 126,
139, 222
Deleuze, Gilles 68
Derrida, Jacques 3, 67-8, 77-9, 81,
124, 142, 143, 188, 210, 221,
222
Descartes, Rene 36--8, 40, 44, 52,
57, 58, 96, 99
determinism 33, 47, 64-5, 69, 93,
131,139,172
Deutsche Werkbund 31-2
Dewey, John 106
Dialectic ofEnlightenment (Adorno
& Horkheimer) 184-5
Dictionnaire Raisonne (Viollet-Ie-
Due) 42
Dilthey, Wilhelm 216, 217,
219
Discipline and Punish (Foucault)
190
Discourse on Method (Descartes)
37
duck/decorated shed 147, 149,
152
Eagleton, Terry 132
Eco, Umberto 144
Ecole des Beaux Arls 28,31
Economic and Philosophical
Manuscripts (Marx) ego/super
ego/id 186
Eisenman and the Housing of
Tradition (A. Benjamin)
87-9
Eisenman, Peter 3,68, 77, 85-9,
163, 167-8
Eishin Campus (Alexander) 202--4
Elementary Structures of Kinship,
The (Levi-Strauss) 137
Elements ofArchitecture, The
(Wotton) 55
empiricism 53, 58
Engels, Friedrich 177, 178
Enneads (Plotinus) 53
epistemology 98
Eros and Civilisation (Marcuse)
187
Erskine, Ralph 208
Essay on Man (Cassirer) 66
essences 96, 98, 108
event 124-6
existentialism 102, 139
"Eye and Mind" (Merleau-Ponty)
106
Fabric of the Human Body, The
(Vesalius) 35
Faltingwater (Kaufmann House)
(Wright) 111
false consciousness 178, 186
Ficino, Marsilio 54
film 3
Fisher House (Kahn) 121
Five Architects (Eisenman et at)
152
flaneur 182, 192, 199
Foster, Norman 13
Index 237
Foucault, Michel 39, 171, 187- 91,
199, 210
Frampton, Kenneth 121-3
Frankfurt School 184-7, 188
Franklin Museum (Venturi) 149
Frascari, Marco 1, 121
French Academy 38
Freud, Sigmund 186-7, 220, 222
"Function and Sign" (Eco) 144
functionalism 33,50-1, 111, 124,
147, 184
"Functionalism Today" (Adorno)
93--4
Futurism 26
Gadamer, Hans-Georg 217-19,
221
Galilei, Galileo 38
Gehry, Frank O. 70
gender theory 208,210
genius 54, 58-9
genius loci 111-13, 115
geometry 38, 49-50, 72, 86, 155
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
60-1
Gramsci, Antonio 181, 183, 184
Graves, Michael 152--6, 163
green architecture 208, 210
Gropius, Walter 31
Guattari, Felix 68
Guggenheim Museum (Gehry) 70
Gutenberg, Johann 54
Hadid, Zaha 83
Happold, Ted 15
Harvey, William 35
Hays, K. Michael 198
Hegel, G. W. F. 40--4, 47, 49-50,
52, 60, 61, 65, 173--4
238 Index
hegemony 181, 193
Heidegger, Martin 63-5,67-8,95,
97-102,106,111,116,121,
123-4,223
and dwelling 102--4, 110, 126
and hermeneutics 216-18, 219,
220, 221-2
and language 102,104,132,143
Herbert, George 55
hermeneutics 4, 6, 211, 213-23
Hermes 215
Hemberger, Herman 158-03, 167,
200-1
Herzog & De Meuron 123
High Museum (Meier) 167
high-tech 13, 18
history 33--4,39--44,66,81, 173,
175-6, 183, 189, 214, 216
History and Class Consciousness
(Lukacs) 180
Hitchcock, Henry Russell 31
Holderlin, Friedrich 103
Holl, Steven 123
Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank
(Foster) 13
Hooke,Robert 36,38
Horkheimer, Max 184, 193
House of Cards (Eisenman) 87
House VI (Eisenman) 86-7, 167
Hume, David 53
Husserl, Edmund 95-9, 108, 116,
131, 139, 220
ideology 5,6,141,171,172,
178-9,181,184-7,188,191,
193, 220, 221
Image of the City, The (Lynch) 196
Institute for Scientific Information
(Venturi) 149
interpretation 4, 5,89, 101, 126,
139, 142,145,159,163,179,
213-14, 216, 221
Intertwining (Holl) 123
"IntertWining - The Chiasm"
(Merleau-Ponty) 107
jameson, Fredric 132, 196-7
jencks, Charles 147
Jewish Historical Museum
(Libeskind) 81-3
johnson, Philip 31
Kahn, Louis I 19, 116-21, 123
Kant, Immanuel 58-9, 65, 95, 108,
216
Kearney, Richard 135
Kimbell Art Museum (Kahn) 116
knowledge 36,37,41,47-8,58-60,
94,101,108,172,179,188,216
Koetter, Fred 146
Kroll, Lucien 205-8
Kuhn, Thomas 48-9, 66, 179, 189
La Mettrie, julian Offray de 38
Lacan,jacques 171
language 39, 64-6, 68, 81, 86, 94,
102, 105-6, 131-2, 139, 141-5,
152, 156-7, 159, 163, 188,217,
219, 220, 221
"language games" 4, 66, 68
langue 135
Le Corbusier 24, 26-30, 69, 152,
210
Lectures on Architecture (Viollet-le-
Due) 43
Lefebvre, Henri 198-9
Leonardo da Vinci 55
Libeskind, Daniel 2, 3, 70
Lloyds Building (Rogers) 11
Locke, John 53
Loos, Adolf 33, 94
Lukacs, Georg 179--81,184,191
Lynch, Kevin 196
Lyotard, 4, 214
Levi-Strauss, Claude 136--9, 175,
186
machine-aesthetic 4, 39
Man the Machine/Man the Plant
(La Mettrie) 38
Marcuse, Herbert 186--7
Marx, Karl 172-9, 187--8, 197, 204,
220
Marxism 6, 136, 171-211
materialism 174
mathematics 39,49-50, 201
McLeod, Mary 208--10
meaning 89, 93, 131, 145, 213
Meaning and Architecture (Jencks &
Baird) 146--7
Meaning in Western Architecture
(orberg-Schulz) 115
media 3
Meditations, The (Descartes) 36--7
Meier, Richard 163
Mendelsohn, Erich 69
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 105-7,
123, 126
Metabolism 18
metaphor 3
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig 1
Modern Movement 31,69, 145-6,
152-3, 155-6, 158, 193, 198,
210
Morris, William 177
Index 239
Mobius House (van Berkel & Bos)
123
music 39,49-50
Muthesius, Hermann 32, 69
Mythologies (Barthes) 141
mythology 137-9
National Socialism 102
neo-Platonism 53
New Science, The (Vice) 40
Newton, Isaac 36
Nietzsche, Friedrich 61-3, 67, 220,
221
Norberg-Schulz, Christian 115-16,
156
Nouvel, Jean 13
Novum Organum (Bacon) 35-6
number 39, 49-50, 55
objectivity 5,66,94,97, 217-18
Of Gmmmatology (Derrida) 143
On the Revolution of the Planets
(Copernicus) 34-5
One-Dimensional Man (Marcuse)
186
ontology 49,63,98,217
Order of Things, The (Foucault) 39
Ordonnancefor the Five Kinds of
Columns (Perrault) 39
Origin of the Work ofArt, The
(Heidegger) 64
ornament 33, 94
Ornament and Crime (Loos) 33
Ortega y Gasset, Jose 100, 104-5
Otto, Frei 204
Panopticon, The (Bentham) 189
240 Index
paradigms 48,60,67,179,189,210
parole 135
Pattem Language, A (Alexander)
202
perception 5--6,37, 58. 94, 105-8,
217
Perez-Gomez, Alberto 108, 109
Perrault, Claude 38-9
phenomenology 5,93-128, 131,
139, 198. 214, 220, 221
Phenomenology qf Perception
(Merleau-Ponty) 105, 107
Pbenomenology of Spirit (Hegel)
40-1
philosophy of history 40-4, 47,
183
philosophy of science, 4, 109
Pbilosophy ofSymholic Forms
(Cassirer) 66
Picasso, Pablo 30, 69
"Plain Man's Guide to the Theory of
Signs in Architecture"
(Broadbent) 146
"Platforms and Plateaus" (Utzon)
115
Plato 49-52, 54, 57, 96, 99, 102
"Pleasure of Architecture" (Tschumi)
124--6
Plotinus 53
"Poetically Man Dwells" (Heidegger)
102-3
Poetics ofSpace (Bachelard)
109-10
Poetics, The (Aristotle) 52
poetry 41, 50, 63, 67, 102, 144,
]99-200
"Point de Folie" (Derrida) 77
Pompidou Centre (Piano & Rogers)
15
positivism 48, 49, 68. 216
Postmodern Explained, The
(Lyotard) 4, 214
postmodemism 47, 198, 210, 221
poststructuralism 189, 210
power ]71,188-91,193,210
Price, Cedric 17
Prison Notebooks, The (Gramsci)
181
Production of Houses, The
(Alexander) 204
Production ofSpace, The (Lefebvre)
198
proportion 55-7
protestant ethic 184, 187
Psychoanalysis 136, 171, 172, 222
Psycboanalysis qfFire, The
(Bachelard) 109
psychogeography 192
Pythagoras 49
reification 180, 181, 19]
representation I, 142
Republic, The (Plato) 49-51
Ricoeur, Paul 215,2]9-21
Rogers, Richard 11,]3
Romanticism 54, 59--60, 66-7,
216
Rossi, A1do 145--6, 194
Rowe, Colin 146
Royal Society, The 36,38
Saarinen, Eeo 69
Sala House (Alexander) 201
Salk Institute (Kahn) 116
Sartre, Jean-Paul 99, 105
Saussure, Ferdinand de 133--6, 137,
143, 146, 157, 192
Scharoun, Hans 69-70
Schleiermacher, Friedrich 216,
218
Schopenhauer, Arthur 61
semantics 134, 146, 156, 163
semiotics/seminology 135-6, 144,
198
Shaftesbury, Third Earl of 57
signifier/signified 133, 192, 221
simulation 192
Situationist International 192
Smithson, Alison & Peter 19
Snow, c.p, 93
Society of the Spectacle (Debord)
191
Soleri, Paolo 201
"Space, Knowledge and Power"
(Foucault) 190
standardisation 32
Stirling, James 19
Stnlctuml Anthropology (Levi-
Strauss) 137
structuralism 6, 68, 126, 131-8,
188, 189
Strucftl1'e of Scientific Revolutions,
77Je (Kuhn) 48
"subject-object problem" 99
subjectivity 5, 94
Sydney Opera House (Utzon) 69,
116
Symposiu.m, 77Je (Plato) 54
syntactics 134, 146, 156--8,
163-8
Tafuri, Manfredo 193-6, 197
''Task of Hermeneutics, The"
(Ricoeur) 215
Team X (0) 19, 156, 208
Technology 63, 69, 70, 145, 184-6,
210
Index 241
Theory and Design in the First
Machine Age (Banham) 24
"Theory of the Derive" (Debord)
192
Towards a New Architecture
(Le Corbusier) 27-8
Tradition 68-9,81,87-9, 168, 214,
222
Trlstes Tmpiques (Levi-Strauss) 136
Troth and Method (Gadamer) 217
Truth in Painting, The (Derrida)
221
Tschumi, Bernard 77-81, 124-6
TWA Terminal (Saarinen) 69
Unconscious 171, 186--7, 220
Utzon, Jorn 69, 115
van Berkel, Ben 123
van de Velde, Henry 32, 69
van Eyck, AJdo 156-8
van Gogh, Vincent 64
Vattimo, Gianni 221
Venturi, Robert 147-52
Vico, Giambattista 40
Victoria and Albert Museum
(Libeskind) 70
Villa Savoye (Le Corbusier) 29,
126
Vinoly, Rafael 13
Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene-Emmanuel
42-3, 47
Vitra Fire-Station (Hadid) 83-5
Vitruvius 39, 54-5
weak thought 221
Weber, Max 184-5, 187
242 Index
Wigley, Mark 3
Wiugenstein, Ludwig 66, 68
Wotton, Henry 55
Wordsworth, William 61
"Work of Art in the Age of
Mechanical Reproduction"
(W. Benjamin) 183
Wren, Christopher 36
Wright, Frank Lloyd 2, 111
Wu Hall (Venturi) 149
Webb, Michael 17,18
Zumthor, Peter 110

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An Introduction to Architectural Theory

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