PL/SQL Tutorial

About the Tutorial

PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language extensions to the Structured Query

Language (SQL). It is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features of
programming languages. It was developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90's to
enhance the capabilities of SQL. PL/SQL is one of three key programming languages
embedded in the Oracle Database, along with SQL itself and Java.

In this tutorial, we'll give you a great understanding of PL/SQL to proceed with the Oracle
database and other advanced RDBMS concepts.

Purpose of PL/SQL
The purpose of PL/SQL is to merge database commands with procedural programming
language. It offers more complete programming solutions for building critical applications
that operate on the Oracle database.

Features of PL/SQL
PL/SQL has the following features −

 PL/SQL is tightly integrated with SQL.

 It offers extensive error checking mechanisms.

 It supports numerous data types for flexible data handling.

 It includes a variety of programming structures, such as loops and conditionals.

 It supports structured programming through functions and procedures.

 It supports object-oriented programming, enabling more complex data handling

and manipulation.

 It supports the web application development and server pages.

Why to learn PL/SQL?

Learning PL/SQL is an essential skill for persons who are interested in databases and other
advanced RDBMS technologies. PL/SQL offers various benefits, making it an essential skill
for database developers −

 Ease of Use: PL/SQL is straightforward to write and read, featuring block-

structured syntax which simplifies programming and debugging.

 Portability: Programs written in PL/SQL are fully portable across different Oracle
databases, ensuring consistency and ease of migration.

 Tight SQL Integration: PL/SQL is tightly integrated with SQL, allowing for
efficient querying, transforming, and updating of data within a database.

 High Performance: It reduces network traffic by sending entire blocks of

statements to the database at once, thus improving performance.

 Security: It includes robust security features to protect database integrity.

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 Object-Oriented Support: It supports object-oriented programming, and allows

you to define object types that can be used in object-oriented designs.

PL/SQL Block Structured

PL/SQL follows a block-structured approach, dividing programs into logical blocks of code.
Each block consists of three main sections −

 Declarations: This section, starting with the keyword DECLARE, is optional and
used for defining variables, cursors, subprograms, and other elements required
within the block.

 Executable Commands: Enclosed between the keywords BEGIN and END, this
mandatory section contains executable PL/SQL statements. It must include at
least one executable line of code, even if it's just a NULL command indicating no
action.

 Exception Handling: This starts with the keyword EXCEPTION. This optional
section deals with handling errors in the program through defined exceptions.

PL/SQL statements are terminated with a semicolon(;). Additionally, blocks can be nested
within each other using BEGIN and END keywords.

Applications of PL/SQL
PL/SQL is widely used in various applications, including −

 Database Security: It implements robust security measures within the

database.

 XML Management: XML documents can be generated and managed within the
database.

 Linking Databases to Web Pages: Integrates databases with web applications.

 Automation: Automating database administration tasks for efficient

management.

Who should learn PL/SQL?

This tutorial is designed for Software Professionals, who are willing to learn PL/SQL
Programming Language in simple and easy steps. This tutorial will give you a great
understanding of PL/SQL Programming concepts, and after completing this tutorial, you
will be at an intermediate level of expertise from where you can take yourself to a higher
level of expertise.

Prerequisites to learn PL/SQL

Before proceeding with this tutorial, you should have a basic understanding of software
concepts like what is a database, source code, text editor, and execution of programs, etc.
If you already have an understanding of SQL and other computer programming languages,
then it will be an added advantage to proceed. Let's get started!

PL/SQL Jobs and Opportunities

Proficiency in PL/SQL opens up various career opportunities, such as −

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 Oracle PL/SQL Programmer

 PL/SQL Developer

 Database Developer

 Data Analyst

 Database Testers

 Data Scientist

 ETL Developer

 Database Migration Expert

 Cloud Database Expert etc

By mastering PL/SQL, you can increase your career opportunities in database management
and development, as well as in creating secure and scalable applications.

Frequently Asked Questions about PL/SQL

There are some very Frequently Asked Questions(FAQs) about PL/SQL. This section tries
to answer them briefly.

What are PL/SQL Records?

PL/SQL records are data structures designed to hold multiple data items of different types.
They consist of various fields, much like a row in a database table.

Comparison of SQL and PL/SQL

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard language used for creating, manipulating,
and retrieving data from relational databases. SQL is mainly used to write queries, as well
as create and execute DDL (Data Definition Language) and DML (Data Manipulation
Language) statements.

Whereas, PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL) is an extension of SQL. It adds procedural

capabilities to SQL, enabling the creation of more complex and powerful database
applications. PL/SQL supports variables, data types, and control structures such as loops
and conditionals, which SQL does not. This makes PL/SQL more efficient for writing
program blocks, functions, procedures, triggers, and packages.

How do you handle exceptions in PL/SQL?

When an exception is raised in PL/SQL, the current PL/SQL block stops its r egular
execution and transfers control to the exception section. The exception is then handled by
an exception handler within the current PL/SQL block or passed to the enclosing block if
not handled locally.

To manage an exception after it is raised, you need to write an exception handler for it.
This handler should be placed after all executable statements in your PL/SQL block but
before the END statement. The EXCEPTION keyword indicates the start of the exception-
handling section.

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Which is the best place to learn PL/SQL?

The best place to learn PL/SQL is through our comprehensive and user-friendly tutorial.
Our PL/SQL tutorial provides an excellent starting point for understanding database
programming with PL/SQL. You can explore our simple and effective learning materials at
your own pace.

What do you understand by PL/SQL table?

A PL/SQL table, also known as an associative array or index-by table, is a collection of
key-value pairs where each key is a unique index used to access the corresponding value.
This table functions similarly to a relational table, storing data in rows and columns. Each
column represents a different attribute or value, while each row contains individual records
with values for all the columns.

How to learn PL/SQL?

Following are some tips to learn PL/SQL −

 The first and most crucial step is to decide to learn PL/SQL and stay committed to
your goal.

 Install the necessary tools like SQL*Plus or Oracle SQL Developer on your
computer.

 Start with our PL/SQL tutorial and progress step by step from the basics.

 Read more articles, watch online courses, or buy a book on PL/SQL to deepen your
understanding.

 Apply what you’ve learned by developing small projects that incorporate PL/SQL
and other technologies.

Which software is used for PL/SQL programming?

SQL*Plus and PL/SQL Developer are commonly used for writing and executing PL/SQL
code.

What are the various Types of Parameters in PL/SQL?

In PL/SQL, there are two types of parameters −

 Actual Parameters: Actual parameters are the values or expressions provided in

the parameter list when calling a module. In actual parameters, only the variable
is mentioned, not the data types.

 Formal Parameters: Formal parameters are the names declared in the parameter
list of a module's header.

Why should you learn PL/SQL?

Learning PL/SQL is crucial for a person who is interested in databases and advanced
RDBMS technologies. It offers numerous benefits, making it an essential skill for database

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developers. With PL/SQL, you can efficiently manipulate and manage data within Oracle
databases, which increases your ability to work with large datasets and complex queries.

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in this tutorial, please notify us at [email protected]

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Table of Contents
About the Tutorial ............................................................................................................................................ i

Prerequisites to learn PL/SQL ......................................................................................................................... ii

Copyright & Disclaimer.................................................................................................................................... v

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................... vi

PL/SQL TUTORIAL .................................................................................................... VIII

1. SQL - Overview................................................................................................................................................ 9

2. PL/SQL - Environment Setup ........................................................................................................................ 11

3. PL/SQL - Basic Syntax ................................................................................................................................... 21

4. PL/SQL - Data Types...................................................................................................................................... 25

5. PL/SQL - Variables ........................................................................................................................................ 33

6. PL/SQL - Constants and Literals ................................................................................................................... 38

7. PL/SQL - Operators ....................................................................................................................................... 41

8. PL/SQL - Conditions ...................................................................................................................................... 45

9. PL/SQL - Loops .............................................................................................................................................. 47

10. PL/SQL - Strings............................................................................................................................................. 50

11. PL/SQL - Arrays ............................................................................................................................................. 57

12. PL/SQL - Procedures ..................................................................................................................................... 61

13. PL/SQL - Functions........................................................................................................................................ 67

14. PL/SQL - Cursors ........................................................................................................................................... 72

15. PL/SQL - Records........................................................................................................................................... 77

16. PL/SQL - Exceptions ...................................................................................................................................... 83

17. PL/SQL - Triggers........................................................................................................................................... 89

18. PL/SQL - Packages......................................................................................................................................... 93

19. PL/SQL - Collections...................................................................................................................................... 99

20. PL/SQL - Transactions................................................................................................................................. 108

21. PL/SQL - Date & Time ................................................................................................................................. 111

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22. PL/SQL - DBMS Output ............................................................................................................................... 117

23. PL/SQL - Object Oriented ........................................................................................................................... 120

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PL/SQL Tutorial

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 1. SQL - Overview PL/SQL Tutorial

The PL/SQL programming language was developed by Oracle Corporation in the late 1980s
as procedural extension language for SQL and the Oracle relational database. Following
are certain notable facts about PL/SQL −

 PL/SQL is a completely portable, high-performance transaction-processing

language.

 PL/SQL provides a built-in, interpreted and OS independent programming

environment.

 PL/SQL can also directly be called from the command-line SQL*Plus interface.

 Direct calls to database can also be made from external programming languages.

 PL/SQL's general syntax is based on ADA and Pascal programming languages.

 Apart from Oracle, PL/SQL is available in TimesTen in-memory

database and IBM DB2.

Features of PL/SQL
PL/SQL has the following features −

 PL/SQL is tightly integrated with SQL.

 It offers extensive error checking.

 It offers numerous data types.

 It offers a variety of programming structures.

 It supports structured programming through functions and procedures.

 It supports object-oriented programming.

 It supports the development of web applications and server pages.

Advantages of PL/SQL
PL/SQL has the following advantages −

 SQL is the standard database language and PL/SQL is strongly integrated with
SQL. PL/SQL supports both static and dynamic SQL. Static SQL supports DML
operations and transaction control from PL/SQL block. In Dynamic SQL, SQL
allows embedding DDL statements in PL/SQL blocks.

 PL/SQL allows sending an entire block of statements to the database at one time.
This reduces network traffic and provides high performance for the applications.

 PL/SQL gives high productivity to programmers as it can query, transform, and

update data in a database.

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 PL/SQL saves time on design and debugging by strong features, such as

exception handling, encapsulation, data hiding, and object-oriented data types.

 Applications written in PL/SQL are fully portable.

 PL/SQL provides high security level.

 PL/SQL provides access to predefined SQL packages.

 PL/SQL provides support for Object-Oriented Programming.

 PL/SQL provides support for developing Web Applications and Server Pages.

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 2. PL/SQL - Environment SetupPL/SQL Tutorial

In this chapter, we will discuss the Environment Setup of PL/SQL. PL/SQL is not a
standalone programming language It is a tool within the Oracle programming
environment. SQL* Plus is an interactive tool that allows you to type SQL and PL/SQL
statements at the command prompt. These commands are then sent to the database for
processing. Once the statements are processed, the results are sent back and displayed
on screen.
To run PL/SQL programs, you should have the Oracle RDBMS Server installed in your
machine. This will take care of the execution of the SQL commands. The most recent
version of Oracle RDBMS is 11g. You can download a trial version of Oracle 11g from the
following link −
Download Oracle 11g Express Edition
You will have to download either the 32-bit or the 64-bit version of the installation as per
your operating system. Usually there are two files. We have downloaded the 64 -bit
version. You will also use similar steps on your operating system, does not matter if it is
Linux or Solaris.
 win64_11gR2_database_1of2.zip
 win64_11gR2_database_2of2.zip
After downloading the above two files, you will need to unzip them in a single
directory database and under that you will find the following sub-directories −

Step 1
Let us now launch the Oracle Database Installer using the setup file. Following is the first
screen. You can provide your email ID and check the checkbox as shown in the following
screenshot. Click the Next button.

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 PL/SQL Tutorial

Step 2
You will be directed to the following scre.n; Uncheck the checkbox and click
the Continue button to proceed.

Step 3
Just select the first option Create and Configure Database using the radio button and
click the Next button to proceed.

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 PL/SQL Tutorial

Step 4
We assume you are installing Oracle for the basic purpose of learning and that you are
installing it on your PC or Laptop. Thus, select the Desktop Class option and click
the Next button to proceed.

Step 5
Provide a location, where you will install the Oracle Server. Just modify the Oracle
Base and the other locations will set automatically. You will also have to provide a
password; this will be used by the system DBA. Once you provide the required information,
click the Next button to proceed.

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 PL/SQL Tutorial

Step 6
Again, click the Next button to proceed.

Step 7
Click the Finish button start the actual server installation.

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Step 8
This will take a few moments, until Oracle starts performing the required configuration.

Step 9
Here, Oracle installation will copy the required configuration files. This should take a
moment −

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 PL/SQL Tutorial

Step 10
Once the database files are copied, you will have the following dialogue box. Just click
the OK button and come out.

Step 11
Upon installation, you will have the following final window.

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Final Step
It is now time to verify your installation. At the command prompt, use the following
command if you are using Windows −

sqlplus "/ as sysdba"

You should have the SQL prompt where you will write your PL/SQL commands and scripts
−

Text Editor
Running large programs from the command prompt may land you in inadvertently losing
some of the work. It is always recommended to use the command files. To use the
command files −
 Type your code in a text editor, like Notepad, Notepad+, or EditPlus, etc.
 Save the file with the .sql extension in the home directory.
 Launch the SQL*Plus command prompt from the directory where you created
your PL/SQL file.
 Type @file_name at the SQL*Plus command prompt to execute your program.
If you are not using a file to execute the PL/SQL scripts, then simply copy your PL/SQL
code and right-click on the black window that displays the SQL prompt; use

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the paste option to paste the complete code at the command prompt. Finally, just
press Enter to execute the code, if it is not already executed.

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 3. PL/SQL - Basic Syntax PL/SQL Tutorial

In this chapter, we will discuss the Basic Syntax of PL/SQL which is a block-
structured language. This means that the PL/SQL programs are divided and written in
logical blocks of code. Each block consists of three sub-parts −

S.No Sections & Description

Declarations
1 This section starts with the keyword DECLARE. It is an optional section and defines
all variables, cursors, subprograms, and other elements to be used in the program.

Executable Commands

This section is enclosed between the keywords BEGIN and END and it is a
2 mandatory section. It consists of the executable PL/SQL statements of the program.
It should have at least one executable line of code, which may be just a NULL
command to indicate that nothing should be executed.

Exception Handling
3 This section starts with the keyword EXCEPTION. This optional section
contains exception(s) that handle errors in the program.

Every PL/SQL statement ends with a semicolon (;). PL/SQL blocks can be nested within
other PL/SQL blocks using BEGIN and END. Following is the basic structure of a PL/SQL
block −

DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable command(s)>
EXCEPTION
<exception handling>
END;

The 'Hello World' Example

DECLARE

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 PL/SQL Tutorial

message varchar2(20):= 'Hello, World!';

BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;
/

The end; line signals the end of the PL/SQL block. To run the code from the SQL command
line, you may need to type / at the beginning of the first blank line after the last line of
the code. When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The PL/SQL Identifiers

PL/SQL identifiers are constants, variables, exceptions, procedures, cursors, and reserved
words. The identifiers consist of a letter optionally followed by more letters, numerals,
dollar signs, underscores, and number signs and should not exceed 30 characters.

By default, identifiers are not case-sensitive. So you can use integer or INTEGER to
represent a numeric value. You cannot use a reserved keyword as an identifier.

The PL/SQL Delimiters

A delimiter is a symbol with a special meaning. Following is the list of delimiters in PL/SQL
−

Delimiter Description

+, -, *, / Addition, subtraction/negation, multiplication, division

% Attribute indicator

' Character string delimiter

. Component selector

(,) Expression or list delimiter

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: Host variable indicator

, Item separator

" Quoted identifier delimiter

= Relational operator

@ Remote access indicator

; Statement terminator

:= Assignment operator

=> Association operator

|| Concatenation operator

** Exponentiation operator

<<, >> Label delimiter (begin and end)

/*, */ Multi-line comment delimiter (begin and end)

-- Single-line comment indicator

.. Range operator

<, >, <=, >= Relational operators

<>, '=, ~=, ^= Different versions of NOT EQUAL

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The PL/SQL Comments

Program comments are explanatory statements that can be included in the PL/SQL code
that you write and helps anyone reading its source code. All programming languages allow
some form of comments.

The PL/SQL supports single-line and multi-line comments. All characters available inside
any comment are ignored by the PL/SQL compiler. The PL/SQL single-line comments start
with the delimiter -- (double hyphen) and multi-line comments are enclosed by /* and */.

DECLARE
-- variable declaration
message varchar2(20):= 'Hello, World!';
BEGIN
/*
* PL/SQL executable statement(s)
*/
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;
/

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following result −

Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Program Units

A PL/SQL unit is any one of the following −

 PL/SQL block

 Function

 Package

 Package body

 Procedure

 Trigger

 Type

 Type body

Each of these units will be discussed in the following chapters.

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