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POLYMORPHISM IN
JAVA
 POLYMORPHISM IN
JAVA
Methods and polymorphic algorithms
applied to computer games

First edition 2018

Author: Carlos Alberto Privitera

Advanced level
Book information:
 Title: Polymorphism in Java
 Edition: 1st edition 2018
 Author: Carlos Alberto Privitera
 ISBN-13: 978-1725953420
 ISBN-10: 1725953420
 Date of the first edition: spring 2018

About the Author:

Carlos Alberto Privitera is a specialist in Java SE and has been dedicated to the construction of
computer systems with Java SE since 2000. He has extensive experience in teaching the Java
language. He has specialized in creating content to teach courses on the Java SE language.
It has the titles of:
 “Técnico Analista de Sistemas de información” awarded by the “Instituto Superior de
Informática 9-012”.
 “Licenciado en Educación” awarded by the “Universidad Nacional de Quilmes”.
 “Profesor en Ciencias de la Computación” awarded by the “Universidad de Mendoza”.
 “Magister en Ingeniería del Software” awarded by the “Instituto Técnico de Buenos Aires”.

All rights reserved:

This work is the intellectual property of its author and any partial or total reproduction without
written permission of the author is expressly prohibited.

Rights of third parties:

The mention of brands, companies and tools are not intended to infringe any type of ownership of
third parties, are mentioned in this book for educational and practical purposes in the process of
teaching and learning the Java SE language.

Additional material on the Web

 https://libropolimorfismoenjava.blogspot.com/
 https://github.com/carlosprivitera

Contact with the author of the book:

 [email protected]
 Dedication:

To my children
Foreword
This book stands out for teaching programming based on polymorphism. Abundant examples in
Java code and illustrative graphics of the main ideas related to the topic: Polymorphism in Java.

The book "Polymorphism in Java" aims to give a modern and updated vision when learning Java
and in the particular subject of polymorphic algorithms. Students, teachers and developers will be
able to find a sequence of design patterns that create and use polymorphic algorithms, these
design patterns can be applied to solving problems of computer systems and everyday life.

A professional in the Java language can benefit from the book "Polymorphism in Java" by finding
an innovative way to solve problems with polymorphic algorithms. The design patterns, analyzed
in this work, are based on the inheritance between classes. Currently the difficulties of the Java
language have been overcome to a large extent and it is easy to understand and apply.

The book aims to teach fundamental concepts of object-oriented programming with Java SE, in a
clear and practical way, significantly reducing the learning curve. In the process you will learn to
program computers and use the Java SE language.

Goals:
 The present work aims that readers get strong knowledge in computer programming with the
Java SE language.
 Get the reader to acquire practical skills by using advanced Java SE concepts.
 Have the reader write computer programs based on object-oriented programming with the
Java SE language.

Recipients of the book

The book is aimed at anyone who wants to learn to program computers with Java SE, also the book
is very useful for people who want to teach the Java language. The professionals will find a
modern and updated work worthy of being studied and put into practice. Level of the book: it is
of advanced level. It requires knowledge of the basic details of the Java SE language.

Level of the book: it is of advanced level. It requires knowledge of the basic details of the Java SE
language.

The content of the book is applicable to all operating systems.

How to continue after learning the content of this book?

The learning of computer programming with the Java SE language is the gateway to learning
advanced content related to companies and corporate environments; it is advisable after learning
the content of this book to start learning Java EE, Java Web or Java for cell phones, if the reader
wishes.
 Index of titles and subtitles

Content
Chapter I .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 13
Proposal for a basic architecture .............................................................................................................. 13
Design pattern based on inheritance ............................................................................................................ 14
Layered architecture to use a design pattern ............................................................................................... 15
Description of the design pattern based on the inheritance ......................................................................... 16
Types of relations between classes........................................................................................................... 16
Java has a keyword to declare each relationship ...................................................................................... 16
Criteria for building groups of configurations of patterns of architectures by layers ..................................... 16
What are abstract methods? .................................................................................................................... 16
What are abstract classes? ....................................................................................................................... 16
What is an interface? ............................................................................................................................... 16
There are two ways to declare abstract methods: .................................................................................... 17
How to overwrite methods that are abstract? .......................................................................................... 17
Criteria for assembling the different configurations of a design pattern ................................................... 17
What is a reference in Java? ..................................................................................................................... 17
What is an object in Java? ........................................................................................................................ 17
Structure of the book ................................................................................................................................... 18
Graphical representation of the groups of configurations of a design pattern .......................................... 18
Group number one of configurations ........................................................................................................... 19
Structure of the design pattern ................................................................................................................ 19
Configuration 1.1 - Create the object reference using the super class and the creation of the objects using
the subclasses. .................................................................................................................................... 20
Java UML diagram for 1.1 configuration – Variant 1: A reference, an object in memory ........................... 24
Source code for 1.1 Configuration – Variant 1....................................................................................... 25
Explanation of the most relevant lines of code in the 1.1 Configuration – Variant 1 .............................. 27
Java UML diagram for configuration 1.1 - variant 2: Many references, an object in memory by reference 34
Source code for configuration 1.1 - variant 2 ........................................................................................ 35
Explanation of the most relevant lines of code in configuration 1.1 - variant 2 ...................................... 36
Configuration 1.2 - References of objects and objects are created using the subclasses ........................... 38
Utility of configuration 1.2 .................................................................................................................... 39
 Java UML diagram for configuration 1.2 ................................................................................................... 41
Código fuente para la configuración 1.2 ............................................................................................... 42
Explanation of the most relevant lines of code in configuration 1.2 ...................................................... 45
Group number two of configurations ........................................................................................................... 55
What happens if subclasses are declared with the abstract class modifier? .............................................. 55
Diagram of Java classes in UML - Configuration 2, possibility 1 (Inherit a pattern) .................................... 58
Source code of configuration 2, possibility 1 (Inherit a pattern) ............................................................ 59
End of chapter I - "How to use abstract classes in class inheritance" ................................................................ 62
Chapter II ......................................................................................................................................................... 65
How to use the classes that are of type Interface in the inheritance relation between classes? .................... 65
Group number three of configurations......................................................................................................... 65
What is an interface? ............................................................................................................................... 65
Example of an interface declaration: ........................................................................................................ 66
Configuration 3.1 - Creating the references of objects using the superclass and the creation of the objects
using the subclasses. ........................................................................................................................... 67
Characteristics of the configuration 3.1 - variant 1: a reference and many objects ................................ 67
Java class diagram in UML for configuration 3.1 - variant 1: a reference and many objects ....................... 68
Source code for configuration 3.1 - variant 1 ........................................................................................ 69
Explanation of the most relevant lines of code, pertaining to configuration 3.1 - variant 1 ................... 72
UML diagram in Java for configuration 3.1 - variant 2: many references and one object by reference ...... 79
Characteristics of the configuration 3.1 - variant 2: many references and one object by reference ....... 80
Source code for configuration 3.1 - variant 2 ........................................................................................ 80
Configuration 3.2 - Create references to objects and objects using subclasses.......................................... 82
Configuration utility 3.2 ........................................................................................................................... 82
How to implement the algorithms that are static? ................................................................................... 82
How to implement algorithms that are dynamic? ..................................................................................... 82
What is the static assignment of the reference? ....................................................................................... 82
What is the dynamic assignment of the reference? .................................................................................. 83
Class diagram in Java for configuration 3.2 - variant 1 .............................................................................. 84
Class diagram in Java for configuration 3.2 - variant 2 .............................................................................. 89
Source code for configuration 3.2 - variant 2 ........................................................................................ 90
Chapter III ........................................................................................................................................................ 93
Polymorphic algorithms that are mutable .................................................................................................... 93
 What are mutable polymorphic algorithms? ................................................................................................ 93
What are mutable methods? ....................................................................................................................... 93
Class diagram for polymorphic algorithms that are mutable. Combination 1 - variant 1............................ 95
Source code that implements mutable polymorphic algorithms. Combination 1 - variant 1 ...................... 96
Class diagram in UML for mutable polymorphic algorithms. Combination 2 - variant 1 ........................... 100
Source code that implements mutable polymorphic algorithms. Combination 2, variant 1 ..................... 101
Chapter IV ..................................................................................................................................................... 105
Programming a computer game ................................................................................................................. 105
Polymorphic code of the game ............................................................................................................... 105
View of the computer game: Fly to the end................................................................................................ 106
Class diagram in Java for the Game: Fly to the end ..................................................................................... 107
Structure of folders and packages for the source code in Java .................................................................... 110
Source code in Java for the game view module .......................................................................................... 111
Source code for the classes that implement the client module ................................................................... 114
Source code for classes that implement the specialized behavior provider................................................. 118
Farewell words .............................................................................................................................................. 130
 POLYMORPHISM IN JAVA
Chapter I

Introduction
In the construction of a software product, different structures are defined that determine the
architecture of the software that will be built. The basic structures in Java are the classes and the
relationships between the classes. Many times, a structure forms a recurring pattern in the
construction of a software product. A programmer attentive to identifying structures and patterns
can define an appropriate architecture to solve problems or build software. A proper architecture
is as important as the development process in software engineering.

A layer structure can determine an appropriate architecture to define specific functions that are
placed as strata; each layer can be replaced by a new layer without affecting the others. A precise
and unique communications interface must be defined between the layers.

Proposal for a basic architecture

Layer 1 - Application layer or view layer or software product

The layer of the software product is the layer that the user sees or should use, the application layer
provide the functionalities that the user has requested or wants. The application layer is a
concrete implementation of the design pattern. The application layer traditionally uses structured
algorithms, but this time the polymorphic algorithms will be added.

Layer 2 - Use the pattern

Layer 2 must create objects of the pattern type, some are objects created at runtime and others are
created at the design time of the application. Objects are considered artifacts that perform
different functions; an artifact can invoke different behaviors to the design pattern. The different
artifacts access a method interface. With access to the methods interface, polymorphic algorithms
can be written that provide functions to the application layer.

Layer 3 - Polymorphism
Layer 3 is the layer where polymorphic methods and polymorphic algorithms are written. Layer 4
separates the implementation of the polymorphic algorithms from the implementation of the
solution of the problem; the polymorphic algorithms express different ways of using a solution of
a problem.

Layer 4 - Pattern structure

Layer 4 - Pattern structure: Layer 4 is the design pattern that implements the strategy that solves the
problem that has been raised, the design pattern contains the specialized and traditional
algorithms. Different patterns can be implemented depending on the problem to be solved. A
pattern has the property of supporting the solution of many problems. A group of problems can
be solved by a single pattern. A very simple and useful pattern is the pattern that has a generic
superclass and many specialized subclasses in an algorithm. Java is a language that allows the
creation of hierarchical class structures, classes are related through inheritance.

Página 13 de 130
 POLYMORPHISM IN JAVA
Design pattern based on inheritance

The following image shows a pattern of related classes through inheritance.

Layer 4 - Design pattern

Link

Superclass

Subclasses

 Abstract methods
 Interface

The image shows a generic representation of a design pattern based on the inheritance between
classes. Certain restrictions will configure different design patterns more suitable to be
implemented in Java.

Página 14 de 130
 POLYMORPHISM IN JAVA
Layered architecture to use a design pattern

The following image shows an architecture made by layers. Each layer has a certain function to
implement, use and show the solution of a problem.

Layer 1 - Apply the pattern

Application (Software Product)
View of the pattern

Capa 2 – Mensajes al patrón

Use the pattern
• main () • Object factory
• test () • object store
• Object.myMethod () • artifacts

Layer 3 - Polymorphism Layer 4 - Design pattern

Link

Static Dynamic
polymorphic polymorphic
methods methods Superclass

Static Dynamic
polymorphic polymorphic Subclasses
algorithms algorithms

• Abstract methods
• Interface

Página 15 de 130
 POLYMORPHISM IN JAVA
Description of the design pattern based on the inheritance

A design pattern based on inheritance has the following parts:

 A generic superclass
 Several specialized subclasses
 Algorithms implemented in subclasses or superclasses
 Inheritance relationship between the superclass and the subclasses using the Java keyword:
extends
 Interface: public methods of access to private data
 Interface: of abstract methods
 Interface: declaration of prototypes of methods
 Implementation relationship of the interface that declares prototypes of methods using the
Java keyword: implements
 Relationship of creation of objects between classes using the Java keyword: new

Types of relations between classes

1. The extension relationship joins two classes of the same type, one class extends another class.
2. The implementation relationship adds parts to a class; a class is added to another class to be
implemented as a component part of the class.
3. The object creation relation indicates that a class has an object reference to an object instance.

Java has a keyword to declare each relationship

1. extends: relation of equal or extension types or inheritance relation
2. implements: relationship of adding parts to a class or inheriting an interface
3. new: relation of composing or using objects for a class, classes have or use instances of
objects

Criteria for building groups of configurations of patterns of architectures by

layers

The configurations can be divided into three groups, the criteria used to assemble the different
groups of configurations is the declaration of abstract methods and the implementation of abstract
methods by superclasses or subclasses.

What are abstract methods?

An abstract method has no body, { }. The method can not implement code since it has no body to
write Java code.

What are abstract classes?

A class is abstract if it is declared as abstract using the keyword: abstract, or if at least one
abstract method is declared in its body, { }. You can not instantiate objects of an abstract class.

What is an interface?
The interface is a totally abstract class; it does not have Java code in its body. The interface declares
prototypes of abstract methods that will be inherited by other classes. Classes that inherit an
interface should overwrite the abstract methods and implement the missing code.

Página 16 de 130
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 23 weight, and the
improved truck under the forward part of the engine. This latter
adapts itself to all the curves of the road, including some of seven
hundred and sixteen feet radius in the main track, and moves with
great ease around our turning Y curves at Richmond, of about three
hundred feet radius. " I consider these engines as near perfection, in
the arrangement of their parts, and their general efficiency, as the
present improvements in machinery and the locomotive engine will
admit of. They are saving us thirty per cent, in every trip, on the
former cost of motive or engine power." But the flexible-beam truck
also enabled Mr. Baldwin to meet the demand for an engine with
four drivers connected. Other builders were making engines with
four drivers and a four-wheeled truck, of the present American
standard type. To compete with this design, Mr. Baldwin modified his
six-wheels-connected engine by connecting only two out of the three
pairs of wheels as drivers, making the forward wheels of smaller
diameter as leading wheels, but combining them with the front
drivers in a flexible-beam truck. The first engine on this plan was
sent to the Erie and Kalamazoo Railroad, in October, 1843, ^"d gave
great satisfaction. The Superintendent of the road was enthusiastic
in its praise, and wrote to Mr. Baldwin that he doubted "if anything
could be got up which would answer the business of the road so
well." One was also sent to the Utica and Schenectady Railroad a
few weeks later, of which the Superintendent remarked that " it
worked beautifully, and there were not wagons enough to give it a
full load." In this plan the leading wheels were usually made thirty-
six and the drivers fifty-four inches in diameter. This machine of
course came in competition with the eight-wheeled engine having
four drivers, and Mr. Baldwin claimed for his plan a decided
superiority. In each case about two-thirds of the total weight was
carried on the four drivers, and Mr. Baldwin maintained that his
engine, having only six instead of eight wheels, was simpler and
more effective. At about this period Mr. Baldwin's attention was
called by Mr. Levi Bissell to an "Air Spring" which the latter had
devised, iand which it was imagined was destined to be a cheap,
effective, and perpetual spring. The device consisted of a small
cylinder placed above the frame over the axle-box, and having a
piston fitted air-tight into it. The piston-rod was to bear on the axle-
box, and the proper quantity of air was to be pumped into the
cylinder above the piston, and the cylinder then hermetically closed.
The piston had a leather packing which was to be kept moist by
some fluid (molasses was proposed) previously introduced into the
cylinder. Mr. Baldwin at first proposed to equalize the weight
between two pairs of drivers by connecting two air-springs on each
side by a pipe, the use of an equalizing beam being covered by
Messrs. Eastwick & Harrison's patent. The air-springs were found,
however, not to work practically, and were never applied. It may be
added that a model of an equalizing air-spring was exhibited by Mr.
Joseph Harrison, Jr., at the Franklin Institute, in 1838 or 1839. With
the introduction of the new machine, business began at once to
revive, and the tide of prosperity turned once more in Mr. Baldwin's
favor. Twelve
 24 ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. engines were constructed in
1843, all but four of them of the new pattern; twenty-two engines in
1844, all of the new pattern; and twenty-seven in 1845. Three of
this number were of the old type, with one pair of drivers, but from
that time forward the old pattern with the single pair of drivers
disappeared from the practice of the establishment, save
occasionally for exceptional purposes. In 1842, the partnership with
Mr. Vail was dissolved, and Mr. Asa Whitney, who had been
Superintendent of the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, became a
partner with Mr. Baldwin, and the firm continued as Baldwin &
Whitney until 1846, when the latter withdrew to engage in the
manufacture of car-wheels, in which business he is still concerned as
senior member of the firm of A. Whitney & Sons, Philadelphia. Mr.
Whitney brought to the firm a railroad experience and thorough
business talent. He introduced a system in many details of the
management of the business, which Mr. Baldwin, whose mind was
devoted more exclusively to mechanical subjects, had failed to
establish or wholly ignored. The method at present in use in the
establishment, of giving to each class of locomotives a distinctive
designation, composed of a number and a letter, originated very
shortly after Mr. Whitney's connection with the business. For the
purpose of representing the different designs, sheets with
engravings of locomotives were employed. The sheet showing the
engine with one pair of drivers was marked B; that with two pairs,
C; that with three, D; and that with four, E. Taking its rise from this
circumstance, it became customary to designate as B engines those
with one pair of drivers; as C engines, those with two pairs; as D
engines, those with three pairs; and as E engines, those with four
pairs. Shortly afterwards, a number, indicating the weight in gross
tons, was added. Thus, the 12 D engine was one with three pairs of
drivers, and weighing twelve tons; the 12 C, an engine of same
weight, but with only four wheels connected. Substantially this
system of designating the several sizes and plans has been retained
to the present time. The figures, however, are no longer used to
express the weight, but merely to designate the class. It will be
observed that the classification as thus established began with the B
engines. The letter A was reserved for an engine intended to run at
very high speeds, and so designed that the driving-wheels should
make two revolutions for each reciprocation of the pistons. This was
to be accomplished by means of gearing. The general plan of the
engine was determined in Mr. Baldwin's mind, but was never carried
into execution. The adoption of the plan of six-wheels-connected
engines opened the way at once to increasing their size. The weight
being almost evenly distributed on six points, heavier machines were
admissible, the weight on any one pair of drivers being little, if any,
greater than had been the practice with the old plan of engine
having a single pair of drivers. Hence engines of eighteen and
twenty tons weight were shortly introduced, and in 1844 three of
twenty tons weight, with cylinders sixteen and one-half inches
diameter by eighteen inches stroke, were constructed for the
Western Railroad of Massachusetts, and six, of eighteen tons
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 25 weight, with cylinders
fifteen by eighteen, and drivers forty-six inches in diameter, were
built for the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad. It should be noted
that three of these latter engines had iron flues. This was the first
instance in which Mr. Baldwin had employed tubes of this material.
The advantage found to result from the use of iron tubes, apart from
their less cost, was that the tubes and boilershell, being of the same
material, expanded and contracted alike, while in the case of copper
tubes the expansion of the metal by heat varied from that of the
boilershell, and as a consequence there was greater liability to
leakage at the joints" with the tube-sheets. The opinion prevailed
largely at that time that some advantage resulted in the evaporation
of water, owing to the superiority of copper as a conductor of heat.
To determine this question, art experiment was tried with two of the
six engines referred to above, one of which, the "Ontario," had
copper flues, and another, the " NewEngland," iron flues. In other
respects they were precisely alike. The two engines were run from
Richmond to Mount Carbon, August 27, 1844, each drawing a train
of one hundred and one empty cars, and, returning, from Mount
Carbon to Richmond, on the following day, each with one hundred
loaded cars. The quantity of water evaporated and wood consumed
was noted, with the result shown in the following table : Up Trip,
Aug. 27, 1844. Down Trip, \VG. 28, 1844. ■* "Ontario." (Copper
flues.) " New England." (Iron Flues.) " Ontario." (Copper Flues ) "
New England." (Iron Flues.) Time, running " standing at stations . . ,
Cords of wood burned .... Cubic feet of water evaporated . Ratio,
cubic feet of water to a cord of wood , . . 9h. 7m. 4h. 2m. 6.68 925-
75 138-57 7h. 41m. 3h. 7m. 5-50 757-26 137.68 I oh. 44m. 2h.
12m. 6.94 837-46 120.67 8h. igni. 3h. 8m. 6. 656-39 109.39 The
conditions of the experiments not being absolutely the same in each
case, the results could not of course be accepted as entirely
accurate. They seemed to show, however, no considerable difference
in the evaporative efficacy of copper and iron tubes. The period
under consideration was marked also by the introduction of the
French & Baird stack, which proved at once to be one of the most
successful spark-arresters thus far employed, and which was for
years used almost exclusively wherever, as on the cotton-carrying
railroads of the South, a thoroughly effective spark-arrester was
required. This stack was introduced by Mr. Baird, then a foreman in
the Works, who purchased the patent-right of what had been known
as the Grimes stack, and combined with it some of the features of
the stack made by Mr. "Richard French, then Master Mechanic of the
Germantown Railroad, together with certain improvements of his
own. The cone over the straight inside pipe was made with volute
flanges on its under side, which gave a rotary motion to the sparks.
Around the cone was a casing about six inches smaller in diameter
than the outside stack. Apertures were cut in the sides of this
casing, tlwough which the sparks in their rotary motion were
discharged^ and
 26 ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. thus fell to the bottom of
the space between the straight inside pipe and the outside stack.
The opening in the top of the stack was fitted with a series of
Vshaped iron circles perforated with numerous holes, thus
presenting an enlarged area, through which the smoke escaped. The
patent-right for this stack was subsequently sold to Messrs. Radley &
Hunter, and its essential principle is still used in the Radley & Hunter
stack as at present made. In 1845, Mr. Baldwin built three
locomotives for the Royal Railroad Committee of Wiirtemberg. They
were of fifteen tons weight, on six wheels, four of them being sixty
inches in diameter and coupled. The front drivers were combined by
the flexible beams into a truck with the smaller leading wheels. The
cylinders were inclined and outside, and the connecting-rods took
hold of a halfcrank axle back of the fire-box. It was specified that
these engines should have the link-motion which had shortly before
been introduced in England by the Stephensons. Mr. Baldwin
accordingly applied a link of a peculiar character to suit his own
ideas of the device. The link was made solid, and of a truncated V-
section, and the block was grooved so as to fit and slide on the
outside of the link. During the year 1845 another important feature
in locomotive construction — the cut-off valve — was added to Mr.
Baldwin's practice. Up to that time the valve-motion had been the
two eccentrics, with the single flat hook for each cylinder. Since 1841
Mr. Baldwin had contemplated the addition of some device allowing
the steam to be used expansively, and he now added the " half-
stroke cut-off" In this device the steam-chest was separated by a
horizontal plate into an upper and a lower compartment. In the
upper compartment, a valve, worked by a separate eccentric, and
having a single opening, admitted steam through a port in this plate
to the lower steam-chamber. The valve-rod of the upper valve
terminated in a notch or hook, which engaged with the upper arm of
its rock-shaft. When thus working, it acted as a cut-off at a fixed
part of the stroke, determined by the setting of the eccentric. This
was usually at half the stroke. When it was desired to dispense with
the cut-off and work steam for the full stroke, the hook of the valve-
rod was lifted from the pin on the upper arm of the rock-shaft by a
lever worked from the footboard, and the valverod was held in a
notched rest fastened to the side of the boiler. This left the opening
through the upper valve and the port in the partition plate open for
the free passage of steam throughout the whole stroke. The first
application of the half-stroke cut-off was made on the engine "
Champlain" (20 D), built for the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad
Company, in 1845. It at once became the practice to apply the cut-
off on all passenger engines, while the six- and eightwheels-
connected freight engines were, with a few exceptions, built for a
time longer with the single valve admitting steam for the full stroke.
After building, during the years 1843, 1844, and 1845, ten four-
wheels- connected engines on the plan above described, viz., six
wheels in all, the leading wheels and the front drivers being
combined into a truck by the flexible beams, Mr. Baldwin finally
adopted the present design of four drivers and a four-wheeled truck.
Some of his customers who were favorable to the latter p.Un had
ordered
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 27 such machines of
other builders, and Colonel Gadsden, President of the South Carolina
Railroad Company, called on him in 1845 to build for that line some
passenger engines of this pattern. He accordingly bought the patent-
right for this plan of engine of Mr. H. R. Campbell, and for the
equalizing beams used between the drivers, of Messrs. Eastwick &
Harrison, and delivered to the South Carolina Railroad Company, in
December, 1845, his first eight-wheeled engine with four drivers and
a four-wheeled truck. This machine had cylinders thirteen and three-
quarters by eighteen, and drivers sixty inches in diameter, with the
springs between them arranged as equalizers. Its weight was fifteen
tons. It had the half-crank axle, the cylinders being inside the frame
but outside the smoke-box. The inside-connected engine,
counterweighting being as yet unknown, was admitted to be
steadier in running, and hence more suitable for passenger service.
With the completion of the first eight-wheeled " C" engine, Mr.
Baldwin's feelings underwent a revulsion in favor of this plan, and
his partiality for it became as great as had been his antipathy before.
Commenting on the machine, he recorded himself as " more pleased
with its appearance and action than any engine he had turned out."
In addition to the three engines of this description for the South
Carolina Railroad Company, a duplicate was sent to the Camden and
Amboy Railroad Company, and a similar but lighter one to the
Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad Company, shortly afterwards. The
engine for the Camden and Amboy Railroad Company, and perhaps
the others, had the half-stroke cut-off. From that time forward, all of
his four-wheels-connected machines were built on this plan, and the
six-wheeled "C" engine was abandoned, except in the case of one
built for the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railroad
Company in 1846, and this was afterwards rebuilt into a six-wheels-
connected machine. Three methods of carrying out the general
design were, however, subsequently followed. At first the half-crank
was used; then horizontal cylinders inclosed in the chimney-seat and
working a full-crank-axle, which form of construction had been
practiced at the Lowell Works; and eventually, outside cylinders with
outside connections. Meanwhile the flexible truck machine
maintained its popularity for heavy freight service. All the engines
thus far built on this plan had been six-wheeled, some with the rear
drivingaxle back of the fire-box, and others with it in front. Fig. 8. —
Baldwin Eight-Wheels-Connected Engine, 1846. The next step,
following logically after the adoption of the eight-wheeled "C"
engine, was to increase the size of the freight machine, and
distribute the weight on eight wheels all connected, the two rear
pairs being rigid in the frame, and the two front pairs combined into
the flexible-beam
 28 ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. truck. This was first done in
1846, when seventeen engines on this plan were constructed on one
order for the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company. Fifteen of
these were of twenty tons weight, with cylinders fifteen and a half
by twenty, and wheels forty-six inches in diameter; and two of
twenty-five tons weight, with cylinders seventeen and a quarter by
eighteen, and drivers forty-two inches in diameter. These engines
were the first ones on which Mr. Baldwin placed sand-boxes, and
they were also the first built by him with roofs. On all previous
engines the footboard had only been inclosed by a railing. On these
engines for the Reading Railroad, four iron posts were carried up,
and a wooden roof supported by them. The engine-men added
curtains at the sides and front, and Mr. Baldwin on subsequent
engines added sides, with sash and glass. The cab proper, however,
was of New England origin, where the severity of the climate
demanded it, and where it had been used previous to this period.
Forty-two engines were completed in 1846, and thirty-nine in 1847.
The only novelty to be noted among them was the engine "M. G.
Bright," built for operating the inclined plane on the Madison and
Indianapolis Railroad. The rise of this incline was one in seventeen,
from the bank of the Ohio River at Madison. The engine had eight
wheels, forty-two inches in diameter, connected, and worked in the
usual manner by outside inclined cylinders, fifteen and one-half
inches diameter by twenty inches stroke. A second pair of cylinders,
seventeen inches in diameter with eighteen inches stroke of piston,
was placed vertically over the boiler, midway between the furnace
and smoke-arch. ' The connecting-rods worked by these cylinders
connected with cranks on a shaft under the boilerThis shaft carried a
single cog-wheel at its centre, and this cog-wheel engaged with
another of about twice its diameter on a second shaft adjacent to it
and in the same plane. The cog-wheel on this latter shaft worked in
a rack-rail placed in the centre of the track. The shaft itself had its
bearings in the lower ends of two vertical rods, one on each side of
the boiler, and these rods were united over the boiler by a horizontal
bar which was connected by means of a bent lever and connecting-
rod to the piston worked by a small horizontal cylinder placed on top
of the boiler. By means of this cylinder, the yoke carrying the shaft
and cog-wheel could be depressed and held down so as to engage
the cogs with the rack-rail, or raised out of the way when only the
ordinary drivers were required. This device was designed by Mr.
Andrew Cathcart, Master Mechanic of the Madison and Indianapolis
Railroad. A similar machine, the "John Brough," for the same plane,
was built by Mr. Baldwin in 1850. The incline was worked with a
rack-rail and these engines until it was finally abandoned and a line
with easy gradients substituted. The use of iron tubes in freight
engines grew in favor, and in October, 1847, Fig. 9. — Baldwin
Engine for Rack-Rail, 1847.
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 29 Mr. Baldwin noted that
he was fitting his flues with copper ends, " for riveting to the boiler."
The subject of burning coal continued to engage much attention, but
the use of anthracite had not as yet been generally successful. In
October, 1847, ^^^^ Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company
advertised for proposals for four engines to burn Cumberland coal,
and the order was taken and filled by Mr. Baldwin with four of his
eight-wheels-connected machines. The year 1848 showed a falling
off in business, and only twenty engines were turned out. In the
following year, however, there was a rapid recovery, and the
production of the works increased to thirty, followed by thirty-seven
in 1850, and fifty in 185 1. These engines, with a few exceptions,
were confined to three patterns, the eight-wheeled four-coupled
engine, from twelve to nineteen tons in weight, for passengers and
freight, and the six- and eight-wheels-connected engine, for freight
exclusively, the six-wheeled machine weighing from twelve to
seventeen tons, and the eight-wheeled, from eighteen to twenty-
seven tons. The drivers of these six- and eight-wheels-connected
machines were made generally forty-two, with occasional variations
up to forty-eight, inches in diameter. The exceptions referred to in
the practice of these years were the fast passenger engines built by
Mr. Baldwin during this period. Early in 1848, the Vermont Central
Railroad was approaching completion, and Governor Paine, the
President of the Company, conceived the idea that the passenger
service on the road required locomotives capable of running at very
high velocities. Henry R. Campbell, Esq., was a contractor in building
the line, and was authorized by Governor Paine to come. to
Philadelphia and offer Mr. Baldwin ten thousand dollars for a
locomotive which could run with a passenger train at a speed of
sixty miles per hour. Mr. Baldwin at once undertook to meet these
conditions. The work was begun early in 1848, and in March of that
year Mr. Baldwin filed a caveat for his design. The engine was
completed in 1849, ^^^ ^^^^ named the " Governor Paine." It
had one pair of driving-wheels six and a half feet in diameter, placed
back of the fire-box. Another pair of wheels, but smaller and
unconnected, was placed directly in front of the firebox, and a four-
wheeled truck carried the front of the engine. The cylinders were
seventeen and a quarter inches diameter and twenty inches stroke,
and were placed horizontally between the frames and the boiler, at
about the middle of the waist. The connecting-rods took hold of
"half-cranks" inside of the driving-wheels. The object of placing the
cylinders at the middle of the boiler was to lessen or obviate the
lateral motion of the 5 Fig. 10. — Baldwin Fast Passenger Engine, i8
 30 ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. engine, produced when the
cylinders were attached to the smoke-arch. The bearings on the two
rear axles were so contrived that, by means of a lever, a part of the
weight of the engine usually carried on the wheels in front of the
fire-box could be transferred to the driving-axle. The " Governor
Paine" was used for several years on the Vermont Central Railroad,
and then rebuilt into a four-coupled machine. During its career, it
was stated by the officers of the road that it could be started from a
state of rest and run a mile in forty-three seconds. Three engines on
the same plan, but with cylinders fourteen by twenty, and six-feet
driving-wheels, the "Mifflin," "Blair," and "Indiana," were also built
for the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, in 1849. They weighed each
about forty -seven thousand pounds, distributed as follows :
eighteen thousand on drivers, fourteen thousand on the pair of
wheels in front of the fire-box, and fifteen thousand on the truck. By
applying the lever, the weight on the drivers could be increased to
about twenty-four thousand pounds, the weight on the wheels in
front of the fire-box being correspondingly reduced. A speed of four
miles in three minutes is recorded for them, and upon one occasion
President Taylor was taken in a special train over the road by one of
these machines at a speed of sixty miles an hour. One other engine
of this pattern, the "Susquehanna," was built for the Hudson River
Railroad Company, in 1850. Its cylinders were fifteen inches
diameter by twenty inches stroke, and drivers six feet in diameter. All
these engines, however, were short-lived, and died young, of
insufficient adhesion. Eight engines with four drivers connected and
half-crank-axles, were built for the New York and Erie Railroad
Company in 1849, with seventeen by twenty inch cylinders; one-half
of the number with six-feet and the rest with five-feet drivers. These
machines were among the last on which the half-crank-axle was
used. Thereafter, outside-connected engines were constructed
almost exclusively. In May, 1848, Mr. Baldwin filed a caveat for a
four-cylinder locomotive, but never carried the design into execution.
The first instance of the use of steel axles in the practice of the
establishment occurred during the same year, — a set being placed
as an experiment under an engine constructed for the Pennsylvania
Railroad Company. In 1850, the old form of dome boiler, which had
characterized the Baldwin engine since 1834, was abandoned, and
the wagon-top form substituted. The business in 1851 had reached
the full capacity of the shop, and the next year marked the
completion of about an equal number of engines (forty-nine).
Contracts for work extended a year ahead, and, to meet the
demand, the facilities in the various departments were increased,
and resulted in the construction of sixty engines in 1853, and sixty-
two in 1854. At the beginning of the latter year, Mr. Matthew Baird,
who had been connected with the works since 1836 as one of its
foremen, entered into partnership with Mr. Baldwin, and the style of
the firm was made M. W. Baldwin & Co. The only novelty in the
general plan of engines during this period was the addition of the
ten-wheeled engine to the patterns of the establishment. The
success of Mr. Baldwin's engines with all six or eight wheels
connected, and the
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 3 1 two front pairs
combined by the parallel beams into a flexible truck, had been so
marked that it was natural that he should oppose any other plan for
freight service. The ten-wheeled engine, with six drivers connected,
had, however, now become a competitor. This plan of engine was
first patented by Septimus Norris, of Philadelphia, in 1846, and the
original design was apparently to produce an engine which should
have equal tractive power with the Baldwin six-wheelsconnected
machine. This the Norris patent sought to accomplish by proposing
an engine with six drivers connected, and so disposed as to carry
substantially the whole weight, the forward drivers being in advance
of the centre of gravity of the engine, and the truck only serving as a
guide, the front of the engine being connected with it by a pivot-pin,
but without a bearing on the centreplate. Mr. Norris's first engine on
this plan was tried in April, 1847, and was found not to pass curves
so readily as was expected. As the truck carried little or no weight, it
would not keep the track. The New York and Erie Railroad Company,
of which John Brandt was then Master Mechanic, shortly afterwards
adopted the ten-wheeled engine, modified in plan so as to carry a
part of the weight on the truck. Mr. Baldwin filled an order for this
company, in 1850, of four eight-wheels-connected engines, and in
making the contract he agreed to substitute a truck for the front pair
of wheels if desired after trial. This, however, he was not called upon
to do. In February, 1852, Mr. J. Edgar Thomson, President of the
Pennsylvania Railroad Company, invited proposals for a number of
freight locomotives of fifty-six thousand pounds weight each. They
were to be adapted to burn bituminous coal, and to have six wheels
connected and a truck in front, which might be either of two or four
wheels. Mr. Baldwin secured the contract, and built twelve engines
of the prescribed dimensions, viz., cylinders eighteen by twentytwo ;
drivers forty-four inches diameter, with chilled tires. Several of these
engines were constructed with a single pair of truck-wheels in front
of the drivers, but back of the cylinders. It was found, however, after
the engines were put in service, that the two truck-wheels carried
eighteen thousand or nineteen thousand pounds, and this was
objected to by the company as too great a weight to be carried on a
single pair of wheels. On the rest of the engines of the order,
therefore, a four-wheeled truck in front was employed. The ten
wheeled engine thereafter assumed a place in the Baldwin
classification. In 1855-56, two of twenty-seven tons weight, nineteen
by twenty-two cylinders, forty-eight inches drivers, were built for the
Portage Railroad, and three for the Pennsylvania Railroad. In 1855,
'56, and '57, fourteen, of the same dimensions, were built for the
Cleveland and Pittsburg Railroad ; four for the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne
and Chicago Railroad ; and one for the Marietta and Cincinnati
Railroad. In 1858 and '59, one was constructed for the South
Carolina Railroad, of the same size, and six lighter ten-wheelers,
with cylinders fifteen and a half by twenty-two, and four-feet drivers,
and two with cylinders sixteen by twenty-two, and four- feet drivers,
were sent .out to railroads in Cuba. It was some years — not until
after 1 860, however — before this pattern of engine
 32 ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. wholly superseded in Mr.
Baldwin's practice the old plan of freight engine on six or eight
wheels, all connected. On three locomotives — the " Clinton,"
"Athens," and "Sparta" — completed for the Central Railroad of
Georgia in July, 1852, the driving-boxes were made with a slot or
cavity in the line of the vertical bearing on the journal. The object
was to produce a more uniform distribution of the wear over the
entire surface of the bearing. This was the first instance in which this
device, which has -since come into general use, was employed in the
Works, and the boxes were so made by direction of Mr. Charles
Whiting, then Master Mechanic of the Central Railroad of Georgia.
He subsequently informed Mr. Baldwin that this method of fitting up
driving-boxes had been in use on the road for several years previous
to his connection with the company. As this device was subsequently
made the subject of a patent by Mr. David Matthew, these facts may
not be without interest. In 1853, Mr. Charles Ellet, Chief Engineer of
the Virginia Central Railroad, laid a temporary track across 'the Blue
Ridge, at Rock Fish Gap, for use during the construction of a tunnel
through the mountain. This track was twelve thousand five hundred
feet in length on the eastern slope, ascending in that distance six
hundred and ten feet, or at the average rate of one in twenty and a
half feet. The maximum grade was calculated for two hundred and
ninety-six feet per mile, and prevailed for half a mile. It was found,
however, in fact, that the grade in places exceeded three hundred
feet per mile. The shortest radius of curvature was two hundred and
thirty-eight feet. On the western slope, which was ten thousand six
hundred and fifty feet in length, the maximum grade was two
hundred and eighty feet per mile, and the ruling radius of curvature
three hundred feet. This track was worked by two of the Baldwin six-
wheels-connected flexible-beam truck locomotives constructed in
1853-54. From a description of this track, and the mode of working
it, published by Mr. Ellet in 1856, the following is extracted: " The
locomotives mainly relied on for this severe duty were designed and
constructed by the firm of M. W. Baldwin & Company, of
Philadelphia. The slight modifications introduced at the instance of
the writer to adapt them better to the particular service to be
performed in crossing the Blue Ridge, did not touch the working
proportions or principle of the engines, the merits of which are due
to the patentee, M. W. Baldwin, Esq. " These engines are mounted
on six wheels, all of which are drivers, and coupled, and forty-two
inches diameter. The wheels are set very close, so that the distance
between the extreme points of contact of the wheels and the rail, of
the front and rear drivers, is nine feet four inches. This closeness of
the wheels, of course, greatly redutes the difficulty of turning the
short curves of the road. The diameter of the cylinders is sixteen and
a half inches, and the length of the stroke twenty inches. To increase
the adhesion, and at the same time avoid the resistance of a tender,
the engine carries its tank upon the boiler, and the footboard is
lengthened out and provided with suspended side-boxes, where a
supply of fuel may be stored. By this means the weight of wood and
water, instead of abstracting from the effective power of the engine,
contributes to its adhesion and consequent ability to climb the
mountain. The total weight of these engines is fifty-five thousand
pounds, or twenty-seven and a half tons, when the boiler and tank
are supplied with water, and fuel enough for a trip of eight miles is
on board. The capacity of the tank is sufficient to hold one hundred
cubic feet of water, and it has storage-room on top for one hundred
cubic feet of wood, in addition to what may be carried in the side-
boxes and on the footboard.
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 33 "To enable the engines
better to adapt themselves to the flexures of the road, the front and
middle pairs of drivers are held in position by wrought-iron beams,
having cylindrical boxes in each end for the journal-bearings, which
beams vibrate on spherical pins fixed in the frame of the engine on
each side, and resting on the centres of the beams. The object of
this arrangement is to form a truck, somewhat flexible, which
enables the drivers more readily to traverse the curves of the road. "
The writer has never permitted the power of the engines on this
mountain road to be fully tested. The. object has been to work the
line regularly, economically, and, above all, safely ; and these
conditions are incompatible with experimental loads subjecting the
machinery to severe strains. The regular daily service of each of the
engines is to make four trips, of eight miles, over the mountain,
drawing one eight-wheel baggage car, together with two eight-wheel
passenger cars, in each direction. " In conveying freight, the regular
train on the mountain is three of the eight-wheel housecars, fully
loaded, or four of them when empty or partly loaded. " These three
cars, when full, weigh, with their loads, from forty to forty-three
tons. Sometimes, though rarely, when the business has been
unusually heavy, the loads have exceeded fifty tons. "With such
trains the engines are stopped on the track, ascending or
descending, and are started again, on the steepest grades, at the
discretion of the engineer. "Water, for the supply of the engines, has
been found difficult to obtain on the mountain ; and, since the road
was constructed, a tank has been established on the eastern slope,
where the ascending engines stop daily on a grade of two hundred
and eighty feet per mile, and are there held by the brakes while the
tank is being filled, and started again at the signal and without any
difficulty. " The ordinary speed of the engines, when loaded, is seven
and a half miles an hour on the ascending grades, and from five and
a half to six miles an hour on the descent. "When the road was first
opened, it speedily appeared that the difference of forty-three feet
on the western side, and fifty-eight feet on the eastern side,
between the grades on curves of three hundred feet radii and those
on straight lines, was not sufficient to compensate for the increased
traction due to such curvature. The velocity, with a constant supply
of steam, was promptly retarded on passing from a straight line to a
curve, and promptly accelerated again on passing from the curve to
the straight line. But, after a little experience in the working of the
road, it was found advisable to supply a small amount of grease to
the flange of the engine by means of a sponge, saturated wath oil,
which, when needed, is kept in contact with the wheel by a spring.
Since the use of the oil was introduced, the difficulty of turning the
curves has been so far diminished, that it is no longer possible to
determine whether grades of two hundred and thirty-seven and six-
tenths feet per mile on curves of three hundred feet radius, or
grades of two hundred and ninety-six feet per mile on straight lines,
are traversed most rapidly by the engine. " When the track is in
good condition, the brakes of only two of the cars possess sufficient
power to control and regulate the movement of the train, — that is
to say, they will hold back the two cars and the engine. When there
are three or more cars in the train, the brakes on the cars, of course,
command the train so much th&more easily. " But the safety of the
train is not dependent on the brakes of the cars. There is also a
valve or air-cock in the steam-chest, under the control of the
engineer. This air-cock forms an independent brake, exclusively at
the command of the engineer, and which can always be applied
when the engine itself is in working order. The action of this power
may be made ever so gradual, either slightly relieving the duty of
the brakes on the cars, or bringing into play the entire power of the
engine. The train is thus held in complete command." The Mountain
Top Track, it may be added, was worked successfully for several
years, by the engines described in the above extract, until it was
abandoned on the completion of the tunnel. The exceptionally steep
grades and short curves
 34 ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. which characterized the line,
afforded a complete and satisfactory test of the adaptation of these
machines to such peculiar service. But the period now under
consideration was marked by another, and a most important, step in
the progress of American locomotive practice. We refer to the
introduction of the link-motion. Although this device was first
employed by William T. James, of New York, in 1832, and eleven
years later by the Stephensons, in England, and was by them
applied thenceforward on their engines, it was not until 1849 that it
was adopted in this country. In that year Mr. Thomas Rogers, of the
Rogers Locomotive and Machine Company, introduced it in his
practice. Other builders, however, strenuously resisted the
innovation, and none more so than Mr. Baldwin. The theoretical
objections which confessedly apply to the device, but which
practically have been proved to be unimportant, were urged from
the first by Mr. Baldwin as arguments against its use. The strong
claim of the advocates of the link-motion, that it gave a means of
cutting off steam at any point of the stroke, could not be gainsaid,
and this was admitted to be a consideration of the first importance.
This very circumstance undoubtedly turned Mr. Baldwin's attention to
the subject of methods for cutting off steam, and one of the first
results was his "Variable Cut-off," patented April 27, 1852. This
device consisted of two valves, the upper sliding upon the lower, and
worked by an eccentric and rock-shaft in the usual manner. The
lower valve fitted steam-tight to the sides of the steamchest and the
under surface of the upper valve. When the piston reached each end
of its stroke, the full pressure of steam from the boiler was admitted
around the upper valve, and transferred the lower valve
instantaneously from one end of the steam-chest to the other. The
openings through the two valves were so arranged that steam was
admitted to the cylinder only for a part of the stroke. The effect was,
therefore, to cut off steam at a given point, and to open the
induction and exhaust ports substantially at the same instant and to
their full extent. The exhaust port, in addition, remained fully open
while the induction port was gradually closing, and after it had
entirely closed. Although this device was never put in use, it may be
noted in passing that it contained substantially the principle of the
steam-pump, as since patented and constructed. Early in 1853, Mr.
Baldwin abandoned the half-stroke cut-off, previously described, and
which he had been using since 1845, ^^^ adopted the variable cut-
off, which was already employed by other builders. One of his
letters, written in January, 1853, states his position, as follows: "I
shall put on an improvement in the shape of a variable cut-off, which
can be operated by the engineer while the machine is running, and
which will cut off anywhere from six to twelve inches, according to
the load and amount of steam wanted, and this without the
linkmotion, which I could never be entirely satisfied with. I still have
the independent cut-off, and the additional machinery to make it
variable will be simple and not liable to be deranged." This form of
cut-off was a separate valve, sliding on a partition plate between it
and the main steam-valve, and worked by an independent eccentric
and rockshaft. The upper arm of the rock-shaft was curved so as to
form a radius-arm,
 BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, 35 on which a sliding-
block, forming the termination of the upper valve-rod, could be
adjusted and held at varying distances from the axis, thus producing
a variable travel of the upper valve. This device did not give an
absolutely perfect cut-off, as it was not operative in backward gear,
but when running forward it would cut-off with great accuracy at any
point of the stroke, was quick in its movement, and economical in
the consumption of fuel. After a short experience with this
arrangement of the cut-off, the partition plate was omitted, and the
upper valve was made to slide directly on the lower. This was
eventually found objectionable, however, as the lower valve would
soon cut a hollow in the valve-face. Several unsuccessful attempts
were made to remedy this defect, by making the lower valve of
brass, with long bearings, and making the valve-face of the cylinder
of hardened steel; finally, however, the plan of one valve on the
other was abandoned, and recourse was again had to an interposed
partition plate, as in the original half-stroke cut-off. Mr. Baldwin did
not adopt this form of cut-off without some modification of his own,
and the modification in this instance consisted of a peculiar device,
patented September 13, 1853, for raising and lowering the block on
the radiusarm. A quadrant was placed so that its circumference bore
nearly against a curved arm projecting down from the sliding-block,
and which curved in the reverse direction from the quadrant. Two
steel straps side by side were interposed between the quadrant and
this curved arm. fi One of the straps was connected to the lower end
of the quadrant and the upper end of the curved arm ; the | „ uj...
JEf^T ^ other, to the upper end Fig. h.-variable cut-off adjustment.
of the quadrant and the lower end of the curved arm. The effect was
the same as if the quadrant and arm geared into each other in any
position by teeth, and theoretically the block was kept steady in
whatever position placed on the radius-arm of the rock-shaft. This
was the object sought to be accomplished, and was stated in the
specification of the patent as follows : "The principle of varying the
cut-ofif by means of a vibrating arm and sHding pivot-block has long
been known, but the contrivances for changing the position of the
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