A Brief History of the Computer

The history of computers starts out about 2000 years ago in Babylonia (Mesopotamia), at the
birth of the abacus, a wooden rack holding two horizontal wires with beads strung on them.

Blaise Pascal is usually credited for building the first digital computer in 1642. It added numbers
entered with dials and was made to help his father, a tax collector.
The basic principle of his calculator is still used today in water meters and modern-day odometers.
Instead of having a carriage wheel turn the gear, he made each ten-teeth wheel accessible to be
turned directly by a person's hand (later inventors added keys and a crank), with the result that when
the wheels were turned in the proper sequences, a series of numbers was entered and a cumulative
sum was obtained. The gear train supplied a mechanical answer equal to the answer that is obtained
by using arithmetic.
This first mechanical calculator, called the Pascaline, had several disadvantages. Although it did
offer a substantial improvement over manual calculations, only Pascal himself could repair the
device and it cost more than the people it replaced! In addition, the first signs of technophobia
emerged with mathematicians fearing the loss of their jobs due to progress.

Contrary to Pascal, Leibniz (1646-1716) successfully introduced a calculator onto the market. It is
designed in 1673 but it takes until 1694 to complete. The calculator can add, subtract, multiply, and
divide. Wheels are placed at right angles which could be displaced by a special stepping mechanism.

The speed of calculation for multiplication or division was acceptable. But like the Pascaline, this
calculator required that the operator using the device had to understand how to turn the wheels and
know the way of performing calculations with the calculator.

Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a
programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer". e conceptualized and invented
the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary
difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much
more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible.

A step towards automated computing was the development of punched cards, which were first
successfully used with computers in 1890 by Herman Hollerith and James Powers, who worked for
the US. Census Bureau. They developed devices that could read the information that had been
punched into the cards automatically, without human help. Because of this, reading errors were
reduced dramatically, work flow increased, and, most importantly, stacks of punched cards could
be used as easily accessible memory of almost unlimited size. Furthermore, different problems
could be stored on different stacks of cards and accessed when needed.

These advantages were seen by commercial companies and soon led to the development of
improved punch-card using computers created by International Business Machines (IBM),
Remington (yes, the same people that make shavers), Burroughs, and other corporations. These
computers used electromechanical devices in which electrical power provided mechanical motion
-- like turning the wheels of an adding machine. Such systems included features to:
 o feed in a specified number of cards automatically
o add, multiply, and sort
o feed out cards with punched results

The start of World War II produced a large need for computer capacity, especially for the military.
New weapons were made for which trajectory tables and other essential data were needed. In
1942, John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchly, and their associates at the Moore school of Electrical
Engineering of University of Pennsylvania decided to build a high - speed electronic computer to
do the job. This machine became known as ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator And
Calculator)

The size of ENIAC’s numerical "word" was 10 decimal digits, and it could multiply two of these
numbers at a rate of 300 per second, by finding the value of each product from a multiplication
table stored in its memory. ENIAC was therefore about 1,000 times faster then the previous
generation of relay computers. ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes, about 1,800 square feet of
floor space, and consumed about 180,000 watts of electrical power. It had punched card I/O, 1
multiplier, 1 divider/square rooter, and 20 adders using decimal ring counters, which served as
adders and also as quick-access (.0002 seconds) read-write register storage. The executable
instructions making up a program were embodied in the separate "units" of ENIAC, which were
plugged together to form a "route" for the flow of information.

Early in the 50’s two important engineering discoveries changed the image of the electronic -
computer field, from one of fast but unreliable hardware to an image of relatively high reliability
and even more capability. These discoveries were the magnetic core memory and the Transistor -
Circuit Element.
These technical discoveries quickly found their way into new models of digital computers. RAM
capacities increased from 8,000 to 64,000 words in commercially available machines by the 1960’s,
with access times of 2 to 3 MS (Milliseconds). These machines were very expensive to purchase or
even to rent and were particularly expensive to operate because of the cost of expanding
programming. Such computers were mostly found in large computer centers operated by industry,
government, and private laboratories - staffed with many programmers and support personnel. This
situation led to modes of operation enabling the sharing of the high potential available.

Many companies, such as Apple Computer and Radio Shack, introduced very successful PC’s in
the 1970's, encouraged in part by a fad in computer (video) games. In the 1980's some friction
occurred in the crowded PC field, with Apple and IBM keeping strong. In the manufacturing of
semiconductor chips, the Intel and Motorola Corporations were very competitive into the 1980s,
although Japanese firms were making strong economic advances, especially in the area of memory
chips. By the late 1980s, some personal computers were run by microprocessors that, handling 32
bits of data at a time, could process about 4,000,000 instructions per second.
What are computers?

The term computer has been borrowed from compute that means to calculate. Computer is an electronic
device which is capable of receiving information (data) in a particular form and of performing a sequence
of operations in accordance with a predetermined but variable set of procedural instructions (program) to
produce a result in the form of information or signals. Whereas initially computers were used to perform
arithmetic calculations at fast speed, now they are used in nearly every field.
Characteristics of a Computer:

The following are the characteristics of a typical computer:

Speed:
Present day computer operate at very high speed. A computer can perform several million instruction (
calculations) in one second. For example, it can add or multiply 2 lakh number in a second. There are
several different types of computers and they all have different speeds running from high to very-very
high.
However, even the speed of the slowest personal computer (PC) is very high compare to that of a
human being, as far as arithmetic operations are concerned. Typically, the speed of computers is
specified in MIP(Million Instructions per Seconds) or MLFOPS(Million Floating-Point Operation
Per Seconds).

Accuracy

Computers perform with a very high degree of consistent accuracy. Now a days computer technology
stabilized, and the chances of a computer giving in accurate results are very rare. If you ask a computer to
perform a particular calculation, say, division of Two numbers a thousand times, it will perform each
division operation with the same accuracy.
Sometimes computers do make mistakes. This may happens if there is an undedicated flaw in the design of
the computer (That is very rare now a days). Most of the times, computers make mistakes if they are not
programmed correctly. That is, if the programmer who has written the program to do same calculations did
not consider all excepts of the data that will be fade into the computer, it can give in accurate results.
Computers can give accurate results if the input data is in accurate, e.g. if you try to divide a number by
zero (0).

Diligence

When human beings are required to work continuously for a few hours, they become try and start losing
concentration. On the other hand, a computer can continue a work for hour (or even days) at the same speed
and accuracy. It does not show signs of tiredness or lake of concentration when may to work continuously.
Unlike human beings, it does not complain or show lethargy or laziness when made to do the same task
repeated. Because of this property, computers are generally used in all such situation where the same or
similar task has to be repeated a numbers of times, e.g. preparing the salary slip for 10 thousand employs
of a company, or printing divide end checks for ten lakh share holders of a large company.

Versatility
Computers are very versatile. The same computer can be used for various applications. For instance, you
can use a Personal Computer (PC) to prepare a latter, prepare the balance sheet of a company, store a
database of employees, produce a professional-looking advertisement, send or receive fax messages, etc.
for a computer to perform a new job, all it needs is a program. (A program is a set of instructions that
enables a computer to do a particular task.) Thus, if you want a computer to do perform a new task, all you
need to write a new program for that task.

It can store Data

A computer can store a huge amount of data in its memory. You can store almost any type of data, such as
a letter, Picture, Sound, etc. in a computer. You can recall the stored from the computer whenever you need
it. For instance, if you type a letter you can save it. Then, if you want to send a single letter to another
person, you can recall that letter from the computers memory, modify it and then print a new letter.

It is Dumb

A computer is dumb. It has no intelligence of its own. It cannot think or apply its judgment. It gets its power
from the program that it runes. It will do only what it is asked to do. It has to be hold what to do, and in
what sequence. Therefore, the program that the computer runs determines what task it will perform. Those,
if you run a word processor program on a computer, it becomes a word processor and if you run a Desktop
Publishing (DTP) program. It becomes a Desktop publisher. So, a computer does not take its own
decisions—it simply follows the programmer or the user.

It has No Emotions

Computers are not living beings. Hence, they do not have any emotions. They do not have any heart or
soul. Human Beings often take some decisions based on emotions, taste, feelings, etc. in their daily life.
On the other hand, computers always take decisions based on a program that they run.

Applications on Computers:

The use of computers is increasing at such a rate that there is hardly any field where computers are not
used. The following list describes some of the applications of computers:

1. In offices and homes for preparing documents and to perform other data processing jobs.
2. To prepare salary slips and salary cheques in office and factories.
3. To maintain accounts and transfer funds in banks.
4. To store and retrieve large amount of information in offices.
5. To send and receive electronic mail / fax.
6. To search and retrieve information from other computers.
7. To reserve tickets in the transportation sectors, eg Railways, Air Lines, etc.
8. To regulate traffic lights on roads and to control machines and robots in factories.
9. To design automobiles, buildings and dams and to forecast weather.
10. To create animation / cartoon movies and compose music.
 11. To control modern automobiles, trains, airplanes etc.
12. To control electronic appliances, such as air-conditioner, TVs, VCRs etc.
13. To On-line banking, buy and sell merchandise, shares, bonds, etc.
14. To control and simulate defense equipments.
For scientific and industrial research.

Data vs. Information

Data is a collection of facts and figures. Information is defined as processed data. There is a subtle
difference between data and information. Data are the details from which information is derived.
Individual pieces of data are rarely useful alone. For data to become information, data needs to be put into
context. Data can be any character, text, words, number, pictures, sound, or video and, if not put into
context, means little or nothing to a human. However, information is useful and usually formatted in a
manner that allows it to be understood by a human . What may be information for one person may be data
for another person. this is true when we see information flows in managerial hierarchy. For information to
be useful to the decision maker, it must have certain characteristics and meet certain criteria.
Some of the characteristics of good information are discussed as follows
i. Understandable:
Since information is already in a summarized form, it must be understood by the receiver so that he will
interpret it correctly. He must be able to decode any abbreviations, shorthand notations or any other
acronyms contained in the information.
ii. Relevant:
Information is good only if it is relevant. This means that it should be pertinent and meaningful to the
decision maker and should be in his area of responsibility.
iii. Complete:
It should contain all the facts that are necessary for the decision maker to satisfactorily solve the problem
at hand using such information. Nothing important should be left out. Although information cannot
always be complete, every reasonable effort should be made to obtain it.
iv. Available:
Information may be useless if it is not readily accessible ‘ in the desired form, when it is needed.
Advances in technology have made information more accessible today than ever before.
v. Reliable:
The information should be counted on to be trustworthy. It should be accurate, consistent with facts and
verifiable. Inadequate or incorrect information generally leads to decisions of poor quality. For
example, sales figures that have not been adjusted for returns and refunds are not reliable.
vi. Concise:
Too much information is a big burden on management and cannot be processed in time and accurately
due to “bounded rationality”. Bounded rationality determines the limits of the thinking process which
cannot sort out and process large amounts of information. Accordingly, information should be to the point
and just enough – no more, no less.
vii. Timely:
Information must be delivered at the right time and the right place to the right person. Premature
information can become obsolete or be forgotten by the time it is actually needed.
Similarly, some crucial decisions can be delayed because proper and necessary information is not available
in time, resulting in missed opportunities. Accordingly the time gap between collection of data and the
presentation of the proper information to the decision maker must be reduced as much as possible.
viii. Cost-effective:
The information is not desirable if the solution is more costly than the problem. The cost of gathering
data and processing it into information must be weighed against the benefits derived from using such
information.

Comparison
Data Information
Meaning Data is raw, unorganized When data is processed, organized,
facts that need to be structured or presented in a given
processed. Data can be context so as to make it useful, it is
something simple and called information.
seemingly random and
useless until it is
organized.
Example Each student's test score is The average score of a class or of
one piece of data. the entire school is information
that can be derived from the given
data.
Etymology "Data" comes from a "Information" is an older word that
singular Latin word, dates back to the 1300s and has Old
datum, which originally French and Middle English origins.
meant "something given." It has always referred to "the act of
Its early usage dates back to informing, " usually in regard to
the 1600s. Over time "data" education, instruction, or other
has become the plural of knowledge communication
datum.

Basic functions of Computer

Input

Computers receive data from outside There are a number of devices that are used to receive data and
instructions from the out side world. The keyboard on your PC is one of the most commonly used input
devices.

Storage

When you enter data or instruction in computer, these are stored somewhere in the computer system.
Because a computer cannot process or analyze all input data instantaneously, it has to store the data. The
computer will get the data / instructions from the storage unit when it has to process it. It may also have to
store data to do additional processing later.

Processing

Computers process (analyze) the input data available in its storage unit in order to get some useful
output.

Outputting
After the computer has processed the input data it provides useful information (result) for the. Control
All computers have a control unit that controls the manner and sequence of operations.
All computer system perform the above five factions.

Components of Computer system

Input unit
Computer need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. We need to put the data and
instruction into the computers. The Input Unit consists of one or more Input devices. There are a number
of devices that perform the function of input devices. The keyboard of your computer is one of the most
commonly used input devices. Other commonly used input devices are the mouse, floppy disk drive, hard
disk drive and magnetic tape. Regardless of the type of input device used in a computer system, all input
device perform the following functions.
- Accept data and instruction from the outside word
- Convert it to a from that the computer can understand.
- Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.

Storage units

The storage unit of the computer holds the data and instruction that you enter through the input unit before
these are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent to the output
devices. It is also used to preserve the data for later use: e.g. you may like to save letter you type today for
printing after one week. The various storage devices used in computer system are classified into two
categories-primary and secondary.

Primary Storage

The primary storage also called the primary memory, store and provides information very fast. This is
generally used to hold the program being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from
the in put unit and the intermediate and final results of the program. The primary generally loses its content
when you switch off the computer. Therefore if you need to preserve the results or the input data, you have
to transfer it to the secondary storage. The cost of primary storage is more compare to the secondary storage.
Therefore, most computers have limited primary storage. Most of the computers use ‘semiconductor
memory’ as primary storage.

Secondary Storage

On the other hand, the secondary storage (Memory) is used

Databases; etc .The program that you want to run on the computer is first Transferred to the primary
memory before it can run. Similarly, after running the Program, if you need to save the result, you will
transfer them to the secondary Storage. The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than the primary
memory. Some of the commonly used secondary memory devices are floppy diskette, zip diskette, hard
disk and magnetic tape.
Output Unit

The output unit of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to the outside world.
As you know, computers do not work in the decimal system, thy work in the binary system. Therefore if
required, the output unit also converts the binary data into a form that users can understand. Printer and
Video Display Unit (VDU, also called display screen)are commonly used output devices. Other commonly
used output devices are floppy disk drive, hard disk drive and magnetic tape drive in the earl ear generation
computers, paper tape punch units and card punch units were also used as output devices.

Arithmetic-Logic Unit

All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. ALU also dose
compressions and takes decisions. When ever calculation has to be done, the control unit transfers the
required data from the storage unit to ALU. The ALU can perform basic orations such as additions,
substrations, multlipactions, division, etc. the ALU can also do logical operations: e.g. it can check if the
number a is less than, equal to or grater than the number b. after the ALU has performed the calculation or
the logical operation, the result is transfer to the storage unit.

Control Unit

The control unit controls all other units in the computer. The input unit does not know when to receive data
and where to put the data in the storage unit after receiving it. It is the control unit that gives the necessary
instructions to the input unit. Similarly, the control unit instructs the input unit where to store the data after
receiving it from the user. In the same way, it controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage
unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of the result from ALU to the storage unit. The control unit also
controls what should be sent to the output unit and when. In brief, the control unit is the central nervous
system of the computer that controls and synchronizes its working.

Central Processing Unit

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the central processing unit (CPU). In
most modern computers, a single IC does the job of controlling all units of the computer. The same IC
also contains the ALU. The CPU is like a computer’s brain:
----- It performs all calculations.
----- It takes all Decisions.
---- It controls all units of the computer.
CPU(Central processing Unit .Alternately referred to as a processor, central processor, or
microprocessor):is a
• Set of electronic circuitry that executes program instructions
• Converts data into information
• Acts as Control center i.e. it controls all the devices connected to system. because of this function it
is called as Brain of Computer System
The three components of the CPU are following,

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit

2. Control Unit
3. Registers
ALU (arithmetic logic unit)
▪ Performs calculations , logical operations and comparisons (data changed)
Register
s ▪ Small, permanent storage locations within the CPU used for a particular purpose
▪ Manipulated directly by the Control Unit
▪ Wired for specific function
▪ Size in bits or bytes (not MB like memory)
▪ Can hold data, an address or an instruction
Special-Purpose Registers
▪ Program Count Register (PC)
▪ Also called instruction pointer. it contains the memory address of instruction that is being
executed by CPU ,after execution of instruction it points to address of memory location
where next instruction to be executed is stored and these steps are repeated till all the
instructions of the program are executed.
▪ Instruction Register (IR)
▪ Stores instruction fetched from memory
▪ Memory Address Register (MAR)
▪ Memory Data Register (MDR)
▪ Status Registers
▪ Status of CPU and currently executing program
▪ Flags (one bit Boolean variable) to track condition like arithmetic carry and overflow,
power failure, internal computer error
Register Operations
▪ Stores values from other locations (registers and memory)
▪ Addition and subtraction
▪ Shift or rotate data
▪ Test contents for conditions such as zero or positive
Control unit
• Part of the CPU that generates control signals and controls all operations of computer
• Moves data to and from CPU registers and other hardware components (no change in data)
• Accesses program instructions and issues commands to the ALU
• Directs the computer system to execute program instructions
• Communicates with other parts of the hardware through exchange of control signals
The picture below is an example of what the top and bottom of an Intel Pentium processor may look.
The processor is placed and secured into a compatible CPU socket found on the motherboard.
Processors produce heat, so they are covered with a heat sink to keep them cool and running smoothly.
As you can see in the above picture, the CPU chip is usually in the shape of a square or rectangle and has
one notched corner to help place the chip properly into the CPU socket. On the bottom of the chip are
hundreds of connector pins that plug into each of the corresponding holes in the socket. Today, most
CPU's resemble the picture shown above. However, Intel and AMD have also experimented with slot
processors that were much larger and slid into a slot on the motherboard. Also, over the years, there have
been dozens of different types of sockets on motherboards. Each socket only supports specific types of
processors and each has its own pin layout.

Bus
▪ The physical connection that makes it possible to transfer data from one location in the
computer system to another
▪ Group of electrical conductors for carrying signals from one location to another
▪ Line: each conductor in the bus
▪ 4 kinds of signals
▪ Data (alphanumeric, numerical, instructions)
▪ Addresses
▪ Control signals
▪ Power (sometimes)
▪ Connect CPU and Memory
▪ I/O peripherals: on same bus as CPU/memory or separate bus
▪ Physical packaging commonly called backplane
▪ Also called system bus or external bus
▪ Example of broadcast bus
▪ Part of printed circuit board called motherboard that holds CPU and related components

Bus Characteristics
▪ Protocol
▪ Documented agreement for communication
▪ Specification that spells out the meaning of each line and each signal on each line
▪ Throughput, i.e., data transfer rate in bits per second
▪ Data width in bits carried simultaneously
The Five Generations of Computers

First generation
computers (1940-1956)
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
They were often enormous and taking up entire room.
First generation computers relied on machine language.
They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.
Second generation
computers (1956-1963)
• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
• Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic.
• High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions
of COBOL and FORTRAN.
• These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory.
Third generation
computers (1964-1971)
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on siliconchips, called semiconductors.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system.
Allowed the device to run many different applications at one time.

Fourth generation
computers (1971-present)
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer.
From the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.
. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and
handheld devices.
Fifth generation
computers (present and
beyond)
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence.
Are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition.
The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
Basic Unit of Computers:

System Unit
The system unit is the main portion of the microcomputer system and is the basis of any PC system
arrangement. The components surrounding it vary from system to system depending upon what
particular functions the system is supposed to serve.
Internal Components
The components inside the system unit can be divided into four distinct sub-units: a power supply, the
disk drives, the system board, and the options adapter cards.
Power Supply Unit
A typical system unit contains a single power supply unit that converts commercial power into the
various levels required by the different units in the system.
Drives
The number and types of disk drives in the system vary according to the application for which the
system is designed. However, a single floppy-disk drive unit, a single hard-disk drive unit, and a single
CD-ROM drive are typically installed to handle the system's mass storage requirements.
System Board
The system board is the center of the system. It contains the portions of the system that define its
computing power and speed. System boards are also referred to as motherboards, or planar boards.
Front Panel
The inside face or the plastic front panel is coated with a conductive paint to limit the radio magnetic
interference escaping from the case.
Laptops
With advancements in battery design and the advent of usable, large screen liquid crystal display (LCD)
panels, the first truly portable PCs, referred to as laptops, were introduced.
What Are Peripherals?
Peripherals are devices and systems that are added to the basic computer system to extend its
capabilities. These devices and systems can be divided into three general categories: Input, Output,
Memory.
Adapter Boards
Each peripheral device interacts with the basic system through adapter boards that plug into expansion
slots inside the system unit.
Input Devices
Input devices enable you to enter commands and data into the computer more easily than is possible
with a keyboard. Common input devices include the mouse, joystick, light pen, and trackball. These
devices are covered in detail later in this unit.
Classification of Computers
Types of Computers
1. Analog Computers
Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers represent variables by physical
quantities. Thus any computer which solve problem by translating physical conditions such as flow,
temperature, pressure, angular position or voltage into related mechanical or electrical related circuits as
an analog for the physical phenomenon being investigated in general it is a computer which uses an analog
quantity and produces analog values as output. Thus, an analog computer measure continuously. Analog
computers are very much speedy. They produce their results very fast. But their results are approximately
correct. All the analog computers are special purpose computers.
2. Digital Computers
Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or numbers. These numbers are
used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also make logical decision to reach a conclusion, depending
on, the data they receive from the user.
3. Hybrid Computer:
Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog characteristics
combining the advantages of analog and digital computers when working as a system.
Hybrid computers are being used extensively in process control system where it is necessary
to have a close representation with the physical world.
The hybrid system provides the good precision that can be attained with analog computers
and the greater control that is possible with digital computers, plus the ability to accept the
input data in either form.

Classification of Computers based on size

1. Super Computers
Large scientific and research laboratories as well as the government organizations have extra
ordinary demand for processing data which required tremendous processing speed, memory
and other services which may not be provided with any other category to meet their needs.
Therefore, very large computers used are called Super Computers. These computers are
extremely expensive and the speed is measured in billions of instructions per seconds.
2) Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches,
for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just
below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers
because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single
program faster than a mainframe.
3. Mini Computers
Mini computers are smaller than mainframes, both in size and other facilities such as speed,
storage capacity and other services. They are versatile that they can be fitted where ever they
are needed. Their speeds are rated between one and fifty million instructions per second
(MIPS). They have primary storage in hundred to three hundred megabytes range with direct
access storage device.
4. Micro Computers
These are the smallest range of computers. They were introduced in the early 70’s having
less storing space and processing speed. Microcomputers of todays are equivalent to the mini
computers of yesterday in terms of performing and processing. They are also called
“computer of a chip” because its entire circuitry is contained in one tiny chip. The micro
computers have a wide range of applications including uses as portable computer that can be
plugged into any wall.