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 Computer Graphics
Programming in OpenGL
with Java
Third Edition

CGP.Java3E.Ch00.FM.2pp.indd 1 8/17/2021 12:04:50 PM

 LICENSE, DISCLAIMER OF LIABILITY, AND LIMITED WARRANTY

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CGP.Java3E.Ch00.FM.2pp.indd 2 8/17/2021 12:04:50 PM

 Computer Graphics
Programming in OpenGL
with Java
Third Edition

V. Scott Gordon, PhD

California State University, Sacramento

John Clevenger, PhD

California State University, Sacramento

Mercury Learning and Information

Dulles, Virginia
Boston, Massachusetts
New Delhi

CGP.Java3E.Ch00.FM.2pp.indd 3 8/17/2021 12:04:50 PM

 Copyright ©2021 by Mercury Learning and Information LLC. All rights reserved.

This publication, portions of it, or any accompanying software may not be reproduced in any way,
stored in a retrieval system of any type, or transmitted by any means, media, electronic display
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scanning, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Publisher: David Pallai

Mercury Learning and Information

22841 Quicksilver Drive
Dulles, VA 20166
[email protected]
www.merclearning.com
(800) 232-0223

V. Scott Gordon & John Clevenger.

Computer Graphics Programming in OpenGL with Java, Third Edition
ISBN: 978-1-68392-736-5

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CGP.Java3E.Ch00.FM.2pp.indd 4 8/17/2021 12:04:50 PM

 Contents
Preface xi
What’s New in This Edition xiii
Intended Audience xiv
How to Use This Book xv
Acknowledgments xvii
About the Authors xix

Chapter 1 Getting Started 1

1.1 Languages and Libraries 1
1.1.1 Java 2
1.1.2 OpenGL / GLSL 2
1.1.3 JOGL 3
1.1.4 JOML 3
1.2 Installation and Configuration 4

Chapter 2 The OpenGL Graphics Pipeline 5

2.1 The OpenGL Pipeline 6
2.1.1 Java/JOGL Application 7
2.1.2 Vertex and Fragment Shaders 10
2.1.3 Tessellation 15
2.1.4 Geometry Shader 16
2.1.5 Rasterization 17
2.1.6 Fragment Shader 19
2.1.7 Pixel Operations 20

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 vi ■ C o n ten ts

2.2 Detecting OpenGL and GLSL Errors 21

2.3 Reading GLSL Source Code from Files 26
2.4 Building Objects from Vertices 27
2.5 Animating a Scene 28
2.6 Organizing the Java Code Files 32

Chapter 3 Mathematical Foundations 37

3.1 3D Coordinate Systems 38
3.2 Points 38
3.3 Matrices 39
3.4 Transformation Matrices 42
3.4.1 Translation 42
3.4.2 Scaling 43
3.4.3 Rotation 44
3.5 Vectors 45
3.5.1 Uses for Dot Product 47
3.5.2 Uses for Cross Product 48
3.6 Local and World Space 49
3.7 Eye Space and the Synthetic Camera 50
3.8 Projection Matrices 53
3.8.1 The Perspective Projection Matrix 53
3.8.2 The Orthographic Projection Matrix 56
3.9 Look-At Matrix 57
3.10 GLSL Functions for Building Matrix Transforms 58

Chapter 4 Managing 3D Graphics Data 63

4.1 Buffers and Vertex Attributes 64
4.2 Uniform Variables 67
4.3 Interpolation of Vertex Attributes 68
4.4 Model-View and Perspective Matrices 69
4.5 Our First 3D Program—A 3D Cube 71
4.6 Rendering Multiple Copies of an Object 80
4.6.1 Instancing 81
4.7 Rendering Multiple Different Models in a Scene 84
4.8 Matrix Stacks 87
4.9 Combating “Z-Fighting” Artifacts 94
4.10 Other Options for Primitives 95
4.11 Coding for Performance 97

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 C onte nts ■ vii

4.11.1 Minimizing Dynamic Memory Allocation 97

4.11.2 Pre-Computing the Perspective Matrix 99
4.11.3 Back-Face Culling 100

Chapter 5 Texture Mapping 107

5.1 Loading Texture Image Files 108
5.2 Texture Coordinates 110
5.3 Creating a Texture Object 112
5.4 Constructing Texture Coordinates 112
5.5 Loading Texture Coordinates into Buffers 114
5.6 Using the Texture in a Shader: Sampler Variables and Texture Units 114
5.7 Texture Mapping: Example Program 115
5.8 Mipmapping 118
5.9 Anisotropic Filtering 123
5.10 Wrapping and Tiling 124
5.11 Perspective Distortion 126
5.12 Loading Texture Image Files using Java AWT Classes 128

Chapter 6 3D Models 133

6.1 Procedural Models—Building a Sphere 134
6.2 OpenGL Indexing—Building a Torus 142
6.2.1 The Torus 142
6.2.2 Indexing in OpenGL 143
6.3 Loading Externally Produced Models 148

Chapter 7 Lighting 161

7.1 Lighting Models 161
7.2 Lights 163
7.3 Materials 166
7.4 ADS Lighting Computations 168
7.5 Implementing ADS Lighting 171
7.5.1 Gouraud Shading 172
7.5.2 Phong Shading 180
7.6 Combining Lighting and Textures 185

Chapter 8 Shadows 191

8.1 The Importance of Shadows 191
8.2 Projective Shadows 192

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 viii ■ Co n te n ts

8.3 Shadow Volumes 193

8.4 Shadow Mapping 194
8.4.1 Shadow Mapping (Pass One)—“Draw” Objects from
Light Position 195
8.4.2 Shadow Mapping (Intermediate Step)—Copying the
Z-Buffer to a Texture 196
8.4.3 Shadow Mapping (Pass Two)—Rendering the Scene with
Shadows 197
8.5 A Shadow Mapping Example 201
8.6 Shadow Mapping Artifacts 208
8.7 Soft Shadows 210
8.7.1 Soft Shadows in the Real World 211
8.7.2 Generating Soft Shadows—Percentage Closer Filtering (PCF) 212
8.7.3 A Soft Shadow/PCF Program 216

Chapter 9 Sky and Backgrounds 221

9.1 Skyboxes 221
9.2 Skydomes 224
9.3 Implementing a Skybox 226
9.3.1 Building a Skybox from Scratch 226
9.3.2 Using OpenGL Cube Maps 229
9.4 Environment Mapping 234

Chapter 10 Enhancing Surface Detail 243

10.1 Bump Mapping 243
10.2 Normal Mapping 245
10.3 Height Mapping 254

Chapter 11 Parametric Surfaces 261

11.1 Quadratic Bézier Curves 261
11.2 Cubic Bézier Curves 263
11.3 Quadratic Bézier Surfaces 266
11.4 Cubic Bézier Surfaces 268

Chapter 12 Tessellation 273

12.1 Tessellation in OpenGL 273
12.2 Tessellation for Bézier Surfaces 279
12.3 Tessellation for Terrain/Height Maps 286
12.4 Controlling Level of Detail (LOD) 293

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 C onte nts ■ ix

Chapter 13 Geometry Shaders 299

13.1 Per-Primitive Processing in OpenGL 299
13.2 Altering Primitives 301
13.3 Deleting Primitives 305
13.4 Adding Primitives 306
13.5 Changing Primitive Types 309

Chapter 14 Other Techniques 313

14.1 Fog 313
14.2 Compositing/Blending/Transparency 316
14.3 User-Defined Clipping Planes 322
14.4 3D Textures 324
14.5 Noise 330
14.6 Noise Application - Marble 335
14.7 Noise Application - Wood 340
14.8 Noise Application - Clouds 344
14.9 Noise Application - Special Effects 349

Chapter 15 Simulating Water 355

15.1 Pool Surface and Floor Geometry Setup 355
15.2 Adding Surface Reflection and Refraction 360
15.3 Adding Surface Waves 371
15.4 Additional Corrections 374
15.5 Animating the Water Movement 379
15.6 Underwater Caustics 381

Chapter 16 Ray Tracing and Compute Shaders 387

16.1 Compute Shaders 389
16.1.1 Compiling and Using Compute Shaders 389
16.1.2 Parallel Computing in Compute Shaders 390
16.1.3 Work Groups 394
16.1.4 Work Group Details 395
16.1.5 Work Group Limitations 398
16.2 Ray Casting 399
16.2.1 Defining the 2D Texture Image 399
16.2.2 Building and Displaying the Ray Cast Image 400
16.2.3 Ray-Sphere Intersection 408
16.2.4 Axis-Aligned Ray-Box Intersection 409

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 x ■ C o n te n ts

16.2.5 Output of Simple Ray Casting Without Lighting 411

16.2.6 Adding ADS Lighting 411
16.2.7 Adding Shadows 413
16.2.8 Non-Axis-Aligned Ray-Box Intersection 415
16.2.9 Determining Texture Coordinates 418
16.2.10 Plane Intersection and Procedural Textures 426
16.3 Ray Tracing 430
16.3.1 Reflection 430
16.3.2 Refraction 434
16.3.3 Combining Reflection, Refraction, and Textures 437
16.3.4 Increasing the Number of Rays 439
16.3.5 Generalizing the Solution 446
16.3.6 Additional Examples 450
16.3.7 Blending Colors for Transparent Objects 455

Chapter 17 Stereoscopy for 3D Glasses and VR Headsets 467

17.1 View and Projection Matrices for Two Eyes 469
17.2 Anaglyph Rendering 471
17.3 Side-by-Side Rendering 474
17.4 Correcting Lens Distortion in Headsets 475
17.5 A Simple Testing Hardware Configuration 483

Appendix A Installation and Setup for PC (Windows) 487

Appendix B Installation and Setup for Macintosh 491
Appendix C Using the Nsight Graphics Debugger 497

Index 505

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 Preface
This book is designed primarily as a textbook for a typical computer science ­undergraduate
course in modern shader-based, OpenGL 3D graphics programming. However, we have
also endeavored to create a text that could be used to teach oneself, without an accom-
panying course. With both of those aims in mind, we have tried to explain things as
clearly and as simply as we can. All of the programming examples are stripped down and
­simplified as much as possible, but they are still complete, so the reader may run them all
as presented.

One of the things we hope is unique about this book is that we have strived to make it
accessible to a beginner – that is, someone new to 3D graphics programming. While there
is by no means a lack of information available on the topic—quite the contrary—many
students are initially overwhelmed. This text is our attempt to write the book we wish we
had had when we were starting out, with step-by-step explanations of the basics, progress-
ing in an organized manner up through advanced topics. We considered titling the book
“shader programming made easy”; however, we don’t think that there really is any way of
making shader programming “easy.” We hope that we have come close.

This book teaches OpenGL programming in Java, using JOGL—a Java “wrapper”
for OpenGL’s native C calls [JO21]. There are several advantages to learning graphics
programming in Java rather than in C:
• It is more convenient for students at schools that conduct most of their curriculum
in Java
• Installation and setup is easier in Java than for C or C++
• Java’s I/O, window, and event handling are arguably cleaner than in C

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 xii ■ Pr e fa c e

• Java’s excellent support for object-oriented design patterns can foster good design
• JOGL includes some very nice tools, such as for loading textures, animation
loops, etc.
It is worth mentioning that there do exist other Java bindings for OpenGL. One that
has become very popular is Lightweight Java Game Library, or LWJGL [LW21]. Like
JOGL, LWJGL also offers bindings for OpenAL and OpenCL. This textbook focuses
only on JOGL.

Another thing that makes this book unique is that it has a “sister” textbook: Computer
Graphics Programming in OpenGL with C++, Second Edition. The two books are orga-
nized in lockstep, with the same chapter and section numbers and topics, figures, exer-
cises, and theoretical descriptions. Wherever possible, the code is organized similarly.
Of course, the use of Java versus C++ leads to considerable programming differences
(although all of the shader code is identical). Still, we believe that we have provided vir-
tually identical learning paths, even allowing a student to choose either option within a
single classroom.

An important point of clarification is that there exist both different versions of

OpenGL (briefly discussed later) and different variants of OpenGL. For example, in
addition to “standard OpenGL” (sometimes called “desktop OpenGL”), there exists a
variant called “OpenGL ES,” which is tailored for development of embedded systems
(hence the “ES”). “Embedded systems” include devices such as mobile phones, game
consoles, automobiles, and industrial control systems. OpenGL ES is mostly a subset of
standard OpenGL, eliminating a large number of operations that are typically not needed
for embedded systems. OpenGL ES also adds some additional functionality, typically
application-specific operations for particular target environments. The JOGL suite of Java
bindings includes interfaces for different versions of OpenGL ES, although we do not use
them in this book.

Yet another variant of OpenGL is called “WebGL.” Based on OpenGL ES, WebGL is
designed to support the use of OpenGL in web browsers. WebGL allows an application to
use JavaScript1 to invoke OpenGL ES operations, which makes it easy to embed OpenGL
graphics into standard HTML (web) documents. Most modern web browsers support
WebGL, including Apple Safari, Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Microsoft Internet
Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, and Opera. Since web programming is outside the scope of
this book, we will not cover any WebGL specifics. Note however, that because WebGL

1 JavaScript is a scripting language that can be used to embed code in web pages. It has strong
similarities to Java, but also many important differences.

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 Pre fa c e ■ xiii

is based on OpenGL ES, which in turn is based on standard OpenGL, much of what is
covered in this book can be transferred directly to learning about these OpenGL variants.

The very topic of 3D graphics lends itself to impressive, even beautiful images.
Indeed, many popular textbooks on the topic are filled with breathtaking scenes, and it is
enticing to leaf through their galleries. While we acknowledge the motivational utility of
such examples, our aim is to teach, not to impress. The images in this book are simply the
outputs of the example programs, and because this is an introductory text, the resulting
scenes are unlikely to impress an expert. However, the techniques presented do constitute
the foundational elements for producing today’s stunning 3D effects.

We also haven’t tried to create an OpenGL or JOGL “reference.” Our coverage of

OpenGL and JOGL represents only a tiny fraction of their capabilities. Rather, our aim is
to use OpenGL and JOGL as vehicles for teaching the fundamentals of modern shader-
based 3D graphics programming, and provide the reader with a sufficiently deep under-
standing for further study. If along the way this text helps to expand awareness of JOGL
and other JogAmp technologies, that would be nice, too.

What’s New in This Edition

We have added three new chapters in this 3rd edition of Computer Graphics Programming
in OpenGL with Java:
• Chapter 15 – Simulating Water
• Chapter 16 – Ray Tracing
• Chapter 17 – Stereoscopy
Ray tracing in particular has become “hot” recently, so we are especially excited that
it is now included in our book. It is also a huge topic, so even though our coverage is just
a basic introduction, Chapter 16 is now the longest chapter in the book. Chapter 16 also
includes an introduction to compute shaders, which were introduced in OpenGL 4.3, and
an introduction to additive and subtractive color blending, which expands on a topic that
was introduced in Section 14.2.

For years our own students have repeatedly expressed an interest in simulating water.
However, water takes so many forms that writing an introductory section on the topic is
challenging. Ultimately, we decided to present water in a way that would complement
related topics in the book such as terrain, sky, etc., and so in Chapter 15 we focus on utiliz-
ing our noise maps from Chapter 14 to generate water surfaces such as are seen in lakes
and oceans.

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 xiv ■ P refa c e

The new chapter on stereoscopy is motivated by the increased popularity of virtual

reality. However, it is also applicable to the development of animation for “3D movies,”
and we have tried to provide introductory coverage of both uses equally.

As a result of these additions, this 3rd edition is larger than the previous edition.

Besides the new material, there are important revisions throughout the book. For
example, we fixed bugs in our Torus class in Chapter 6, and made significant improve-
ments to our noise map functions in Chapter 14. Another small, but important, modifica-
tion was to change all of our lighting computations so that they are done in world space
rather than in camera space – this makes it easier to develop applications that require
being able to move the camera around. We also expanded our Utils.java utility class to
handle the loading of compute shaders.

There are dozens of small changes in every chapter that the reader might not even
notice: fixing typos, cleaning up code inconsistencies, updating the installation instruc-
tions, making slight wording changes, sprucing up figures, updating references, etc.
Completely eliminating typos is virtually impossible in a book that covers an ever-chang-
ing technology-rich topic, but we have attempted it.

Intended Audience
This book is targeted at students of computer science. This could mean undergraduates
pursuing a BS degree, but it could also mean anyone who studies computer science. As
such, we are assuming that the reader has at least a solid background in object-oriented
programming, at the level of someone who is, say, a computer science major at the junior
or senior level.

There are also some specific things that we use in this book, but that we don’t cover,
because we assume the reader already has sufficient background. In particular:
• Java and its Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT) or Swing library, especially for
GUI-building
• Java configuration details, such as manipulating the CLASSPATH
• basic data structures and algorithms, such as linked lists, stacks and queues, etc.
• recursion
• event-driven programming concepts
• basic matrix algebra and trigonometry
• basic analytic geometry, such as for defining points, lines, vectors, planes, and circles

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 Pre fa c e ■ xv

• awareness of color models, such as RGB, RGBA, etc.

• basic familiarity with C or C++ (some shader syntax is based on C)
The audience for this new 3rd edition is also hoped to be expanded by the similar
updates made for the 2nd edition of its “sister” textbook, Computer Graphics Programming
in OpenGL with C++. In particular, we envision a learning environment where students
are free to utilize either Java or C++ in the same classroom, selecting one or the other
book. The two texts cover the material sufficiently in lockstep that we have been conduct-
ing our graphics programming course successfully in this manner.

How to Use This Book

This book is designed to be read from front to back. That is, material in later chapters
frequently relies on information learned in earlier chapters. So, it probably won’t work to
jump back and forth in the chapters; rather, work your way forward through the material.

This is also intended mostly as a practical, hands-on guide. While there is plenty of
theoretical material included, the reader should treat this text as a sort of “workbook,” in
which you learn basic concepts by actually programming them yourself. We have pro-
vided code for all of the examples, but to really learn the concepts you will want to “play”
with those examples—extend them to build your own 3D scenes.

At the end of each chapter are a few exercises to solve. Some are very simple, involv-
ing merely making simple modifications to the provided code. The problems that are
marked “(PROJECT),” however, are expected to take some time to solve, and require writ-
ing a significant amount of code, or combining techniques from various examples. There
are also a few marked “(RESEARCH)”—those are problems that encourage independent
study because this textbook doesn’t provide sufficient detail to solve them.

OpenGL calls, whether made in C or in Java through JOGL, often involve long lists of
parameters. While writing this book, the authors debated whether or not to, in each case,
describe all of the parameters. We decided that in the early chapters we would describe
every detail. But as the topics progress, we decided to avoid getting bogged down in every
piece of minutiae in the OpenGL calls (and there are many), for fear of the reader losing
sight of the big picture. For this reason, it is essential when working through the examples
to have ready access to reference material for Java, OpenGL, and JOGL.

For this, there are a number of excellent reference sources that we recommend using
in conjunction with this book. The javadocs for Java and JOGL are absolutely essential,
and can be accessed online or downloaded. The reader should bookmark them for easy

CGP.Java3E.Ch00.FM.2pp.indd 15 8/17/2021 12:04:51 PM

Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
appearing to many older than he actually was, for years his snowy
locks and benign countenance attracted every passer on the street,
and for each he had a friendly look, word, or greeting, until in him
were fulfilled the words of the Psalmist: "When thou art young thou
goest whither thou willest, but when thou art old another shall lead
thee, and thou shalt go whither thou willest not." On the 27th of
January, 1851, Jean Jacques Fougère Audubon died, before attaining
his sixty-seventh year, "as gently as a child composing himself for his
beautiful sleep."
 CHAPTER XXXVI
AFTERWORD: AUDUBON'S FAMILY IN
AMERICA
Bachman completes his text on the Quadrupeds—Victor Audubon's success in
canvassing—John Woodhouse Audubon's family—New houses at "Minnie's
Land"—Second octavo edition of the Birds—Victor Audubon's illness and death—
Attempt to reissue The Birds of America in America—The residual stock of this
imperfect edition—Death of John Woodhouse Audubon—His career and work as
an artist and field collector—Mrs. Audubon resumes her old vocation—Fate of
"Minnie's Land"—Death of Mrs. Audubon—Her share in her husband's fame—
Story written on Audubon's original drawings—Fate of the original copper plates
of the Birds—A boy comes to the rescue—"Minnie's Land" today—The "Cave"—A
real "Audubon Park."

After the death of the elder Audubon, his sons, under the
leadership of Bachman, continued the work on the Quadrupeds until
the third and last volume of the letterpress was completed in 1852.
On March 13 of that year Bachman wrote to Edward Harris:[229]

Rejoice with me, the book is finished. I did not expect to

have lived to complete it. But Victor Audubon came on, and I
made him hold the pen, while I dictated with specimens and
books before me, and we went on rapidly; we worked hard, and
now we are at the end of our labors. I have, at last, prevailed
on them to give the Bats. At the end of the work, I intend to
 give a synopsis and scientific arrangement of all our American
species, including seals, whales and porpoises. This will be
included in the letter-press of the Third Volume.

Here I will venture to consult you in regard to the

publication of additional plates of species, not figured in the
Large Work. A very small Arvicola and Shrews, we may not
obtain, and they cannot be figured; but nearly all are within our
reach. Some of the subscribers have bound up their plates, and
there cannot be a sufficient number to make even half of
another Volume. I propose, as all these figures will be contained
in the Small Work, that they should be inserted in the letter-
press of the Large Work, so that subscribers, by merely paying
the cost of the small plates, would have the work complete—
what do you think of this?

What do you think of Victor's obtaining one hundred and

twenty-nine subscribers in about three days, and I think he will
double the number, next week; so, if the "Large Work" will not
pay, the "Small" one, and this is large enough, is sure to do it.

When Victor was canvassing the South for the second or

composite edition of this work, Bachman wrote to a friend in
Savannah, on March 25, 1852:[230]

My son-in-law, Victor G. Audubon, is on a rapid visit to the

South, and has a week or two to spare, which he is desirous of
devoting to the obtaining of subscribers to the "American
Quadrupeds." The Work (Miniature) will be complete in about
thirty numbers, furnished monthly at $1.00 per number.

The figures were made by the Audubons, and the

descriptions and letter-press were prepared by myself.
 I have no pecuniary interest in this work, as I have
cheerfully given my own labors without any other reward than
the hope of having contributed something toward the
advancement of the cause of Natural History in our country. I
am, however, anxious that the Audubons should, by a liberal
subscription, receive some remuneration for the labors and
heavy expenses incurred in getting up this work. Of the
character of the work it does not become me to say much. I will
only add that in my department is summed up the result of
investigations pursued through a long life, and, I think, the
figures have never been equalled in any publication either in
Europe or America.

May I bespeak from you a little aid to my esteemed son-in-

law, Mr. Audubon, in assisting him to procure subscribers. He is
a stranger in your city; his time is limited, and his stay among
you will necessarily be short.

By the aid of two friends here, he obtained two hundred

and fifty subscribers in a few days.

On the 9th of April Bachman wrote to his son-in-law: "Will you

not return to New York by the way of Charleston and sail from here,
take a manuscript volume in your pocket, and four hundred good
and true names on your list?"

The reception accorded to the illustrations and text of this work

had encouraged the brothers to do for the Quadrupeds what their
father, with their aid, had so successfully accomplished for the Birds,
by presenting text and plates, as Bachman said, in "Miniature." In
this they succeeded as admirably as before, John reducing all the
large plates, by the aid of the camera lucida, for the octavo edition
which was published in 1854.
 The following historical evidence of the appreciation which
Audubon's works have received at the hands of the National
Government I owe to Mr. Ruthven Deane, to whom the reader of
these pages is already indebted for many illuminating facts. Dr.
Theodore S. Palmer was recently inspecting governmental records at
Washington, when he accidentally came upon the following entry:

Chap. CXXIX.—An act making appropriations for certain Civil

Expenses of the Government for the Year ending the thirtieth of
June, eighteen hundred and fifty-seven.

To enable the Secretary of State to purchase one hundred

copies, each, of Audubon's "Birds of America" and "Quadrupeds
of America," for presentation to foreign governments, in return
for valuable works sent by them to the Government of the
United States, sixteen thousand dollars.

[Act of August 18, 1858 (LL State., 90).]

In John Woodhouse Audubon's family there were two sets of

children, two by his former wife, Maria R. Bachman, and seven by
Caroline Hall, to whom he was married on October 2, 1841. Victor
Gifford Audubon, who had no children by his first wife, May Eliza
Bachman, was married on March 2, 1843, to Georgiana Richards
Mallory, an Englishwoman, and six children were born to them
between 1845 and 1854. Of the naturalist's fifteen grandchildren, six
are believed to be now living (1917).[231]
 HOUSE FORMERLY BELONGING TO VICTOR
GIFFORD AUDUBON, EAST FRONT, AS IT APPEARS
TO-DAY; MRS. JOHN JAMES AUDUBON KEPT HER
PRIVATE SCHOOL IN THE CORNER ROOM ON THE
SECOND FLOOR.
 HOUSE FORMERLY BELONGING TO JOHN
WOODHOUSE AUDUBON, SOUTH FRONT, AS IT
APPEARS TO-DAY; AT THE RIGHT IS "THE CAVE,"
WHERE THE COPPER PLATES OF "THE BIRDS OF
AMERICA" WERE STORED.

In 1852-3 Audubon's sons built houses for their growing families

on their mother's estate; Victor's was placed just north of the
original homestead, and John's not far away. On the slope behind
John Audubon's house, a small building, later known as the "Cave,"
was specially constructed for the safer keeping of the famous copper
plates, which had already passed through fire,[232] and not wholly
unscathed. Mr. John Hardin, now (1915) a serene and clear-eyed
man of eighty-four, who settled in that neighborhood in 1852 and
who was intermittently employed by the younger Audubons for a
decade, has told me that he boxed with his own hands all of the
copper plates, after wrapping each in tissue paper, and stored them
in that building; whenever John Audubon wanted a plate, John
Hardin would go to the "Cave" and get it for him.

In 1856 Victor Audubon published a second reduced edition of

his father's Birds of America, in which the text and plates of the first
octavo were reproduced with little or no change. At about that time
Victor suffered an injury to the spine,[233] and after 1857 he was
completely invalided; he died in his own home, August 18, 1860.

To quote the daughter of John W. Audubon:[234]

During this long period of my uncle's illness all the care of

both families devolved on my father. Never a "business man,"
saddened by his brother's condition, and utterly unable to
manage, at the same time, a fairly large estate, the publication
of two illustrated works, every plate of which he felt he must
personally examine, the securing of subscribers and the
financial condition of everything—what wonder that he rapidly
aged, what wonder that the burden was overwhelming! After
my uncle's death matters became still more difficult to handle,
owing to the unsettled condition of the southern states where
most of the subscribers to Audubon's books resided, and when
the open rupture came between north and south, the condition
of affairs can hardly be imagined, except by those who lived
through similar bitter and painful experiences.

In 1858 or 1859 John W. Audubon entered upon an ambitious

project, which the outbreak of the Civil War, aided, it is believed, by
the unscrupulous dealings of business partners, rendered disastrous.
In association with Messrs. Roe Lockwood, & Son, New York, and
the lithographers, Messrs. J. Bien & Company, Number 180
Broadway, with whom considerable money had been invested, a
second and American edition of his father's great folio on The Birds
of America was attempted. An atlas of 106 double elephant plates,
reproduced in colors on stone with slight but numerous changes
from the original copper plates, was completed as Volume I in 1860;
[235] the war, which broke immediately afterwards, completely
ruined the enterprise, so that but few copies of the work were
dispersed and an immense stock of plates was rendered useless; the
burden of debt was undoubtedly increased by the issue of seven
octavo volumes of text.[236]

Many years later, hundreds of persons who knew of Audubon's

work only through its great reputation, and who had never learned
to discriminate between a hand-colored copper-plate engraving and
a lithograph, were deceived by an adroit, but essentially spurious
advertisement of these inferior reproductions when they were being
exploited by a firm of Boston book dealers. The original bulk of these
large lithographs must have been vast indeed, if the following story,
which was attributed to a member of the firm in question, be true:
"We bought the entire stock of those plates, many years ago," so
this man is reported to have said, "and, though the sales of every
succeeding year since have been sufficient to cover the original cost,
the number of plates has not appreciably diminished."

When this larger venture failed, one of the publishers, who was
not satisfied with the surplusage of books and plates left on his
hands, is said to have placed encumbrances upon the Audubon
estate. At about this time John W. Audubon's health broke down;
"Worn out," as his daughter has said,[237] "in body and spirit,
overburdened with anxieties, saddened by the condition of his
country, it is no matter of surprise that my father could not throw off
a heavy cold which attacked him early in 1862." He died at the age
of forty-nine, on the 18th of February of that year.

John Woodhouse Audubon, like his brother, Victor, had inherited

decided artistic abilities, and from a youth had been his father's
assistant, field companion and friend. Victor Audubon, on the other
hand, was never a field collector, but aided his father more in a
financial and secretarial capacity. Both in adult life were fond of
music and good cheer, and at one time John was probably as
devoted to adventure and sport as his father had ever been in his
palmiest days. One of his youthful pranks is thus guardedly referred
to by the senior Audubon when writing at American Harbor, on the
coast of Labrador, June 25, 1833:[238] "The young men, who are
always ready for sport, caught a hundred codfish in half an hour, and
somewhere secured three fine salmon, one of which was sent to the
'Gulnare' with some cod." Whether the fishermen at American
Harbor, who had obstinately refused to sell, ever missed those fine
salmon from their pounds, is not recorded. Another adventure has
been related by Mr. Fraser,[239] whose family was on intimate terms
with the Audubons and MacGillivrays at Edinburgh, when John
Audubon, John MacGillivray (William MacGillivray's eldest son), and
himself were caught in the Ravelston woods while shooting birds;
the boys, he said "were rather roughly handled," but got off by
giving up their guns.

Under his father's tuition John Audubon became an observant

and self-reliant collector in the field, and an animal painter and
draughtsman of no mean powers. At twenty-one, as we have seen,
he accompanied his father's expedition to Labrador, was with him
and Harris in Florida and Texas in 1837, made successive visits to
England, and traveled again in Texas and in Mexico, all in the
interests of his father's works. He painted nearly one-half of the
large plates of the Quadrupeds of North America, besides reducing
all the drawings for the smaller editions of the Birds and
Quadrupeds, an enormous labor in itself, representing the redrawing,
with numerous alterations, of 655 elaborate octavo plates. After his
return from California in 1850, he began to bring out an account of
his western travels, —projected for ten monthly numbers, but this
never advanced beyond the first part.[240]

If not a "business man" by instinct or training, John Audubon in

emergencies could turn his hand to many things. For a time he
superintended the building of houses, including his own and Victor's,
which were completed in 1853, as well as another that was built on
the Audubon estate for Mr. Hall, a brother-in-law; he also took
charge of lighting the streets, and at another time was
superintendent of a quarry in Vermont. "He was a bluff, gruff, but
friendly man," writes George Bird Grinnell,[241] and was always
willing to talk about birds, mammals, or, indeed, any natural history
object, to any boy who asked him questions." On the other hand, an
ardent sportsman, who had lived with the family for years,[242] has
described him as a lovable companion, "genial in speech, full of
anecdote, and a capital conversationalist;... in person of more than
median height, and of commanding appearance, his face told plainly
of the humanity of the man; he was as tender-hearted as a girl, and
his expressive voice could command any key of which the vocal
organs were capable; to the last he retained the Southern habit of
softly clipping the ends of words."

John Woodhouse Audubon will be remembered chiefly as his

father's aid and companion, although in his Western Journal,[243]
written in his thirty-eighth year but not published until forty-two
years after his death, he has left a record of which anyone could be
rightfully proud.

Mrs. John James Audubon was very active in body and mind for
a long period after her husband's death, and in 1857, when in her
seventieth year, she returned in a degree to her old vocation of
school teaching, which had been so successfully followed in Ohio
and Louisiana when her husband was on the threshold of his
extraordinary career. Her pupils now consisted of some of her
numerous grandchildren and a few others drawn from the
neighborhood; among the latter was the well known writer and
father of the original Audubon Society, George Bird Grinnell, who
pointed out to me the room in Victor Audubon's old house where his
revered and venerable teacher had gathered her little flock. "She
loved to read, to study, and to teach," said one who had known her,
and "she knew how to gain the attention of the young, and to fix
knowledge in their minds. 'If I can hold the mind of a child to a
subject for five minutes, he will never forget what I teach him,' she
once remarked; and, acting upon this principle, she was as
successful, at three score and ten years, in imparting knowledge, as
she had been in early life when she taught in Louisiana."

Mrs. Audubon's own house was rented and eventually sold.

Meanwhile, it seems, she lived for a number of years with the family
of her eldest son, and it was at Victor's house, as just noticed, that
she started a small school. Finally, in 1863, at the age of seventy-
five, bereft of children and fortune, she left the scenes of her once
happy home, then "Minnie's Land" no longer, and for a considerable
period lived with a granddaughter at Washington Heights, as that
section on the river, including Carmansville, came to be called, and a
little later at Manhattanville, a short distance below; there at the
home of the Reverend Charles Coffin Adams, who prepared the
original draft of the Life of her husband, the history of which has
been given,[244] she passed a number of years after 1865.

In a letter written to a relative from "Washington Heights, N. Y.,

July 11, 1865," Mrs. Audubon spoke thus of the present, while
memories, not untinged with sorrow, filled the retrospect:

We have passed through a very cold winter which tried both

my Granddaughter ... and myself much. I have hoped until I
almost despair that [she] would have a short Holiday so that we
 could go up to Hudson for a week and see you all and mingle
with those who sympathize and care for us, but in a Boarding
house, one seems a stranger in the world, and as I pass my
days alone generally from breakfast till our dinner hour six
o'clock evening when [my granddaughter] comes home from
her music Pupils of whom she has now ten, and from that time I
am glad when she is invited out to refresh her mind.

I seldom leave home but to go up to see my other Grand

Daughter Lucy Williams, but being sixteen miles off we do not
go there often....

I have heard from my Sister Gordon lately of Orleans, she

has her Son at home! but they are likely to lose all their
Property on account of Sister's Son having been engaged in the
Confederate War. It does seem to me ... as if we were a
doomed family for all of us are in pecuniary difficulty more or
less. As to myself I find it hard to look back patiently upon my
great ignorance of business and the want of a wise adviser who
I now find could have saved me half the property I have under
errour and ignorance sacrificed and have just enough left to
keep us but not enjoy life by any travelling about in this
beautiful World. I sat on Sunday night after Church on the
Piazza, contemplating the beautiful Moon & its Creator, and I
cannot yet say I wish to leave it, notwithstanding all my
disappointments and mortifications. Excuse this long detail
about myself. I cannot help looking back as well as to the
present and future.

After Mrs. Audubon had passed her eightieth year she left New
York and again made her home in the West. In 1874, when with a
granddaughter at Louisville, she dictated and signed the following
letter to a gentleman who had asked for an autograph of her
husband:
 Mrs. Audubon to William R. Dorlan

Louisville Jan. 30 1874

Mr. Wm. R. Dorlan

Dear Sir

I regret that your letter of Jan. 10th has remained so long

unanswered, but my granddaughter who usually writes for me,
is so constantly occupied with her pupils that until to-day she
has not been able to find time to write to you. I regret that I
cannot give you a letter of my husband John James Audubon
with the autograph attached.

The enclosed, the best I have to send you is one from which
the autograph and a portion of the letter were cut off many
years ago.

With many regrets that I cannot more fully grant your

request

I am dear Sir
Yours respectfully,
Lucy Audubon

Mrs. Audubon's closing days were spent at the home of her

sister-in-law, Mrs. William G. Bakewell, at Shelbyville, Kentucky,
where she died, with her mental faculties unimpaired, at the age of
eighty-six, June 13, 1874, having outlived this sister-in-law and her
younger sisters, Mrs. Alexander Gordon, of New Orleans, and Mrs.
Nicholas Augustus Berthoud, of St. Louis.

Not long after John W. Audubon's death, his family disposed of

their house on what had been the "Minnie's Land" estate, and lived
successively at Harlem, New Haven, Connecticut, and Salem, New
York, where Mrs. John W. Audubon died, and where her daughter,
Maria Rebecca, the biographer of her father and grandfather, with a
sister, still resides. Victor Audubon's family, with some of their
kinsfolk, remained at the Hudson River place, which was included in
the section known as "Audubon Park," until May, 1878, when they
took a house in New York, where Mrs. Victor Audubon died in 1882.

A brother of Mrs. Victor Audubon, Mr. E. Mallory, in writing to a

friend in Buffalo from "Audubon Park, August 31, 1874," said that it
was a source of deep regret to Mrs. John James Audubon that her
last years were not passed with them, under the shadow of her old
home on the Hudson; and he continued: "She was a kind and good
friend, very intelligent, and much beloved here; I remember her
telling a young lady, who asked her if she had read some fashionable
novel, that she had no time; 'at my age,' said she, 'I must make the
most of my time.' As she was a wide reader, it was a great trial
when, in age, her eyesight completely failed her. The minister who
pronounced her eulogy[245] said:

Many of you can recall that aged form and benignant

countenance, as she moved along these streets upon errands of
usefulness and benevolence, with benedictions on her tongue,
and smiles that were a blessing to all who met her.

Madame Audubon interested herself in all that pertained to

the welfare of the neighborhood where she lived. Although it
was not without a pang that she saw her sylvan home invaded
by the growth of the city, and all old associations broken up, she
did not treat those who came to live near her as strangers. She
had a large and generous heart, and with her husband had
always exercised a liberal hospitality and hearty kindness
towards all. In prosperity and adversity she was equally sincere
and humble, a friend of all worthy people....
 Mrs. Audubon, during the period of her husband's greatest
activity, had traveled much and met people distinguished in every
walk of life. If, as some have thought, when Audubon was struggling
for recognition, he was somewhat oblivious of the privations which
his wife endured, in the sunshine of later years, when fame and
fortune had smiled upon him, he showed by every token of affection
how fully he realized his debt. Let it also be remembered that the
monument by which Americans have signalized their appreciation of
his labors, is honored by the ashes of his beloved Lucy, which rest by
his side.
 LUCY BAKEWELL AUDUBON

AFTER AN UNPUBLISHED PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN IN 1871.

PUBLISHED BY COURTESY OF MISS FLORENCE AUDUBON.
 LUCY BAKEWELL AUDUBON

AFTER A MINIATURE PAINTED BY FREDERICK CRUIKSHANK IN

LONDON, ABOUT 1831. PUBLISHED BY COURTESY OF CHARLES
SCRIBNER'S SONS.

The original drawings of the plates of The Birds of America were

sold by Mrs. Audubon on June 2, 1863, to the Historical Society of
New York,[246] and a few of them are now displayed in its building in
that city; it is still hoped that a fire-proof and adequately lighted hall
can be constructed so that the whole of this great series of pictures
may be exhibited under more perfect conditions. The artistic beauty
and historical value of these drawings, with the added charm which
personal association has so richly supplied, would render Audubon's
"Book of Nature" one of the most unique and interesting exhibits in
the New World. The collection appears to be nearly complete,
although some notable pieces, such as the Wild Turkeys, are lacking,
but there are other drawings, and some of early date, which were
never reproduced; all are inclosed in the original portfolios, scarred
by hard knocks and the tooth of time, massive, leather-bound
containers, which two strong arms would raise with difficulty from
the ground. Most of these originals are mounted on a gray backing,
with plate margins in each case indicated by ink lines. As was
noticed in an earlier chapter, many original legends and notes
written by Audubon's pencil or pen still remain on the drawings,
though many have been trimmed off or erased; these include names
of localities and dates, and directions to the engraver for changes in
the background and composition or for any improvement of the
whole or a part.

As a further illustration of the care which Audubon exercised

over the minute details of his great undertaking, we will reproduce
the penciled orders on the drawing of the Great White Heron (Plate
cclxxxi), which shows an adult male performing the gymnastic feat
of seizing a large striped fish, a view of Key West forming the
background: "Keep closely to the sky in depth & colouring! have the
water a Pea-green tint. Keep the division of the scales on the leg in
fact white in your engraving—The colouring over these will subdue
them enough! finish the houses better from the original which you
have; have the upper back portion very mellowing in the outline."
Again, on the drawing of the Great Cinereous Owl (Plate cccli), we
read: "Raise the bird about 4 inches on the copper—higher than in
the Drawing, and put in a landscape below of Wild Mountains," a
direction which in this instance was not followed, for the bird was
eventually shown on a branch against the sky.

In many instances towards the end of his work, Audubon

furnished Havell with drawings of the birds only, with directions to
supply "an old rotten stick" for perch, or to "amend this rascally sky
and water"; as we have already seen, he often depended upon him
to combine several detached pictures into one plate, but not always
with happy results. The following note was written on a drawing of
the Carolina Parrot, reproduced in a very striking plate (No. xxvi), in
which seven gaudy individuals of this nearly extinct species are
represented feeding on a favorite weed, the cockle-bur: "The upper
specimen was shot near Bayou Sarah, and appeared as very
uncommon having 14 Tail feathers all very distinct—uniformly affixed
in 14 distinct receptacles that I drew it more to exhibit one of those
astonishing fits of nature than anything else—it was a female.—The
Green headed is also a Singular although not so uncommon a variety
as the above one. Louisiana—December (1821?) J. J. Audubon." The
upper bird, which is here referred to, is noticed in his "Biography" of
the species as "a kind of occasional variety."

On the drawing of the Swamp Sparrow (Plate lxiv), which was

published in 1829, Audubon wrote, evidently with the wish of having
his wife's name appear: "Drawn from Nature by Lucy Audubon, Mr.
Havell will please have Lucy Audubon name on this plate instead of
mine...!"

Vandalism is always short-sighted, but seldom has its vision been

more myopic and sinister than in the case of the copper plates of
The Birds of America, most of which were sold for old metal and
converted into copper bars. Had they been preserved to this day,
their value would have been an hundred-fold greater than that of
the few paltry tons of metallic copper which they were supposed to
represent. Mr. Ruthven Deane, whose researches in the field of
"Auduboniana" have added greatly to this subject, has given a
history of these plates,[247] and of the interesting way in which a
remnant came to be snatched, as it were, from the very mouth of
the furnace, through the persistence and enthusiasm of a lad of
fourteen. To follow this writer's account, it seems that shortly after
the death of her son John, Mrs. Audubon sold the copper plates to a
firm in New York, where they remained until about 1865, stored in
the warehouse of Messrs. Phelps, Dodge & Company. Not far from
that time the plates were sorted and a few were given away; the
large remainder was sent to a brass and copper company, of which
William E. Dodge was president, at Ansonia, Connecticut. How some
of these were fortunately rescued, in about the year 1873, is told in
a letter to Mr. Deane from Mr. Charles A. Cowles, of Ansonia:

At that time I was about fourteen years old. I was beginning

the study of taxidermy, and was naturally deeply interested in
birds. I happened to be at the refinery watching the process of
loading one of the furnaces, and noticed on one of the sheets of
copper that a man was throwing into the furnace, what
appeared to me to be the picture of a bird's foot. I took the
plate from him, cleaned it with acid, and thereupon discovered
the engraving, or as I termed it, the picture, of a bird (Plate cvi,
Black Vulture), I made an immediate but unsuccessful request
to the foreman of the furnace not to melt the plates; and then I
appealed to the superintendent, but without avail. I next
brought the matter to the general manager of the concern, my
father, from whom I received no encouragement. This sort of
treatment was evidently what I needed, for I hastened back to
the works in a state of mind so determined that I succeeded in
having all the plates, that had not been melted, removed to a
place of safety. This occurred in the spring of that year; and the
plates remained undisturbed until the annual inventory was
taken the first of the following year. At that time the disposition
of the plates was taken up. I appealed to my mother and
interested her to such an extent that she drove to the factory
and looked at one of the plates. She of course recognized that
they were Audubon plates; and instructions were given by my
 father to keep them intact. The plates were subsequently
submitted to a treatment which removed all oxidation and then
taken to the main office of the company, and to the best of my
recollection, distributed as follows: Mr. Wm. E. Dodge, president
of the company, had a few plates sent to the American Museum
of Natural History, New York City, and a few plates to the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., and I think he
retained one or two for himself. The remainder of them, with
the exception of two, my father kept; and they have since come
into my possession by purchase from the estate. The two plates
just excepted were Nos. xxii and lxxxii [Purple Martin and
Whippoorwill], and they particularly struck my fancy, so much
that when the plates were first discovered I managed to secure
them on the quiet, cleaned them myself and hid them; and
when the plates were distributed no one knew of the existence
of these two and they later became my property.

It was thought possible that some of these plates had been sold
in New York City before the bulk of them were condemned as junk
and sent to Connecticut, but in 1898 Mr. Deane was able to give the
designation and resting place of only thirty-seven;[248] among these,
however, were the Wild Turkeys, Canada Goose, Great Northern
Diver, Raven, American Robin, and Ruby-throated Hummingbird, all
among the finest of the original 435.

Under the guidance of Mr. George Bird Grinnell, on April 6, 1916,

I paid a visit to "Audubon Park," now "Minnie's Land" no longer,
where country roads have given way to business streets and forests
to subways and skyscraper apartment houses. Notwithstanding the
momentous changes which the extension of upper New York City
has effected both above and below ground during the recent era of
rapid transportation, the old Audubon houses still remain, like
boulders amid stream, the impact of the city which has flowed
around and beyond them being checked for the moment by a
rampart of solid masonry, the retaining wall of the far-famed
Riverside Drive, which rises above Audubon's old house close to its
rear veranda and there makes a wide turn. For Mr. Grinnell this was
a return to the scenes of his boyhood; the home of his father, Mr.
George Blake Grinnell, stood on the hill just above the Audubon
house, not far from the present "Riviera" building at One Hundred
and Fifty-Seventh Street; the Grinnell apartment house which towers
aloft close at hand stands in their old cow pasture, while their
garden site is marked by the present entrance to the subway station
on Broadway.

The first part of Audubon's original tract to be sold was the

easterly section, extending from what is now the east side of
Broadway to the Bloomingdale Road, and between the present One
Hundred and Fifty-sixth and One Hundred and Fifty-seventh Streets;
on that portion John Woodhouse Audubon built a large frame
structure which, for a number of years, served as a boarding house
for workmen employed in the sugar refinery of Messrs. Plume &
Lamont that stood on the river-bank, at the foot of the present One
Hundred and Sixtieth Street. Victor and John W. Audubon also built
three houses on the hill, one of which, between One Hundred and
Fifty-sixth and One Hundred and Fifty-seventh Streets, was occupied
by Mr. Grinnell; another, at one time the dwelling of Henry A.
Smythe, a former Collector of the Port of New York, was on land
now covered by the Numismatic Building, while a third, which was
occupied by Wellington Clapp, was on a part of the Archer M.
Huntington estate, south of One Hundred and Fifty-sixth Street, and
stood a little easterly of the present Riverside Drive; all of these
houses have disappeared. In September, 1842, the Corporation of
Trinity Parish acquired from Richard F. Carman, in Carmansville, the
tract of land later known as "Trinity Cemetery"; this extended from
Bloomingdale Road to the River, and between the present One
Hundred and Fifty-third and One Hundred and Fifty-fifth Streets.[249]

The original Audubon house, standing in the angle nearly

opposite One Hundred and Fifty-fifth Street, is all but concealed,
except from the river side, but may be approached by a lane which
leads off from One Hundred and Fifty-eighth Street. In 1913, when
this old landmark was in imminent danger of demolition, the
Commissioner of Public Parks made an eloquent plea for its
preservation to the Audubon Societies and to lovers of birds and
nature everywhere. It was then suggested that instead of permitting
the historic structure to be destroyed, the city should acquire it, float
it up the Hudson River to Fort Washington Park, and re-establish it
there as a permanent memorial to the naturalist; it was also noticed
that the public interest was enhanced by the fact that the father of
telegraphy, Samuel F. B. Morse, had worked upon his invention while
Audubon's guest, and that the first message to be received from
Philadelphia came over a wire which entered his room at the
northwest corner of the building.

An early engraving[250] represents the naturalist's house

essentially as it appeared during his lifetime, surrounded by goodly
forest trees of oak and chestnut, but these, when standing at all, are
now reduced to gaunt and scarred remnants. A later print[251]
shows the three Audubon houses, the river, and between it and the
lawn "that eye-sore of a railroad,"[252] which was built not long after
Audubon settled upon his estate. The original house was sold before
1862,[253] and about eight years later its new owner occupied it,
after having given it a mansard roof and made numerous changes
which were sanctioned by an era of bad taste. The naturalist's house
overlooked the river and commanded a grand view from its high
veranda on the front, while Victor's, which later adjoined it to the
north, owing probably to the encroachments of the railroad, was
built to face the hill-slope opposite; a top studio, at a corner of its
roof, is an addition of a later purchaser.[254]

Adjoining Victor's house on the north was that of his brother,

John, and on the east side of this was built the "Cave" and a barn
since converted into a dwelling; at one time the loft of this barn was
piled with boxes of bird skins and the surplus stock of the
Ornithological Biography, good copies of which now bring from $30
to $50.

The three houses which were built and occupied by the great
nature lover and his two sons, though in dire neglect, are not
beyond repair; if such a project were practicable, they should be
converted into a museum, and their walls once more ornamented
with those beautiful pictures of birds and beasts which father and
sons united to create. The triangle of ground between Riverside
Drive and the Hudson River should be spared by the proud city that
for years was the home of America's pioneer naturalist and animal
painter, as well as the scene of his youthful experiments in trade,
and converted into a true "Audubon Park." Such a memorial would
contribute to the instruction and pleasure of all the people, for every
generation of Americans that is to come.
APPENDICES
 APPENDIX I
Original Documents
. Copy of the original bill rendered by Doctor Sanson, physician at Les
Cayes, Santo Domingo, to Jean Audubon, containing the only record
known to exist of the birth of his son, Jean Jacques Fougère Audubon
(see entry for April 26, 1785). Les Cayes, December 29, 1783-October
19, 1785; paid, June 7, 1787.

DOIT Mr. AUDUBON ngt. A SANSON

Chirurgien aux Cayes

SAVOIR
|
L
1783 Xbre " 29 ipecacuanha pour un
" nègre Bossal " 6""
" 31 ipecacuanha pour un
" nègre Bossal " 6""
1784 janvier " 3 une medecine pour
" un nègre Bossal " 6""
" 5 une medecine pour
" un nègre Bossal " 6""
" 7 une medecine pour
" un nègre Bossal " 6""
" 9 une medecine pour
" un Bossal " 6""
" 10 une medecine pour
" un Bossal " 6""
" 14 une medecine pour le
" mulâtre joue " 6""
 " 26 une medecine pour 10 "
" Mr Audubon " "
mars " 27 inoculé cezard 30 "
" inoculé jupiter 30 90 "
inoculé Rose 30 " " "
avril " 1 apozême purgatif
" pour joue mulâtre " 6""
" 3 une medecine pour le
" mulâtre joue " 6""
" 8 apozême purgatif
" pour le nègre
Dominique " 6""
" 10 une medecine pour
" Dominique " 6""
" 15 une medecine pour
" Zemire " 6""
" 20 une medecine pour
" Rose " 6""
" apozême purgatif
pour jupiter " 6""
" 21 une medecine pour
" Dominique " 6""
may " 2 une medecine pour la
" negresse therese " 6""
" 11 pour soins, visites et
" remedes pendant
la petite verole du 66 "
mulâtre joue " "
" 21 Liqueur minerale
" d'hoffman pour
mlle. Rabin " 6""
juin " 20 inoculé un petit nègre 30 "
" Bossal nommé joue " "
juillet " 20 Remis a mr audubon
" le compte du
traitement de la
galle de marianne
et de sa fille, tout 36 "
acquité " "
7bre " 14 apozême purgatif
" pour le nègre jean
maçon " 6""
" 16 une medecine pour
" jean maçon " 6""
" 21 saigné au bras mr
" audubon " 3""
" 23 eau de tamarinds
" compee. pour mr 10 "
Audubon " "
" 24 une medecine en
" deux Dozes pour 10 "
mr audubon " "
8bre. " 22 une medecine pour le
" negrillon joue " 6""
" 23 traité soigné et fourni
" le medicament a
joue attaqué de 132 "
piano " "
513 "
L "

[Page 2]

Suite de l'autre 513 "

part L "
8bre. " 25 saigné au bras mlle.
" Rabin " 3""